Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Dr. Paul Manuel—2010

“Samson Pulls Down the Pillars” by James Tissot (c. 1896-1900)

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Preface ..........................................................................................................5 Introduction ..................................................................................................7 Excursus: Dating the Book of Judges

I. *

Prologue 1:1-3:6 A. Conquest summary 1:1-36 ...................................................................10 Query: Why did Israel not conquer the land completely? Query: Is Islam’s use of force like Israel’s?

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B. Religious apostasy 2:1-3:6 ..................................................................20 Comment: On the uncertain location of various sites Comment: On they “served Baal and the Ashtoreths” Query: Does God prohibit mixed marriage? Query: Why does God let bad things happen? Query: Is God to blame when bad things happen?

II.

Judges

3:7-16:31

A. First group *

1.

Othniel

3:7-9:57 (3:7-11) .............................................32

Query: Why does God bother to discipline His people?

2. •

Ehud Shamgar

(3:12-30) ...........................................36 (3:31) .................................................40

Query: Why does God condone the killing?

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3.

Deborah

(4:1-5:31) ..........................................45

Query: What are the “iron chariots”? Query: How does poetry enhance “The Song of Deborah”?

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4.

Gideon

(6:1-8:35) ..........................................59

Comment: On “the angel of the LORD” Comment: On “I will be with you” Comment: On renaming in Judges Comment: On large numbers in Judges Query: Why is God so accommodating to Gideon? Excursus: The Development of the Alphabet Query: Should Gideon’s faults disqualify him for leadership? Query: Is idolatry still a problem?

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◊

Abimelech

(9:1-57) .............................................75

Query: What is a fable? Comment: On the structure of the fable Excursus: The Extent of the Monarchy Excursus: The Social Structure of Israel

B. Second group • Tola • Jair

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10:1-16:31 (10:1-2) .............................................86 (10:3-5) .............................................89

Comment: On the role of judges

1.

Jephthah

(10:6-12:7) ........................................91

Excursus: Prayer in the Bible and in Judges Query: Should you adopt the prayer of Jabez? Picture: Iron Age Pillared House (1200-1000) Excursus: The Use of Oaths and Vows in Israel Comment: On possibilities for Jephthah’s vow Excursus: Dialect Differences in Israel Excursus: Comparing Jephthah and Abimelech

• • •

Ibzan Elon Abdon

(12:8-10) .........................................108 (12:11-12) .......................................108 (12:13-15) .......................................108

Comment: On the relative time periods of the judges

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2.

Samson

(13:1-16:31) ....................................111

Pictures: Rameses III and a Philistine Warrior Comment: On circumcision and uncircumcision Picture: Timnah Gate (10th c.) Picture: Philistine Beer Jar from Beth Shemesh Query: How can Samson be so dense? Excursus: Suicide in the Bible

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3. 4. ◊ III.

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Eli Samuel King Saul

(1 Sam 1-4) .....................................139 (1 Sam 5-8) .....................................139 (1 Sam 9-31) ...................................139

Epilogue 17:1-21:25 A. Danite migration

17:1-18:31 ..........................................................140

Excursus: Religious Sites in Israel Excursus: Religious Shrines in Israel Excursus: Form and Worship

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B. Benjamite war

19:1-21:25 ..........................................................149

Chart: A Comparison of Sodom and Gibeah

Conclusion ................................................................................................155

A Short Outline of the Book of Judges.....................................................156 Reprise: The Book of Judges Using The Brick Testament .......................157 Postscript on Methodology .......................................................................163 Appendix A: The Four-Part Cycle in Judges............................................164 Appendix B: Mlv in Judges ......................................................................166 Appendix C: The Song of Deborah (Judg 5) ............................................168 Appendix D: The Anatomy of Apostasy ..................................................171 Appendix E: A List of Oaths in the OT ....................................................172 Bibliography .............................................................................................176 Endnotes ...................................................................................................179

Announcement: Having spent 430 years as aliens in a foreign land and 40 more years as nomads in the wilderness,1 the descendants of Abraham are ready to settle down in a place of their own. With the Lord’s help, their future prospects are bright, but something goes wrong. After Israel enters Canaan, the nation turns from God and fails to establish its independence in the land. Instead, the people seem to get trapped in a vicious cycle (rebellion, retribution, repentance, restoration; rebellion, retribution, etc.). Why do they keep repeating their past mistakes, and who are those enigmatic figures the Lord keeps appointing, called judges? This study will explore the relationship between Israel’s intermittent devotion to God and the nation’s halting progress in His plan. We will also consider how the people’s experience informs God’s will for Christians today. Preface: The biblical books of Josh-2 Kgs give a continuous narrative of four major periods in Israel’s history. • Initial conquest of the land under Joshua (c. 1250) • Early settlement of the land under the judges • United monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon • Divided monarchy of Israel (north) and Judah (south) The book of Judges falls in the period after the death of Joshua, Moses’ successor, and before Saul, Israel’s first king.2 In Genesis, God made a covenant with Abraham, promising his descendants PLAK, elements essential to God’s plan for establishing a kingdom:3

People Land Autonomy King The book of Judges is where God gives Israel the opportunity to gain the “A” of PLAK: Autonomy. Unfortunately, Israel is not always cooperative, evinced by a recursive, four-part cycle in Judges that marks the changing condition of the nation’s relationship with God:4 Rebellion > Retribution > Repentance > Restoration As with any portion of scripture, we must give careful consideration to the context in order to understand the book. Of particular importance to this study is the historical context, which includes history, proper, as well as geography and archaeology.5

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

The notations in square brackets mark special sections: • [?] = optional material for all levels • [X] = extra material for graduate students In this book, perhaps more than any other in the Bible, these elements interact closely, such that the geography of Canaan shapes the history of Canaan. With that in mind, this study will use a booklet of maps, some for general information, which you can use for reference; others for the activity of specific judges, which you can mark. ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Introduction: The book begins by recapping successes and failures from Israel’s conquest of Canaan, recorded in Joshua. The two accounts differ, however, in three areas. • First, the most obvious difference is length. What Joshua explains in several chapters, Judges abbreviates and treats in one chapter. • Second, the accounts differ in scope. Joshua includes tribal material from both sides of the Jordan, whereas Judges deals almost exclusively with the Cisjordanian (western) tribes, omitting Reuben, Gad, and part of Manasseh, who chose to settle in the Transjordan. • Third, the accounts differ in focus. Joshua emphasizes the successes and notes the failures, whereas Judges notes the successes and emphasizes the failures. [?] Excursus: Dating the Book of Judges The text provides some internal clues that help date the time of writing and that may—as we consider the content later—indicate when it was written or last edited. • First is the repeated phrase “to this day” (h‰ΩΩzAh Mwø¥yAh dAo),6 which suggests that sufficient time has passed since these events so that most people have forgotten the origins of certain people or place names. • Second is the phrase “all the time the house of God was in Shiloh” (18:31), which indicates that the book was written after the ark moved to Kiriath Jearim or to Jerusalem.7 • Third is the repeated phrase “In those days” (MEhDh MyImÎ¥yA;b),8 which indicates that the book was written after the establishment of the monarchy. • Fourth and more specific is the phrase “until the time of the captivity of the land” (18:30), which indicates that the book was written or revised after the exile of the northern tribes.9 Although these internal hints place the composition or final redaction of Judges about 500 years after the events themselves, they in no way impugn the historicity of the events. For these and other accounts of the formative years of the Jewish nation were doubtless preserved and transmitted in oral or written form until the biblical writers received them. Besides, the picture they give of the period before the monarchy, in which Israel is a loosely knit tribal confederation (amphictyony), is what we would expect.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Where people settle is largely determined by natural elements, the Physical Features of an area, especially water sources and arable land.10

SEA OF GALILEE

 S E A Jabbok R.

Arnon R.

N E G E V Zered Brook

Physical Features The most level and fertile area in Canaan was along the coast, the Shephelah. Less desirable is the central hill country; even less, the desert regions of the Negev and the Arabah. 8

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy How people move from place to place, namely the Travel Routes they employ, is also determined by geography. The easiest way, having the fewest impediments, becomes the road most traveled.11

SEA OF GALILEE

 S E A Jabbok R.

Arnon R.

N E G E V Zered Brook

Travel Routes The chief of these, especially for caravans and armies, is also along the coast. Another major route is inland, through the Transjordan. These two roadways link the major population centers of Mesopotamia (north) and Egypt (south). 9

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy A. Conquest summary 1:1-36 (c.1230) As you read the first chapter of Judges, keep in mind that Canaan was not a nation at the time of the Israelite invasion. There was no central government and, consequently, no structure for national defense. The population consisted of several different ethnic groups,12 loosely organized by family, clan, and tribe.13 People tended to settle in and around cities, the largest of which were usually along major trade routes in the Jezreel Valley and on the coastal plain.14 Some cities were walled15 and supported their own militia. When threatened by a common enemy, rulers of city-states within the same area often cooperated militarily,16 but there was no sense of nationhood. Hence, when the Israelites invaded, they did not encounter the Grand Army of Canaan but fought instead against limited alliances and primarily against the forces of individual cities.17

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Archaeology has identified many of the towns that appear in the biblical record as well as uncovering evidence for those who lived in the surrounding areas (e.g., Phoenicia, Aram, Moab).

Damascus Tyre

Dan

A R A M Hazor

Acco

Megiddo

Beth-shan

Shechem Joppa

A M M O N

Gezer Ekron Jerusalem Ashdod Ashkelon

Jericho

Gaza

Beer-sheba

MOAB

E D O M

Iron Age Sites Pottery and other artifacts enable scientists to date at least some occupation of these places to the beginning of the Iron Age,18 the time of the Israelite invasion. 11

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy After the initial invasion under Joshua, the people are eager to settle the land, so they assign the various Tribal Allocations and begin to move into their respective allotments.

M A N A S S E H

M A N A S S E H

DAN

EPHRAIM

G A D

BENJAMIN J U D A H

REUBEN

S I M E O N

Tribal Allocations Some of those in the Transjordan awaiting the army’s return decide to remain where they are. When most of the tribes cross the river into Canaan (the Cisjordan), Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh stay on the eastern side of the river. 12

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The settlement of Canaan, though, is premature, because Israelite forces have not completed the conquest of Canaan by completely eliminating the Canaanites. Conquest Success is offset by Conquest Failure, as numerous enemy enclaves remain in each tribal area, a chronic idolatrous presence in the land, competing for the devotion of God’s people. Hazor Acco

Dor

Zephath

Megiddo Taanach

Bezek

Tirzah

Shechem

Joppa

Shiloh

Bethel Bethel

Ekron

Gezer

Jerusalem Ekron

Ashdod

Ashkelon Gaza

Ai

Jericho

Jerusalem Bethlehem

Heshbon Medeba

Ashkelon

Hebron Debir

Lachish

Gaza

Hebron

Dibon

Ziklag?

Beer-sheba

Conquest Success

Arad

Conquest Failure

Some cities that fall, like Jerusalem and Hazor, will even manage to rebuild while the Israelites are preoccupied with settling the land. ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Battle between the Israelites and Canaanites after the death of Joshua (illustration, c. 1435)

[X] Move quickly through the discussion of the four Israelite campaigns in chapter 1, locating major sites on the maps of Conquest Success and Conquest Failure. • Skim 1:1-2:5 • I will outline the military ventures, noting their results. Then I will make some general observations.19

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy I.

Prologue 1:1-3:6 A. Conquest summary 1:1-36 (c.1230) 1. Southern campaigns: Judah, Simeon, Benjamin 1:1-8 a. Initial assault 1) Bezek (in Ephraim) 2) Jerusalem (in Benjamin) 1:9-18 b. Victories (all in Judah) 1) Hill country: Hebron, Debir 2) Negev: Arad, Hormah 3) Western foothills/lowlands/Shephelah 4) Coastal Plain: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ekron 1:19-21 c. Failures 1) Coastal Plain 2) Jerusalem20 2. Central campaigns: Joseph (= Ephraim + ½ Manasseh) 1:22-26 a. Victories • Hill country: Bethel (in Ephraim) 1:27-29 b. Failures 1) Harod Valley: Beth Shan (in Manasseh) 2) Jezreel Valley: Ibleam, Taanach, Megiddo (in Manasseh) 3) Coastal Plain: Dor (in Manasseh) 4) Western foothills/lowlands/Shephelah: Gezer (in Ephraim) 3. Northern campaigns: Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali a. Victories • None recorded 1:30-33 b. Failures 1) Tabor ridge? (Zebulun): Kitron, Nahalol 2) Northern Coast (Asher): Acco, Sidon, Ahlab, Aczib, Helbah, Aphek, Rehob 3) Upper Galilee (Naphtali): Beth Shemesh, Beth Anath 4. Western campaigns: Dan a. Victories • None recorded 1:34-35 b. Failures • Western foothills/lowlands/Shephelah: Mount Heres, Aijalon, Shaalbim

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Query: Why did Israel not conquer the land completely? Several times in the book, the writer attributes Israel’s failure to sin—they did “evil in the eyes of the LORD” (hÎwh◊y y´nyEoV;b oårDh)21—but was sin the cause as the tribes sought to take over their allotment? Surely from Israel’s perspective, the reasons for calling a halt to hostilities must have been strong enough to cast doubt on the original plan of Moses and Joshua, or at least sufficiently compelling to provoke a re-evaluation of that plan in light of new developments. What specific reasons does the writer give for this change in Israelite strategy? • The primary reason was the military (v. 19). • The Israelites gained control of the (less populated) central hill country, where troop numbers played a more important role than military hardware, but they were less successful against better-equipped forces. The chariots and edged weapons of the Philistines on the coastal plain and of the Canaanites in the Jezreel Valley effectively halted Israel’s advance into those areas,22 at least until they developed alternative strategies or achieved military parody. • A secondary reason was the economy (v. 28). • Israel realized that slaughtering the pagan inhabitants was a waste of manpower. Subjugating them, instead, provided a cheap (sometimes free) source of labor that would otherwise be lost. It made better business sense to spare them (as well as being more humanitarian).23 Once Israel accepted such an alternative, it could not then wage war against this subject population,24 at least not without sufficient provocation. • The tertiary reason was (perhaps) the citizenry (cf. Josh 1:12, 14-15).25 • As the military campaigns continued and as more of the land became available for settlement, there was probably an increasing desire on the part of soldiers’ families to end the conflict and get on with life. The pressure may have been especially strong for troops from Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh, who had left their families on the other side of the Jordan. In any case, rather than fighting until they achieved total victory, the Israelite forces established ceasefire lines, and their families moved into the territory already won.26 In the end, the army disbanded27 and mustered again only on a limited and local basis to meet immediate security threats. After chapter 1, the conquest, to any significant extent, was over. As a result, Israel becomes entrenched in a protracted conflict, which God then uses to teach the people warfare, the need in each generation for constant readiness (even today).28

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy In any modern war, an army facing military superiority, economic waste, and pressure from home has good reason to stop a conflict short of total victory. So, why not here? • Unlike modern wars, the conquest of Canaan had the advantages of divine revelation and divine intervention. God had made quite clear what He wanted the Israelite army to do and had already proven His support on the battlefield (e.g., Jericho). • Consequently, the superior equipment of their enemy was not an insurmountable obstacle, as we will see in chapter 4.29 • Nor should the economic loss have mattered, for complete conquest would have put Israel in control of international trade routes, the equivalent of modern toll roads. (We will consider the humanitarian issue later.) • As far as pressure from home, the Transjordanian tribes had agreed to fight alongside their brethren until they achieved victory.30 In any event, Israel’s failure to finish the conquest had a detrimental affect on tribal unity (Cundall 1968:36-37). The Canaanites retained control of two strategic corridors—the Coastal Plain and the Esdraelon/Jezreel Valley.31 The former restricted Israelite settlements in the south to the central hill country. The latter cut off the northern tribes (Asher, Naphtali, Zebulun, Issachar) from their brethren in the central and southern portions of Canaan. This division hindered inter-tribal cooperation for military concerns, thereby slowing the conquest even further, and limited access by some tribes to the sanctuary, thereby encouraging the people to adopt other religious practices. In some cases, “the consequent disorganization affected the tribal boundaries in areas which were completely occupied, as tribes which could not occupy their designated territory encroached on that of their neighbors” (Cundall 1968:61).32 As we will see in chapter 2, the Israelites are wrong not to press the conquest until they achieve total victory. By leaving strong pockets of resistance, the Israelites fail to acquire the “A” of PLAK, and they leave themselves open to conflict on several fronts. Nevertheless, God does not abandon His plan, and in the rest of Judges through 1 Samuel, the biblical writers recount Israel’s ongoing struggle to take that next step in advancing the kingdom: establishing autonomy. [?] Query: Is Islam’s use of force like Israel’s? In other words, are Islam’s aspirations of conquest justified given Israel’s history? …No. Islam has a far more expansionistic view. Whereas Israel’s use of force was local, limited to the conquest and defense of Canaan, Islam’s use of force is global, with the goal of world domination.33 17

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Islam views the world in two broad spheres.

The goal of Islam is to bring the whole world into the realm of Allah, peacefully or forcefully, to make every part of the globe Dar al-Islam. To that end, the Quran instructs Muslims to confront those who will not believe and either convert them or kill them. Surah 8:39a [= 2:193] And fight them until Surah 9:5 …kill the Mushrikûn (disbelievers) wherever you find them, and capture them and besiege them, and prepare for them each and every ambush.

The global conquest of Islam will advance there is no more Fitnah (disbelief and polytheism: i.e., worshipping others besides Allâh) and the religion (worship) will all be for Allâh Alone [in the whole of the world].34through intimidation or annihilation. This belief, that violence is an acceptable means of spreading Islam as well as an appropriate response to those who reject Islam, sets the stage for much of the conflict to this day. The Bible contains no equivalent to these commands in the Quran. God’s instruction about war to the Israelites was graduated according to the location of the opponent, whether within or without Canaan. • Inside the land, where the threat to religious purity was great, the Israelites could not negotiate a surrender. Deut 20:16 Only in the cities of these peoples that the LORD your God is giving you as an inheritance, you shall not leave alive anything that breathes. 17 But you shall utterly destroy them, the Hittite and the Amorite, the Canaanite and the Perizzite, the Hivite and the Jebusite, as the LORD your God has commanded you, 18 so that they may not teach you to do according to all their detestable things which they have done for their gods, so that you would sin against the LORD your God.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Outside the land, where the threat to religious purity was less, the Israelites could negotiate a surrender. Deut 20:10 When you approach a city to fight against it, you shall offer it terms of peace. 11 If it agrees to make peace with you and opens to you, then all the people who are found in it shall become your forced labor and shall serve you. 12 However, if it does not make peace with you, but makes war against you, then you shall besiege it…. 15 Thus you shall do to all the cities that are very far from you…not of the cities… nearby.

In fact, there were neighboring portions of Canaan that God said Israel would not possess. • The land to the south (Edom) belonged to Esau. Deut 2:4 Give the people these orders: ‘You are about to pass through the territory of your brothers the descendants of Esau, who live in Seir. They will be afraid of you, but be very careful. 5 Do not provoke them to war, for I will not give you any of their land, not even enough to put your foot on. I have given Esau the hill country of Seir as his own.

• The land to the southeast belonged to Moab. Deut 2:9 Then the LORD said to me, “Do not harass the Moabites or provoke them to war, for I will not give you any part of their land. I have given Ar to the descendants of Lot as a possession.”

• The land to the northeast belonged to Ammon. 2:19 When you come to the Ammonites, do not harass them or provoke them to war, for I will not give you possession of any land belonging to the Ammonites. I have given it as a possession to the descendants of Lot. Deut

Israel’s use of force is not the same as Islam’s use of force. • As to scope, God does not instruct Israel to conquer the world. That task is reserved for and restricted to the messiah. • As to purpose, God does not instruct Israel to coerce other’s conversion. That is not the way He operates.35 The LORD wants peoples’ willing allegiance, not their grudging compliance.36 Application: God gave the Israelites a job to do, and chapter 1 records their progress. The people experience success in the hill country but setbacks in the valleys and coastal plain. Eventually, they come to view the resistance they encounter as insurmountable and do not see the task through to its completion, thereby complicating matters for future generations. Has God given you a job to do? …Are you encountering some difficulty that is making you think about looking for something easier? …One lesson here is that if God does give you a job to do, you may meet resistance, but do not give up until it is done, because if it really is important, you will still have to do it before He takes you on to bigger and better things. You only postpone the inevitable and may actually make the task more difficult for yourself in the process. **************** 19

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy We looked at Judg 1, which describes in summary fashion how Israel invaded the land but did not conquer it completely, leaving unfinished the job God had given them. In chapter 2, we will see the results of that failure. First an angel states the consequences; then the narrator spells out the implications for future generations. • Read 2:1-3:6 •

2:1-5

B. Religious apostasy 2:1-3:6 (c.1200) 1. Angel: The immediate consequences a. God withdraws His military support. b. Canaanites remain a security threat. c. Paganism becomes a spiritual snare.

[X] Comment: On the uncertain location of various sites After conquering Jericho,37 Israelite forces established their base camp east of the city at Gilgal.38 Gilgal was also the temporary place of God’s dwelling, the location of the ark when it was not accompanying the army, which was why the divine messenger came from there. The specific site remains unidentified to this day, although there are several candidates. The location of Bokim is also uncertain.39 If the narrative is continuous, then Bokim was probably somewhere near Gilgal.40

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

The Angel at Bokim by Johann Christoph Weigel (woodcut, 1695)

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy 2:6-3:6

2.

Narrator: The recurring cycle41 a. Rebellion •

“[T]he Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD” (2:11; though usually tribe-specific, the term Israel implying national solidarity)

b. Retribution •

“[H]e sold them to their enemies” (= military defeat; 2:14)

c. Repentance [Lacking]

•

“[T]hey cried to the LORD”

d. Restoration

[Lacking]

1) Deliverer and/ deliverance—“[T]he LORD raised up judges” and/ “he saved them from their enemies” (= military victor[y]; 2:16; cf. 11:27 where God is the ultimate judge) 2) Peace—“[T]he land had peace for ___ years”

The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge

Rebellion

Retribution

Repentance

Restoration Deliver—Peace

Comment: On they “served Baal and the Ashtoreths” (2:13; 3:7) As soon as Israel entered the land, they encountered the religious beliefs of its inhabitants, although, as Joshua noted, God’s people were not strangers to paganism. Josh 24:15 But if serving the LORD seems undesirable to you, then choose for yourselves this day whom you will serve, whether the gods your forefathers served beyond the River, or the gods of the Amorites, in whose land you are living. But as for me and my household, we will serve the LORD.”

For the Canaanites, indeed for most of the people who lived along the eastern Mediterranean seaboard, Baal (= “lord, master, owner”) was the chief god, and Ashtarte was his female consort.42

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Baal (Unknown)

Ashtarte (Phoenicia)

A stele discovered in Syria (biblical Aram) depicts Baal in Egyptian garb. In 1998, the Palestinian Authority postal service issued a souvenir sheet (#79) with a stamp of Nablus (biblical Shechem) and a picture of Baal from that stele.43

Baal (Syria)

Baal (West Bank)

The writer of Judges attributes Israel’s repeated apostasy to the people’s relatively short memory. Judg 2:19 But when the judge died, the people returned to ways even more corrupt than those of their fathers, following other gods and serving and worshiping them. They refused to give up their evil practices and stubborn ways.

Exacerbating the problem further was the continued presence of pagan elements in the society. Judg 3:4 They were left to test the Israelites to see whether they would obey the LORD’s commands, which he had given their forefathers through Moses.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy As those who had experienced God’s saving acts in the wilderness and in the conquest died off, they were replaced by a generation that had no such experience, and the people again adopted the religious practices of their Canaanite neighbors. Query: Does God prohibit mixed marriage? God warned the Israelites against intermarrying with the inhabitants of Canaan, noting the detrimental affect such unions would have on their relationship with Him,44 but God’s people did not heed the warning. Judg 3:6 They took their daughters in marriage and gave their own daughters to their sons, and served their gods.

As a result, paganism plagued Israel for generations. To what extent did (does) the ban remain in effect? Does God prohibit mixed marriage? …God does not prohibit interracial marriage, however unwise such a union may be, but… God prohibits inter-religious marriage. …the union of a believer and a nonbeliever.45 • Ezra addresses such marriages that begin mixed and prescribes divorce. When the exiles first returned from Babylon, they were a minority in the land and, given the hardships of establishing new settlements, were predominantly male. Consequently, those who sought mates often looked outside the community, to the surrounding gentile population. The result was a rash of mixed marriages that threatened the integrity of the new Jewish State. Gentile partners did not always adopt Israel’s God (Rahab and Ruth not withstanding46). In fact, the opposite was more often the rule; their pagan backgrounds exerted a negative influence on their spouses and children. Intermarriage also violated… • The Lord’s prohibition …through Moses. Deut 7:1 When the LORD your God brings you into the land you are entering to possess and drives out before you many nations…. 3 Do not intermarry with them. Do not give your daughters to their sons or take their daughters for your sons, 4 for they will turn your sons away from following me to serve other gods, and the LORD’s anger will burn against you and will quickly destroy you.

The people’s disregard for this command contributed to the religious apostasy that had led to the exile from which their descendants were now returning. When Ezra arrived, he saw that these former exiles were in danger of repeating history, and he 24

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy was understandably distraught: Would they so quickly provoke God to anger again? After prayerful consideration… • The elders’ decision …is that divorce is the most appropriate course of action. Ezra 10:3 Now let us make a covenant before our God to send away all these women and their children, in accordance with the counsel of my lord and of those who fear the commands of our God. Let it be done according to the Law…. 16 So the exiles did as was proposed…. On the first day of the tenth month they sat down to investigate the cases, 17 and by the first day of the first month they finished dealing with all the men who had married foreign women.

These measures were harsh, but their severity underscores the seriousness of the situation. (The fact that “some of them had children by these wives” v. 44 did not deter them.) Widespread intermarriage, especially at this early stage in the nation’s recovery, could lead to complete assimilation within a few generations. Israel’s survival as a distinct entity in the land required that the returnees maintain their ethnic and religious distinctions. • Paul addresses such marriages that become mixed and permits divorce. The NT situation is similar to the one Ezra faced in that the problem is religious incompatibility. What is different from the situation in Ezra is that the conflict does not arise from disobedience. These unions were established before either party knew the Lord. • The apostle’s recommendation …varies, according to the unbeliever’s reaction to the partner’s new faith. 1 Cor 7:12 To the rest I say this (I, not the Lord): If any brother has a wife who is not a believer and she is willing to live with him, he must not divorce her. 13 And if a woman has a husband who is not a believer and he is willing to live with her, she must not divorce him. 14 For the unbelieving husband has been sanctified through his wife, and the unbelieving wife has been sanctified through her believing husband. Otherwise your children would be unclean, but as it is, they are holy. 15 But if the unbeliever leaves, let him do so. A believing man or woman is not bound in such circumstances. God has called us to live in peace.

When one of the parties subsequently comes to faith, the believer must not initiate a divorce but should agree to it if the unbelieving spouse so desires. 25

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy A difference in origin between the situations in (OT) Jerusalem and in (NT) Corinth leads also to a difference in outcome. God had said of Israel, “I set you apart from the nations” (Lev 20:24, 26). Consequently, “you are a people holy to the LORD your God” (Deut 7:6; 14:2, 21). In a flagrant disregard of that status, the returnees “mingled the holy race with the peoples around them” (Ezra 9:2),47 making necessary the remedy: “Separate yourselves from the peoples around you and from your foreign wives” (10:11). The members of the Corinthian church, with its preponderance of gentiles (“idolaters” and “pagans” 1 Cor 6:9; 12:2), started at a different point, and only after coming to faith were they “sanctified…and called to be holy” (1:2; cf. 6:11). Because they had married before achieving that status, they may maintain those unions. • Marriages that begin mixed usually evince a propensity to unrighteousness that promotes the believing spouse’s spiritual weakening and discourages the unbelieving spouse’s spiritual awakening. • Because the relationship is heading in the wrong direction, it is advisable to dissolve the union. • Marriages that become mixed often evince a propensity to righteousness that promotes the believing spouse’s spiritual strengthening and encourages the unbelieving spouse’s spiritual awakening. • Because the relationship is heading in the right direction, it is acceptable to preserve the union.48 The general rule is that God prohibits inter-religious marriage, the union of a believer and a nonbeliever. What guidance is there for those who are in some way part of God’s people? What does He say about… Marriage between a Jew and a gentile Christian The answer is complicated, because it is possible for a Jew to be obedient to God yet not believe in Jesus, especially given the Church’s dismal historical record of Jewish evangelism (e.g., by trying to make Jewish converts gentile). Keep in mind that God’s covenant with Israel is still in effect. • If only the Christian is a believer in Jesus… • Getting married would violate Paul’s “unequally yoked” advisory, even if the gentile converts to Judaism. • Staying married would accord with Paul’s permission to preserve a union already established, although the gentile should consider converting to Judaism (maintaining faith in Jesus), and both should become observant.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • If both parties are believers in Jesus… • Getting married would accord with Paul’s permission to establish a proper union, although the gentile should convert to Judaism (maintaining faith in Jesus), and both should become observant. Such a union entails more than a commitment to another person. It involves a commitment to God that includes embracing the covenant He made with Israel. While a Christian should encourage a Jewish spouse to believe in Jesus, a Christian should also encourage the spouse to be observant of the covenant, in both cases a task best done by example. Query: Why does God let bad things happen? We understand the concept of judgment, that when people violate God’s holy standard, there is a price to pay. Sooner or later, they will suffer for their sin. • Occasionally, God exacts that penalty directly, as He did against Egypt with a series of plagues. • Usually, God exacts that penalty indirectly, through an intermediary, as He did against Israel with raids by the Amalekites and others or with invasion by the Babylonians, who themselves were also in line for judgment. This method of using a proxy is not to provide God with “plausible deniability,” so that He will not get the blame when bad things happen. It is simply one way He exercises His power over a fallen world to accomplish His purpose. Could God not accomplish that purpose without letting bad things happen? Besides, while those who oppose God deserve the punishment they receive, how can we account for tragic events that have no obvious connection to divine judgment (e.g., earthquake in Haiti)? Why does God let those bad things happen?49 The answer lies in the way God ordered the universe. He could have created a world of automatons, soul-less beings to do His bidding. He did not, because… God wants willing servants not mindless puppets. So, He gave His creatures the ability to choose for Him or against Him. He gave them free will. From the beginning, man exercised that freedom by acting contrary to God’s will, thereby introducing sin into the world and corrupting God’s creation. The result was all manner of disaster, both natural and man-made. Did it have to be this way, or could God have arranged something different, a world that did not involve sin? The 17th c. German philosopher, Gottfried Leibnitz (1646-1716), asked the question, Given God’s power, is this the best world?50 He could have created any number of alternative universes, some of which might not have included the possibility of bad things. Is this world, the one in which we live, the most desirable of the lot? …For God to have willing servants, He must 27

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy allow people the opportunity to decide for themselves, to choose between their will and His will. Getting to the heart of the matter, C.S. Lewis (1962:35) answered the question, noting that this may not be the best world God could have created, but… Given God’s plan, this is the only world! In other words, this is the only setting that includes all the elements necessary to accomplish His will. We cannot have it both ways. • Either we live with the presence of sin yet are free to serve God, • Or we live with the absence of sin and are forced to serve God. Which would you prefer? God could intervene at any point to address the problems sin causes, and He often does in response to the prayers of His saints, but God will not force people to obey Him. That decision is ours. As Joshua challenges the Israelites,51 Josh 24:15 … choose for yourselves this day whom you will serve, whether the gods your forefathers served beyond the River, or the gods of the Amorites, in whose land you are living. But as for me and my household, we will serve the LORD.

God is ultimately in control of all things, but He allows His creatures to determine some things, most importantly, whether to obey Him or to oppose Him, because… God wants willing servants not mindless puppets. Regardless of the choice, however, sin remains a problem. Therefore, God’s most significant intervention has been to provide a solution for man’s sin through the sacrifice of His son, and the ultimate benefit of that event yet awaits us—spending eternity with God. The apparent answer to the question—Why does God let bad things happen?— It is the only way to let the best things happen for those who serve Him. Until then, we live in a fallen world populated by fallen people, subject to the vicissitudes of such an existence, albeit with the potential of knowing the creator of this world and of developing a relationship with Him that is out of this world. Query: Is God to blame when bad things happen?52 Although God is ultimately in control of all events, He allows His creatures to determine some events. The repeated cycle in Judges illustrates the interplay between God’s sovereignty and man’s liberty, between what God proscribes and what He permits. While God respects man’s freedom, He still restricts that freedom. Man’s liberty does not impinge on God’s sovereignty or inhibit it in any way. That freedom (liberty) may affect the details of God’s plan but does not alter the overall outcome (necessity). Nevertheless, from our limited perspective, the impact can be significant. When God lets others harm His people, for whatever reason, we are often uncertain where to place the blame. (We like to assign blame, as long as it is on someone else.) 28

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Related to the question—Why does God allow bad things to happen?—is the question—Who is responsible when bad things happen? For example, is Satan to blame for afflicting Job, or is God to blame for allowing, even encouraging it?53 Philosophers have noted that there are two causes for events.54 • The mediate cause is who (or what) allows something to happen: • The immediate cause is who (or what) makes something to happen: The distinction is between… • Someone who simply permits an act, and • Someone who actually performs an act. While God is the mediate cause of all things, whether good or bad, He is not necessarily the immediate cause. • A simple illustration might involve a man who fears that someone will steal his new car. He calls the police, hoping for protection, and learns that (legally) the officer can do nothing until someone actually makes off with the vehicle, at which point, the officer can arrest the culprit. Who is responsible if the man suffers a loss, the officer for permitting the crime or the thief for committing the crime? …In this case, the officer is the mediate cause, and the thief is the immediate cause. The responsibility, however, falls on the thief, because he acts intentionally (volitionally and without necessity). Consequently, he (and not the officer) is punished. • A similar but more serious variation might involve a wife whose abusive husband threatens to harm her. She calls the police, hoping for protection, but learns that (legally) the officer can do nothing until the husband actually attacks her, at which point the officer can arrest the husband for assault. Who is responsible if the wife suffers harm, the officer for permitting the violence or the husband for committing the violence? …Again, the officer is the mediate cause, and the husband is the immediate cause. The responsibility, however, falls on the husband, because he acts intentionally (volitionally and without necessity). Consequently, he (and not the officer) is punished. The parallel to Job’s situation is that, like the guilty parties in these scenarios, Satan also acts intentionally (volitionally and without necessity). He is free to afflict Job or not. God does not compel Satan to harm Job. (There is no necessity; there is only contingency.) It is Satan who chooses to use his freedom maliciously. Consequently, he, too, is subject to punishment, albeit with far greater severity, in “the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels” (Matt 25:41). So it is with us. When there is a choice to make, God does not force us to select the right one. Remember… God wants willing servants not mindless puppets. 29

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy We live in a world of possibility for some things and certainty for other things. It is in the former (the realm of possibility), issues within our control, that we exercise our free will. God allows us to make a host of decisions, including many that have moral implications. He knows what we will decide (prescience) in such cases, but He does not determine what we will decide (predestination).55 Nevertheless, He does establish the consequences of those choices, incentives of reward and punishment. That we often choose poorly may be a sign of our foolishness, but it is clearly proof of our freedom.56 By allowing the Canaanites to remain, the Israelites lived with the constant threat of internal conflict. By having a pagan populace in their midst and by intermarrying with them,57 the Israelites not only disobeyed God, they exposed themselves to pagan influence. On both counts the results were disastrous. God’s plan for establishing the kingdom did not seem to be moving ahead. The tribes remained confined to the hill country and could not take complete possession of the land. To make matters worse, some of the LORD’s people were actually forsaking Him for other gods. Keep in mind that God’s plan has not changed in chapter 2. The Israelites still have to conquer the entire land, but they must do it having lost their initial momentum as well as a certain amount of God’s support.58 Moreover, the conflict has expanded to include spiritual warfare as well, and the prognosis is not good. Application: Here we see a corollary to the point of the previous lesson: If God gives you a job to do, do not give up until it is done. You only postpone the inevitable and may actually make the task more difficult for yourself in the process. The corollary here is that there is a limit to the amount of pagan presence or influence believers can tolerate in their lives without suffering some debilitating spiritual setback.59 If God says “Don’t do this” or “Get rid of that,” you had better take Him seriously. He knows what you can deal with effectively, what situations you can influence for good and what situations will influence you for bad. If you find yourself saying, “I can handle it,” watch out, because you may be setting yourself up to fail. • A Christian guy says to his friend: “This relationship with Delilah is getting pretty physical, but I can handle it. Besides, she’s a Christian also, and two are stronger than one, right?” • A Christian kid says to his parents: “The party won’t be that bad, just some friends getting together for a good time. I may even be able witness to somebody. Yeah, there’ll be drinking and a few people may be doing drugs, but don’t worry. I can handle it.” 30

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • A Christian girl says to her friend: “I know he’s not really a believer, but think of the influence I can have on him. Just wait and see. I can handle it. He’ll come around after the wedding, when all the pressure is off.” Israel was not much of a positive influence on its pagan neighbors, but its pagan neighbors certainly proved to be a hindrance to God’s people, both physically and spiritually. So it is with you. It is one thing to find yourself in an ungodly situation through no fault of your own and hope that God will protect you or even accomplish some good. It is quite another thing to place yourself in an ungodly situation and assume that you can remain untouched. You may just be asking for trouble.60 ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Judg 1 tells how the Israelites invaded but did not completely conquer the land. Judg 2 describes the spiritual consequences of that military failure—the persistence of a pagan presence and the partial loss of divine support for the conquest. As a result, each new generation faces and often succumbs to the temptation of pagan worship, and God uses some of those same neighbors to oppress the Israelites until they repent. Judg 3 begins the stories of leaders from the various tribes (except Asher, Simeon, and Reuben) whom God uses to reverse the situation that Israel’s apostasy has caused. The period of the judges does not end with the last chapter of this book but continues until the time of the Davidic monarchy. As such, 1 Sam picks up the history of this period with the lives of the last two judges, Eli and Samuel, whom I include in the outline. The list of judges divides fairly neatly into two groups, each of which ends not with a judge but with a king, albeit an unsuccessful one (Abimelech and Saul). Each group consists of four major judges (boldface), socalled because the narrator does more than just list them, and one or more minor judges. We will follow the writer’s lead here by concentrating on those judges he highlights and by noting those he treats cursorily. For each major judge, we will attempt to do two things: reconstruct what happened and determine why. In this way, I hope that we will come to understand this period in Israel’s history and to appreciate the value of having it recorded. (Dates in the outline are from Cundall 1975:757.) II.

Judges 3:7-16:31 A. First group.............................................. 3:7-9:57 3:7-11 1. Othniel (Judah) vs. Arameans (40 yrs, c.1190-1150) • Read 3:7-11 •

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Othniel by James Tissot

The account is quite sketchy compared with those of other major judges, most of which include some details of a major battle or confrontation that led to an Israelite victory. The narrator may be deliberately stylizing this first description without extraneous details in order to show his readers a model of… The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge *Othniel

Rebellion

Retribution

Repentance

3:7 “The Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD”

3:8 “he sold them into the hand of...Aram”

3:9a “the Israelites cried out to the LORD”

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Restoration Deliver—Peace 3:9b-10a “he raised up for them a deliverer....”

3:11 “the land was quiet forty years”

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Sparse, though the description of this judge is, we may still be able to say something more about Othniel than “He went to war and won,” beginning by reconstructing the circumstances of his tenure.61

A R A M

M A N A S S E H

M A N A S S E H

DAN

G A D

EPHRAIM BENJAMIN

REUBEN

J U D A H Debir

S I M E O N

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • •

Where is Aram Naharaim? (north-eastern Syria)62 Where is Othniel’s inheritance? (Debir) Judg 1:11 From there they advanced against the people living in Debir (formerly called Kiriath Sepher). 12 And Caleb said, “I will give my daughter Acsah in marriage to the man who attacks and captures Kiriath Sepher.” 13 Othniel son of Kenaz, Caleb’s younger brother, took it; so Caleb gave his daughter Acsah to him in marriage.

•

•

What does that say about Aramean influence in the region? • Either it extended far to the south or Othniel led a campaign far to the north, perhaps both.63 What was Othniel’s two-fold responsibility in Israel (v. 10a)?64 • To judge65 • To fight66

The narrator does not even say where they fought, which prevents us from knowing the extent of Aramean control. We should, however, note at least two things. • Here is Israel’s first slide into apostasy since the conquest, and it happened within a generation of the conquest. Judg 2:10 After that whole generation had been gathered to their fathers, another generation grew up, who knew neither the LORD nor what he had done for Israel. 11 Then the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD and served the Baals.

• There is no such thing as secondhand faith (a common theme in The Drama). Parents can teach their children about God, but ultimately those children must decide for themselves whether or not they will serve God. • The specific circumstances of the whole affair may not be clear, but in vv. 79, the narrator frames what Israel does and how God responds as an exemplar of the nation’s changing relationship with God. The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge Othniel

Rebellion

Retribution

Repentance

3:7 “The Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD”

3:8 “he sold them into the hand of...Aram”

3:9a “the Israelites cried out to the LORD”

First Cause

Restoration Deliver—Peace

3:9b-10a “he raised up for them a deliverer... Israel’s judge” First Effect Second Cause Second

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3:11 “the land was quiet forty years”

Effect

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy A Model of Cause and Effect This cause and effect scenario will repeat several times in the book, as the Israelites vacillate between what they want for themselves and what God wants for them. Query: Why does God bother to discipline His people? It is not an enjoyable experience for them. In fact, it is deliberately unpleasant! As the sage in Proverbs notes, however… • He disciplines His people because He loves them…67 Prov 3:12 …the LORD disciplines those he loves, as a father the son he delights in.

…and… • He disciplines His people because He wants the best for them.68 Prov 6:23b …the corrections of discipline are the way to life,

God intends, thereby, to compel their repentance and to restore their holiness. Heb 12:10b God disciplines us for our good, that we may share in his holiness. 11 No discipline seems pleasant at the time, but painful. Later on, however, it produces a harvest of righteousness and peace for those who have been trained by it.

**************** 3:12-30

2.

Ehud (Benjamin) vs. Moabites (80 yrs, c.1170-1090) • Read 3:12-30 •

While the description of Othniel, the first recorded judge, is sparse, the description of Ehud, the next judge, includes considerably more detail, perhaps too much for the squeamish. (Is v. 22 really necessary?) Let us reconstruct the situation.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

M A N A S S E H

M A N A S S E H

DAN

G A D

EPHRAIM

AMMON

Jericho

BENJAMIN

REUBEN

J U D A H

S I M E O N

MOAB

• Where do the people live who form this coalition against Israel (i.e., Moab, Ammon, Amalek)?69 • Why do they attack Israel in the first place? (See the reason below.) • Did God say to the Moabite king, “Listen, Eglon. My people have been very naughty. I’d like you and your buddies to lean on them for about 18 years until they turn back to me. Then I’ll have one of them assassinate you, his army will defeat your army, and Moab can serve Israel for 40 years. What do ya say?” • Where is the City of Palms (= Jericho),70 and why is it important?71 • It is the entrance closest to Moab that leads from the Transjordan, west to the central hill country. Whoever controls it, controls much of the traffic in and out of that part of the land. 37

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • It is the access point closest to Moab that leads from the central hill country, east to the King’s Highway in the Transjordan. Whoever controls it, limits the competition from Cisjordan peoples for part of the action (i.e., tolls).

Ehud Kills Eglon (illustration, c. 1450)

Why did Moab attack Israel in the first place? …God used the commercial incentive of increased wealth through control of the trade route to provoke Eglon’s military action to eliminate competition by confining Israel to the hill country. Actually, the king’s northward and westward expansion nets him twice the profit: • He gets tolls from caravans. • He gets tribute from Israel. Note that in order to secure Jericho, Eglon first had to pass through (and subdue) Gad and Reuben,72 which may hint of a general weakness in these Transjordan tribes that would account for their later reluctance to support Gideon. After 18 years of serving Moab,73 the Israelites turn from their false gods to the true God for help, and He raises up a Benjamite, Ehud who, after delivering the annual tribute to King Eglon in Jericho assassinates him. Ehud then rallies the men 38

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy of Ephraim (presumably to augment forces from Benjamin) and proceeds not to Jericho but past that city to the fords of the Jordan. Why? …He cuts off the occupying army’s retreat. The victory is so complete that Moab ends up serving Israel 80 years thereafter. Israel probably also took control of a stretch of the King’s Highway.74 The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge Ehud

Rebellion 3:12a Israelites evil in eyes of LORD”

“the did the the

Retribution

Repentance

3:12b “the LORD gave Eglon power over Israel”

3:15a “the Israelites cried out to the LORD”

****************

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Restoration Deliver—Peace 3:15b “he gave them a deliverer” 3:30a “Moab was made subject”

3:30 “the land was quiet eighty years”

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy 3:31

•

Shamgar (Judah?) vs. Philistines (c.1150)

• Read Judg 3:31 • A N AinSthe SEH In this account the narrator uses none of the stock phrases heM employed previous stories, which leaves several unanswered questions about this period in Israel’s history.

MANASSEH

DAN

EPHRAIM

G A D

BENJAMIN J U D A Beth-anoth H

REUBEN

SIMEON

• Did the people apostatize again as they did after Othniel? • Were the Philistines (or another people) oppressing the Israelites and, if so, for how long?75 • Where did this great battle take place?76 • What tribe was Shamgar from? • Dan, Benjamin, and Judah were all near Philistine territory (although a judge’s influence and responsibility were not necessarily limited to his own tribal area; cf. Deborah). 40

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • He is called “son of Anath” (see n. 75), who may have come from Judah (cf. “Beth Anoth” in Josh 15:59). • How long did the resulting peace last? The writer simply records that Shamgar delivered Israel by killing 600 Philistines, presumably with support from Israelite forces.

Shamgar slays six hundred Philistines (illumination, c. 1450)

The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge

Rebellion

Retribution

Shamgar

Repentance

Restoration Deliver—Peace 3:31 “He too saved Israel”

Query: Why does God condone the killing? In the first chapter of Judges, the narrator recounts Israel’s destruction of both cities and their inhabitants without the slightest hesitation or hint of regret. In fact, he gives readers the impression that Israel should have been more zealous in the 41

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy extermination of the resident population, that Israel was wrong to allow any survivors. In the second chapter of Judges, God confirms that it was wrong to spare the Canaanites and that Israel’s laxity in this matter would result in the nation’s own spiritual decay. The third chapter includes illustrations of that decline as well as the remedy God employs to rectify the situation, which invariably involves exterminating more non-Israelites and which He repeats several times in the book. Such disregard for human life is contrary to the notions of our enlightened age and has caused many to dismiss the OT as testifying to a primitive idea of God, one that does not match the NT God of love. What do you think? Neither extreme does justice to the biblical text, because God repeatedly makes clear statements about His wrath and His love in both testaments. The problem with our enlightened age is that it makes the wrong thing the most important thing. God values human life, but there is something He values more…holiness. It is the most comprehensive description of His nature, the divine attribute that subsumes all others, as the seraphim declare before the heavenly throne:77 Rev 4:8b Day and night they never stop saying: “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord God Almighty….”

Sin is a most serious affront to that quality, one God will not long abide, an affront generations in Canaan committed to their peril.78 As Joshua reminded the Israelites…79 Josh 24:19b He is a holy God…. He will not forgive…rebellion and…sin….

It is in light of holiness, the supreme value, that we must understand the destruction of the Canaanites. Not only does such action accord with God’s character, it advances God’s program, enabling the Israelites to realize the fulfillment of God’s promise that Abraham’s descendants would inherit the land.80 As the Lord said to Abraham… Gen 15:16 In the fourth generation your descendants will come back here, for the sin of the Amorites has not yet reached its full measure.

Later, Moses reminded that fourth generation… Deut 9:5b …on account of the wickedness of these nations, the LORD your God will drive them out before you, to accomplish what he swore to your fathers, to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.

Israel’s conquest of Canaan implements a divine decree to punish those who had rejected Him, persistently so, and to reward those who had accepted Him (even if haltingly so). God’s people were to make a clean sweep of the land, eliminating all vestiges of paganism.81 Deut 7:1 ¶ When the LORD your God brings you into the land you are entering to possess and drives out before you many nations—the Hittites, Girgashites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites, seven nations larger and stronger than

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy you—2 and when the LORD your God has delivered them over to you and you have defeated them, then you must destroy them totally. Make no treaty with them, and show them no mercy. 3 Do not intermarry with them. Do not give your daughters to their sons or take their daughters for your sons, 4 for they will turn your sons away from following me to serve other gods, and the LORD’s anger will burn against you and will quickly destroy you. 5 This is what you are to do to them: Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones, cut down their Asherah poles and burn their idols in the fire. 6 For you are a people holy to the LORD your God. The LORD your God has chosen you out of all the peoples on the face of the earth to be his people, his treasured possession.

While God would ensure victory on the battlefield,82 the Israelites had to complete the process by destroying all elements of paganism, both the people83 and their paraphernalia.84 No one, not even prospective mates,85 and nothing, not even valuable livestock or seemingly benign artifacts, were to remain. Anything less thorough would work to the Israelite’s detriment and defilement, jeopardizing their own presence in the land.86 So, there are at least two reasons for destroying the Canaanites, who for generations had rejected the Lord: • First, it accords with the character of God, who abhors man’s sin, and • Second, it advances the program of God, who keeps His promise. In other words, God not only condones the killing, He commands it. Again, what our enlightened age does not recognize, and to its peril, is that, as far as God is concerned, life is second to holiness.87 Application: God does not command you to kill your pagan neighbors—which may be a disappointment to some and a relief to others—but apart from that difference, God has not reordered or reduced His priorities. Therefore, it would not be amiss to ask yourself to what extent you maintain holiness as your primary concern. Recognizing the priority of holiness can explain some of the more difficult commands in scripture, such as… • God’s instruction about diet88 Lev 20:25 You must therefore make a distinction between clean and unclean animals and between unclean and clean birds. Do not defile yourselves by any animal or bird or anything that moves along the ground—those which I have set apart as unclean for you. 26 You are to be holy to me because I, the LORD, am holy, and I have set you apart from the nations to be my own.

• Moses’ instruction about execution Deut 13:5 That prophet or dreamer must be put to death, because he preached rebellion against the LORD your God, who brought you out of Egypt and redeemed you from the land of slavery; he has tried to turn you from the way the LORD your God commanded you to follow. You must purge the evil from among you.89

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy NB: This passage highlights the primary purpose of the death penalty. • It is not punitive, although it does punish those who commit murder; and • It is not preventive, although it may deter those who contemplate murder. Rather, Moses indicates the primary purpose of the death penalty here. • It is purgative, the elimination from society of those who contaminate it by their sinful acts. • Ezra’s instruction about divorce Ezra 10:10 Then Ezra the priest stood up and said to them, “You have been unfaithful; you have married foreign women, adding to Israel’s guilt. 11 Now make confession to the LORD, the God of your fathers, and do his will. Separate yourselves from the peoples around you and from your foreign wives.”

Can you think of other commands that are easier to understand (or accept) by recognizing the preeminence of holiness? ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Thus far, we have seen Israel repel incursions by three of its neighbors. • Othniel, from Judah, defeated the forces of Israel’s northern neighbor— Aram. • Ehud, from Benjamin, defeated the combined forces of Israel’s eastern neighbors—Moab, Ammon, and Amalek. • Shamgar, perhaps from Judah, defeated Israel’s western neighbor—Philistia. According to Judg 3:30, the Israelites “had peace for eighty years” following Ehud’s victory. Judg 4 describes another incursion from the north, this time from one of the Canaanite city-states Joshua had conquered and destroyed—Hazor.90 • Read Judg 4 • 4:1-5:31

3.

Deborah (Benjamin) and Barak (Naphtali) vs. Canaanites (40 yrs, c.1125-1085)

45

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Deborah by Gustave Doré (engraving, 1865)

46

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Hazor

Kedesh Tabor, Mt. Megiddo

M A N A S S E H

Taanach

M A N A S S E H

DAN

G A D

EPHRAIM Bethel Rama(h)

BENJAMIN REUBEN

J U D A H

S I M E O N

Where is Hazor? In whose tribal territory?91 …What happened to it when the Israelites first invaded Canaan? Josh 11:10 At that time Joshua turned back and captured Hazor and put its king to the sword. (Hazor had been the head of all these kingdoms.) 11 Everyone in it they put to the sword. They totally destroyed them, not sparing anything that breathed, and he burned up Hazor itself.

Given the location and history of this city, what does its revival suggest? For some reason, Naphtali, in whose inheritance Hazor falls,92 did not extend its tribal control beyond the hills of northern Galilee. Consequently, this city Joshua had destroyed was able to rebuild sufficiently to challenge and usurp Israel as the dominant force in the region. How could it recover so quickly? The income generated by Hazor’s location on the main north-south highway in the Cisjordan probably contributed to its speedy recovery, and its superior military technology (900 iron chariots) gave Hazor’s forces a decided advantage in open combat.93 47

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Query: What are the “iron chariots” (vv. 3, 13; Drews 1989)?94 The information about chariots in this period comes mainly from Egypt, whose military included the chariot, albeit a light model designed for speed and maneuverability.

• Egyptian Light Chariots • The Canaanite version, whose distinguishing feature was its use of iron, would have been considerably heavier, for which scholars have offered several possible interpretations. • They are poetic metaphors that underscore the enemy’s invincible nature. • Objection: The references do not appear poetic passages; all are in prose. • They were iron completely. • Objection: Such a vehicle would be too heavy to move without a large team of animals and would lack both maneuverability and speed in the field (see n. 95). • They had iron plates (for protection). • Objection: Archaeological finds suggest that iron was not available in sufficient quantity until the 10th century (United Monarchy period) to plate chariots, most armament of the 12th century (Judges period) was made of bronze. Furthermore, heavy plates would have put undue strain on a wooden frame. • They had iron hardware (i.e., wooden frames with metal fasteners). • Objection: Egyptian chariots discovered in tombs did not use iron fasteners. Besides, the term “iron chariots” is hardly appropriate for wooden chariots that incorporated a few metal parts.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • They had curved metal blades (on the wheels; so Vulgate).

The charge of the Persian scythed chariots at the Battle of Gaugamela (by Andre Castaigne, 1898-1899)

• Objection: The first mention of scythed chariots in literary sources is much later (5th century, Persian period). > • They had iron rims (or studs) on the wheels. • Objection: Such models first appear in the 7th century (Assyrian period), several hundred years later. The last option, iron rims, is the most likely interpretation, although there is no textual or archaeological support for such chariots at this point in Israel’s history.95 [?] That this threat did not materialize for 80 years (c.1229) is probably due in part to three campaigns of Egypt’s 19th Dynasty into the land. Bethshan was an Egyptian stronghold, and the Canaanites could not establish firm control over the strategic hub of the Jezreel Valley until Egypt’s influence waned (Wood 1975:99100). • Seti I (1316-1304) wanted to push back the Hittites, who were expanding south into Canaan, and reestablish Egyptian control over the land as it had formerly under Thutmoses III. One of the topographical lists from his campaigns mentions ’isr, which “appears to be the earliest reference to the Israelite tribe of Asher” (Aharoni 1979:179) and is potentially supportive of an early date for the exodus. Yadin suggests that Seti is probably responsible for the Stratum II destruction layer at Hazor (Wood 1975:115, n. 46). 49

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • >

•

Ramses II (1304-1238) also directed his northern military efforts against Hittite expansion in the land. Merneptah (1238-1233)96 was concerned with rebellious elements within Canaan itself, and his commemorative stele records victories against several peoples including Israel, the earliest such mention in a non-biblical text and one that helps date the conquest (Wood 1975:86; Aharoni 1979:184).

Merneptah Stele (c. 1230)

Following Merneptah, Egypt did not enter the land again until after Deborah’s time. During the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III (1195-1164) directed a campaign against the advancing Sea Peoples, although he also reestablished an Egyptian presence at Bethshan (Wood 1975:86-87).97

Rameses III Philistine Warrior (Statue from Karnak Temple) (Relief from Thebes Temple) (HAI p. 84)

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The story of Deborah opens with some familiar phrases the author used earlier in the book: Judg 4:1 After Ehud died, the Israelites once again did evil in the eyes of the LORD. 2 So the LORD sold them into the hands of Jabin, a king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor. The commander of his army was Sisera, who lived in Harosheth Haggoyim. 3 Because he had nine hundred iron chariots and had cruelly oppressed the Israelites for twenty years, they cried to the LORD for help.

What we expect next, based on the three previous episodes, is the phrase: “the LORD raised up a deliverer.” Instead, the narrator begins a more detailed account than he has given before. He introduces a judge who was already in office “leading [lit. “judging”] Israel at that time” (v. 4),98 Deborah.99 She differs from the other judges in at least three respects. • First (and most obviously), she is a woman.100 • Second, she is a prophetess, which means that she communicates God’s word to the people and helps settle their disputes. • The only other prophet-judge combination is Samuel.101 • Other biblical prophetesses include Miriam, Huldah, Anna, and Philip’s daughters.102 • Third, she does not lead the Israelites into battle as her predecessors did but appoints Barak to be the military commander instead.103 That decision was probably not based on any doubt either that Deborah could head a successful campaign or that the Israelite troops would follow a female general. (That the princes of Issachar were “with Deborah” in 5:15 may indicate some leaders supported the military action because of her participation.) Barak accepts his commission on the condition that she accompany him in the field. Why then does she not simply do the job herself or, more to the point, why does God tell her to appoint Barak?104 Hazor is within the tribal allotment of Naphtali. Therefore, after Joshua’s initial conquest of the city, it was that tribe’s responsibility to see that Hazor never again became strong enough to dominate the region.105 It was natural, then, for Naphtali to be at the forefront of any Israelite counter strike with its own commander leading the troops. Deborah was from Benjamin (between Ramah and Bethel), but Barak was from Kedesh in Naphtali. Application: If this is the reason for God’s selection, then it serves as a corollary to something we noted in our study of chapter 1. There we saw that by not completing the job God had given them—eliminating the Canaanite presence in the land—the Israelites only postponed the inevitable. Here, we see that because the Naphtalites failed to retain the advantage Joshua had won, they not only suffered for it, but had to redo this aspect of the conquest. 51

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy So it is with you. In your struggle to realize the expectation God has for you, the ground gained yesterday you could easily lose today simply by doing nothing, by letting things slide for a while.106 …What are you working on in the divine scheme, and are you making progress or do you risk losing ground? In Judg 4, Israel has to recover lost ground. Let us reconstruct the scene of the battle.107 • Deborah orders Barak to muster troops from Naphtali and Zebulun, and to lead them to Mount Tabor. God will then draw Jabin’s army, including the 900 chariots, to the Kishon River where Israel will defeat them. • Why would a gathering of Israelite troops 30 miles south of Hazor attract Jabin’s response? Did he expect them to attack the city? (He may want to avoid Israelite interdiction of travel along the highway.) • If he feared an attack on the city, why would he expose the city by sending his troops past the Israelites and into the valley? (Fighting in the hill country would negate the chief advantage of chariots: speed and maneuverability.) • What does the location of Barak’s encampment and the movement of Sisera’s forces say about the extent of Jabin’s control and the kind of threat Israel posed to Hazor? (He commands that portion of the highway.) • During the 20 years of Hazor’s dominance,108 King Jabin has managed to take control of the northern highway and the Jezreel junction. The threat Israel poses is not to the city but to this important route. By using Mount Tabor as a staging area, Israelite troops could easily harass commercial and military traffic as it passes through the valley, and perhaps even take over this strategic intersection. To prevent such a possibility, the king sends his forces to secure the region. The chariots that accompany them give Sisera a psychological advantage over the unmounted Israelites as well as tactical superiority,109 being particularly suited to fighting in the broad, flat Jezreel Valley. • As Sisera’s forces move across the valley to engage Barak’s forces descending from Mount Tabor,110 there is apparently a sudden downpour, and the soft alluvial soil111 of the valley turns to mud, effectively neutralizing the chariots. Deborah’s victory song recounts the event.112 Judg 5:4 O LORD, when you went out from Seir, when you marched from the land of Edom, the earth shook, the heavens poured, the clouds poured down water…. 19 “Kings came, they fought; the kings of Canaan fought at Taanach by the waters of Megiddo, but they carried off no silver, no plunder. 20 From the heavens the stars fought, from their courses they fought against Sisera. 21 The river Kishon swept them away, the age-old river, the river Kishon. March on, my soul; be strong!

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Having lost the technological (and psychological) edge, the Canaanite army suffers a complete defeat, although Sisera leaves his chariot behind and escapes on foot. • Sisera flees east (or west according to Boling 1975:91) and seeks refuge in a Kenite settlement,113 whose clan leader had separated from the main body of Kenites in southern Judah114 and had maintained good terms with Jabin. Sisera’s hostess, however, proves to have Israelite loyalties, and she kills him while he sleeps. The narrator concludes this episode by stating that the Israelite victory signaled an end to Jabin’s domination as well as an end to Hazor’s prominence in the region.115 It is also the last major engagement between Israelite and Canaanite forces. Application: Earlier in our study, we noted that one reason the Israelites failed to conquer the entire land was because Canaanite forces were better equipped: they had iron chariots (Judg 1:19). Here we see that when God assigns a task to His people, He also helps them to accomplish that task no matter how the odds may seem stacked against them. Just before the battle, as Canaanite forces fill the valley below the Israelites’ camp, Deborah says to Barak… Judg 4:14a-b “Go! This is the day the LORD has given Sisera into your hands. Has not the LORD gone ahead of you?”

Likewise, you can go and do whatever God expects, because the LORD has already gone to prepare the way.116 That is something to remember when you meet resistance in your own attempts to do God’s will.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Jael and Sisera by Lambert Lombard (early 16th c.)

Following the account in Judg 4 of Sisera’s defeat by Israelite forces under Deborah and Barak, the narrator appends a poem in Judg 5 that commemorates the event: “The Song of Deborah.”117 It is a victory hymn similar to “The Song of Moses” in Exod 15, which follows the defeat of the Egyptian army at the Red Sea. We will look at the poem here from three different angles to answer three different questions. Some English versions show the difference between the prose of chapter 4 and the poetry of chapter 5 by arranging chapter 5 in separate lines, as they might appear in an English poem (as in the Psalms). Moreover, just as English poetry employs a range of special features, like rhyme and rhythm, features not generally found in prose, so Hebrew poetry employs a range of special features not generally found in Hebrew prose. These special features help a person remember the poem in a way he might not remember the prose. 54

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy For example, here is the prose version of a government report on a work-related accident: Two individuals were seriously injured while attempting to transport a container of water. By not wearing proper work boots and failing to ensure a level egress from the water source, one or both of which might have prevented the accident, these individuals will now be out of work for several weeks while they recover.

While you could probably repeat most of that report, you might not do it word-forword. You would do better with the poetic version: Jack and Jill went up a hill to fetch a pail of water. Jack fell down and broke his crown, and Jill came tumbling after.

The rhythm helps you remember the poetic version word-for-word. Rendering poetry from one language to another presents an especially difficult task for a translator, because he is not just relating what the original author said but how he said it. 118 [X] Assignment: Cundall (1968:91-92) notes that two kinds of parallelism “appear prominently in the Song of Deborah”: synonymous and staircase. In addition to the other observations you make, see how many instances of these you can find.119 Query: How does poetry enhance “The Song of Deborah”? The first angle we will consider in Judg 5 is… • Esthetical—How does the poet phrase the material to catch his readers’ attention, making the story both attractive and memorable?120 Here are three examples, translated and arranged to show their poetic features. • Imagery in v. 20 (personification, treating inanimate objects as if they think and act, alluding here to God’s involvement in the battle)121 From heaven the stars fought; From their courses they fought with Sisera. • Chiasm in vv. 24 (x marks the spot; focusing on a particular element)122 She is most blessed among women, Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite; Among tent women she is most blessed. • Tricolon in v. 27 (recounting a series of actions, here, to give the impression of Sisera’s death in slow motion) Between her feet

he bent, he fell, he slept. 55

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Between her feet

he bent, he fell. Where he bent, there he fell… devastated.

Chapter 5 contains several other features like these that show the author’s care in crafting the poem to make the event memorable for his readers. The second angle and attending question we will consider is… • Historical—What additional details does the poem in chapter 5 provide about the account in the prose section of chapter 4? • What do we learn about military preparedness? • In the prose of chapter 4, what do vv. 5, 7, and 13 identify as the primary military advantage of the Canaanites? (Chariots) • In the poem of chapter 5, v. 8 suggests that the Israelites lacked basic light equipment as well (spears and small shields).123 In other words, the Israelites were not well matched for this battle. • What do we learn about tribal commitment?124 • In the prose of chapter 4, v. 10 mentions only the tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali, which makes sense given the northern location of Hazor, the Canaanite city. The battle, however, took place in the Jezreel Valley, which is bordered by other tribes. Should they not be involved as well? …Did Deborah call them? • In the poem of chapter 5, vv. 14-17 say that several other tribes received the summons, but not all came. Who else came and why or why not? • Some of Ephraim came, perhaps because of its close relationship with Benjamin, or with Deborah herself. • Benjamin came, presumably because it was Deborah’s tribe. • Transjordanian Manasseh (“Machir”) came, because it had a common interest in securing the major east-west route running through the Jezreel Valley. • Issachar came, because its territory included part of the battlefield. • Reuben, Dan, and Asher did not come, perhaps because they were too far away to have any vested interest in that part of the land, or because their seafaring activity associated them too closely with Phoenician and Canaanite interests (Lewis 1979:41).

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Judah, Simeon, and Gad are not called, perhaps because… • They were too far away, or • A Canaanite enclave (Jebus) guarded the north-south ridge route, or • Philistine pressure occupied their attention on the west. In other words, the Israelites were not fully represented in this battle. • What do we learn about divine involvement? • In the prose of chapter 4, v. 15 merely says the LORD routed Sisera’s forces. How did God do that?125 • In the poem of chapter 5, v. 21 hints at the means God may have used to accomplish this feat; namely, a sudden downpour that turned the battlefield to mud and immobilized the chariots. In other words, the Israelites were not on their own at this battle. Chapter 5 provides additional information the account of chapter 4 does not include, details that answer some questions and enable the reader to reconstruct a fuller picture of the event. The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge Deborah

Rebellion

Retribution

4:1 “the Israelites... did evil in the eyes of the LORD”

4:2 “the LORD sold them into the hands of Jabin”

Repentance

Restoration Deliver—Peace

4:3 “the 4:23 “God Israelites subdued cried out to Jabin” the LORD”

5:31c “the land was quiet forty years”

Application: That all the tribes did not participate in the campaign reminds us that we should not be surprised when some of our great ideas receive a cool reception from others. Right or wrong, people generally order their priorities according to self-interest, and if we cannot find some way to appeal to a person’s values, we probably will not get much support no matter how important we think our pet project is.126 Even when the project is part of God’s agenda, as it was here, people may still allow their own agendas to usurp His. If we are confident an activity is something God would sanction, we must not allow the reluctance of others to deter our own involvement.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The third, and potentially troubling, angle we will consider is… • Ethical—Is there anything in the poem that strikes you as being morally suspect? Why is the poet’s treatment of a particular character’s role disturbing? • In Judg 4:9, Deborah states that the LORD will honor [√rap] Jael by delivering Sisera to her instead of to Barak, the Israelite commander.127 • In Judg 5:24, Deborah states that Jael is “most blessed” [√Krb] for tricking Sisera—lying to him—and then killing him. How can the biblical writer praise Jael, a deceiver (and murderer), in light of the clear prohibitions in Torah against lying (e.g., Lev 19:11 “Do not lie”)? …Is lying always wrong, or does God permit it, even promote it, under certain circumstances?128 ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy 6:1-8:35

4.

Gideon (Manasseh) vs. Midianites (40 yrs, c.1110-1070) • Read 6:1-6 •

Unlike other groups in and around Canaan, the Midianites and Amalekites had not settled in any specific territory but generally wandered in the deserts south of Canaan. Occasionally, they ventured further north, looking for suitable pasturage for their flocks. This brought them into conflict with the landed herdsmen and farmers of Israel, who viewed the nomads as locusts, for they would enter an area, eat everything in sight, then move on, leaving nothing behind for the inhabitants.129

M A N A S S E H Jezreel M A N A S S E H Succoth

DAN

EPHRAIM

Ophrah

Penuel G A DJogbehah

BENJAMIN J U D A H

REUBEN

Gaza Karkor S I M E O N

The Midianites usually stayed on the other side of the Jordan130 (south of Moab), and the Amalekites usually dwelled in the Negev,131 but if they thought they could get away with it, they would sweep through Canaan. (Boling attributes the invasion “to new waves of immigration from eastern Anatolia and northern Syria” 1975:122.) Furthermore, both groups had opposed Israel’s passage in the wilderness and had suffered defeat as a result, so they were probably already illdisposed toward God’s people.132 59

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy For seven years, as harvest time approached, the hordes of Midian and Amalek would invade and devastate the land, each time leaving Israel more impoverished and less able to mount a proper defense. In desperation, the Israelites cry out to the LORD, who sends an unnamed prophet to inform them that their dilemma is their own fault.133 God has not left them; they have left God. The Israelites see only the external enemy—invading nomadic tribes. God, however, sees two enemies, one external, outside Israelite society—the nomads—and the other internal, within Israelite society—Baal worship.

Gideon and the Angel of the Lord by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (engraving, 1851-60)

• Read 6:7-10 • Notice how the content of the prophet’s message recalls the opening words of the Decalogue. Exod 20:2 I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery. 3 You shall have no other gods before me.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The prophet also addresses three attractions of Baal worship we studied in a previous lesson. • First, the prophet speaks to the issue of authority, the notion that Canaan is Baal’s turf. • One attraction of Baal worship was the mistaken idea that the LORD is just a local deity, the one who cared for the Israelites in the wilderness not the god of the area where they live now. • But the Lord’s jurisdiction is all-encompassing, not limited by geography or politics. What does the Lord say through the prophet? • Previously, I delivered you from oppression in Egypt (comp Exod 20:2b), and recently, I delivered you from oppressors in Canaan (Arameans, Moabites, Philistines, etc.). • The LORD, not Baal, has authority over His people, ruling wherever they live, including Canaan, but they have rejected Him. • Second, the prophet speaks to the issue of responsibility, the notion that rain is Baal’s thing. • Another attraction of Baal worship was the assumption that because water is the most important resource in Canaan, Israelite farmers had to pay homage to the rain god of Canaan; that deity needs to be their deity. • But Israel already has a God who has proven Himself able to control water.134 What does the Lord say through the prophet? • I am the LORD your God (comp Exod 20:2a). • The LORD, not Baal, assumes the responsibility for His people, providing whatever they need, including rain, but they have rejected Him. • Third, the prophet speaks to the issue of liturgy, the notion that idolatry is Baal’s way. • Yet another attraction of Baal worship was the representation of the deity by an image, something the worshipper could see (and touch), leaving less to the imagination and less to faith. • But God prohibits all such representations, anything a person might use as a visual aid.135 What does the Lord say through the prophet? • I do not want you to worship another god (comp Exod 20:3). • The LORD, not Baal, deserves the devotion of His people in their liturgy, but they have rejected Him. There may be a bit of irony in the prophet’s message, for God essentially says: “You chose Baal, and now you know that he has no particular interest in or concern for his followers.” This is precisely what Moses predicted God would do. Deut 32:36 The LORD will judge his people….37 He will say: “Now where are their gods, the rock they took refuge in, 38 the gods who ate the fat of their sacrifices and drank the wine of their drink offerings? Let them rise up to help you!”136

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Read 6:11-40; 7:1-15 • We do not know how much longer after the prophet’s visit God allows the Israelites to lie in the bed they have made, but eventually He appoints a deliverer in the unlikely person of Gideon. After repeated assurances that the LORD is indeed with him (v. 16a = Exod 3:12)—the angel (6:17-22), the fleece ([2x] 6:36-40), and the dream (7:13-15)—Gideon attacks the invading forces in the Jezreel Valley and drives them back across the Jordan.137 [?] Comment: On “the angel of the LORD” in 6:11138 Some Christian commentators think the angel of the LORD is actually the preincarnate messiah (Wood 1975:231, n. 12).139 They base their claim on two matters: who he is and what he says. • The biblical writers distinguish him from other angels by calling him the angel of the LORD. • The biblical writers make no distinction when he speaks and when the LORD speaks. That is, the angel’s words are essentially God’s words. Therefore, according to this view, the individual must be God himself, specifically, God the son in a pre-incarnate state. Such a view, however, fails in the very areas it claims for support: who he is and what he says. • The definite article here is a necessary function of Hebrew grammar. When two nouns join together in the phrase “x of y” and the second noun is definite—in this case, the LORD—it makes the entire phrase definite: hence, “the angel of the Lord.” In other words, the only outstanding feature about this angel is that he represents the Lord. • The switch back and forth in 6:11-23 between the angel’s speech and the LORD’s speech indicates the representative relationship of the messenger and the one who sent him. “It is in fact characteristic of other narrative contexts, once the emissary from the divine court is introduced, not to distinguish between the speech and actions of the emissary and those of his heavenly sovereign” (Boling 1975:131). Furthermore, sometimes the angel is also an angel in the same context.140 [X] Comment: On “I will be with you” in 6:12 The angel’s statement is a covenant assertion formula that echoes the covenant renewal ceremony, whose observance dates back to patriarchal times.141 Hence, it evokes images of God’s promises and mighty deeds.142 Gideon questions this linkage (v. 13), because God seems uninvolved and perhaps even unconcerned with Israel’s plight. Nevertheless, God reiterates the assertion and, in v. 16, links it to what He will accomplish through Gideon. 62

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy [?] Comment: On renaming in Judges (Eissfeldt 1968) Names generally change because people associate special events with them (e.g., military victory). • Place (GN = geographical noun)143 • Zephath becomes Hormah (= “destruction”), because Judah and Simeon destroyed both the town and its inhabitants. • Laish becomes Dan, because members of the tribe of Dan conquered and settled there. • People (PN = personal noun)144 • Gideon becomes Yerubba‘al (“Let Ba‘al contend”), because he challenged the Canaanite deity by destroying his altar (6:32). Gideon’s new name, Jerub-Baal, may be evidence of religious syncretism (so Boling 1975:135) or of religious ridicule (i.e., of Baal’s impotence). [?] Comment: On large numbers in Judges (Wenham 1967) Critics of the Bible have often appealed to scripture’s use of numbers, especially large numbers like PRlRa (1,000), as proof that writers were embellishing their accounts. In many cases, the numbers are too great for the populations of that day. The problem, however, is more likely that the modern reader is simply unaware of certain ancient conventions in record keeping and of other uses for numerical terms. For example, Judg 6:15 gives a non-numerical use of PRlRa when Gideon says, “My clan is the weakest in Manasseh….” Later in the story, when the writer says that 32 MyIpDlSa rallied to Gideon’s side against the Midianites, it means fighters from 32 clans rather than 32,000 men.145 Query: Why is God so accommodating to Gideon? Given that Gideon receives the unusual guidance earlier of revelation through an angel and later of confirmation through a dream, why does the Lord give him further assurance through the miraculous sign of the fleece, and not just once but twice? What is a sign (twøa 77x),146 and does God always operate this way? While the Hebrew term for sign can refer to what is non-miraculous,147 its most frequent occurrence describes the supernatural events that attended Israel’s exodus from Egypt,148 and that served as proof of God’s involvement. Josh 24:17a It was the LORD our God himself who brought us and our fathers up out of Egypt, from that land of slavery, and performed those great signs before our eyes.

It is that event Gideon has in mind when the angel appears to him as he hides in a winepress. Judg 6:13b-c Where are all his wonders [tOaVlVpˆn] that our fathers told us about when they said, ‘Did not the LORD bring us up out of Egypt?’ But now the LORD has abandoned us and put us into the hand of Midian.”

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy It is probably that event God also has in mind when He responses to Gideon’s question: • Previously, God intended the various manifestations of His power to strengthen Israel’s faith that He would free His people from Egyptian oppression. • Presently, God intends the various manifestations of His power to strengthen Gideon’s faith that He will free His people from Midianite oppression.149 When people’s faith is small and the task before them is great, God may use signs to bolster their confidence in Him. While you should not expect God to work this way, neither should you rule it out. By the same token, if you do not see such signs when you face challenges, do not think that He is unconcerned about you. On the contrary, it may be that He has confidence in you, confidence you will not waver in your commitment to Him, despite the difficult circumstance that you encounter or absent any additional proof that He cares.

Gideon chooses his soldiers by Michiel van der Borch (illumination, 1332)150

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Read 7:16-22 • Gideon’s initial assault, which he makes at night, consists mainly of generating confusion in the enemy camps. The smashing jars, the sudden lights, the blowing trumpets, and the battle cries rouse the Midianites and Amalekites, who realize they are under attack but cannot tell friend from foe in the darkness. Gideon holds his troops on the outskirts of the enemy camp until the invaders begin to flee, at which time he ‘encourages’ their speedy departure from the land. Gideon is an able tactician, and we would certainly not consider him a coward for keeping his forces in reserve rather than charging immediately into the midst of the enemy. His actions in battle show good sense. On another count, however, we may be tempted to chide him for his timidity because, prior to the battle, he keeps questioning if God is really with him. Was Gideon fearful or careful? We might say, “Gideon may be an able commander, but he is obviously not a model of faith,151 or he would not need so many signs.” Right? …Maybe not. Being faithful does not mean being flawless. Furthermore, consider how God repeatedly stacks the deck against him. • First, the angel says: “Go in the strength you have and save Israel out of Midian’s hand…. You will strike down all the Midianites together” (6:14, 16). • We should give Gideon credit that his immediate response is not, “What, all by myself?” Instead, he says, “…give me a sign that it is really [the LORD] talking to me” (6:17).152 • Second, God undermines his support at home by turning the local townspeople against him for destroying their Baal shrine. • It is no wonder he has doubts in the field about God’s support and asks for another sign using “a wool fleece” (6:36-40). • Third, God systematically reduces his forces and leaves Gideon with only “300 men” (7:7)153 to face the hordes of Midian and Amalek.154 • At this point, Gideon does not ask for another sign, but God apparently thinks he can use one and gives it to him.155 The LORD’s point in all of this is that “it is as easy for [Him] to save by few as by many” (Boling 1975:148).156 Gideon does not need more than 300 men. He does not need the support of his hometown. In fact, if God so decided, He could do the job through Gideon alone, because the victory is ultimately God’s responsibility.157 Indeed, God routs the invaders without having Gideon fight at all.158 We see here that when God expects some great step of faith from His people, He provides all the support and encouragement they need which, in Gideon’s case, included these signs. 65

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Rather than questioning Gideon’s faith, we should be grateful for a God who cares enough to reassure those who may be hesitant.159 Gideon is willing to believe, but his own experience with God is too limited to permit such a step of faith unaided. Application: The longer you walk with God, the more your faith in Him grows and the more you can do with the confidence that He will see you through. God needs only subtle means to direct one whose faith is mature or when the task is simple, because that person usually does not require angelic visitations or miraculous signs. Indeed, most people’s experience with God is relatively uneventful in that they witness few, if any, spectacular divine manifestations in their lifetime. The longer this “normalcy” goes on, the more people become accustomed to the ordinary (providential) ways God uses to direct them, be it a casual conversation or the conclusion they reach after praying. When we hear about an individual who has received a ‘word’ from God or has had a vision, we are naturally suspicious because that sort of thing is foreign to our normal experience. Indeed, we should be cautious, because Satan can work wonders as well.160 Nevertheless, God may view the weakness of some person’s faith or the seriousness of some situation as warranting a more unusual divine manifestation. In such a case, we should balance our skepticism with the recognition that God may be doing something that is simply new to us. • Read 8:1-3 • The Ephraimite delegation that meets with Gideon expresses outrage at being excluded from the battle. Did they have some secret weapon they wanted to test, or do they just enjoy fighting? …There are at least two possible reasons for Ephraim’s self-importance and injured pride (Cundall 1968:115). • Its territory was one of the only tribal allotments where the original conquest of the land was complete. • As such, the people had better social cohesion, as well as a stronger geographical position from which to resist Canaanite pressure. • Its territory included the two most prominent (cultic) sanctuaries: Bethel and Shiloh.161 • Consequently, the tribe had a greater claim to religious authority and served as the most likely focal point for a national call to arms. Missing out on the plunder may also have contributed to Ephraim’s displeasure at Gideon’s slight. Gideon’s response, however, illustrates the truth of the sage’s axiom. Prov 15:1a A gentle answer turns away wrath.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Gideon’s deferential reply—“What have I accomplished compared to you?” (v. 2a)—allowed the Ephraimites to save face and avoided a possible civil war—“At this, their resentment against him subsided” (v. 3c).

Gideon punishes the elders of Succoth with thorns and briars (illumination, c. 1450)

• Read 8:4-9 • As Gideon pursues the fleeing invaders back across the river,162 he requests food for his troops from two towns in the Transjordan: Succoth and Peniel. The town elders refuse and suffer Gideon’s wrath when he returns “in triumph” (v. 9, lit. “in shalom”; see Appendix B). These cities are in the territory of Gad and are probably Israelite,163 so why should they not help their relatives against foreign invaders? …What does the story of Ehud suggest regarding the strength of the Transjordanian tribes? The Transjordanian tribes seem too weak to play a role in the Ehud story.164 The narrator says nothing about their resisting Moab’s northward expansion despite the fact that King Eglon had to pass through their territory and maintain supply lines to his forward base at Jericho. Furthermore, when Ehud, the Benjamite, launches a counter attack, he cuts off Moab’s retreat with help from Ephraim, but there is no mention of aid from Gad or Reuben. Therefore, the Transjordanian tribes may have been too weak or not sufficiently united to repel an invading army and, thus, could offer little or no resistance to Moabite forces pushing north. 67

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The reluctance of Succoth and Peniel to help Gideon (vv. 6, 8) may stem from a similar weakness. The elders realize that whether or not Gideon wins, his troops will not remain in the Transjordan to protect their cities from Midianite retaliation for whatever help they give. Gideon interprets the elders’ decision to remain neutral as tacit support for the enemy, and he punishes them accordingly. Was Gideon right or wrong? …We do not know. Because the narrator records the incident without comment, we must be careful about criticizing the morality of Gideon’s actions and not form too firm an opinion one way or another.165 [X] Excursus: The Development of the Alphabet There are two references to writing in Judges. The first, in the Song of Deborah, is uncertain and may be a military term instead (so NIV). Judg 5:14c From Machir captains came down, from Zebulun those who bear a commander’s [lit. “scribe’s”] staff.

The second is from the story of Gideon. Judg 8:14 He caught a young man of Succoth and questioned him, and the young man [rAoÅn] wrote down for him the names of the seventy-five officials of Succoth, the elders of the town.

Some see here an indication of wide-spread literacy, but it is unlikely that an average school boy would be able to list the 75 elders. How likely is it that he would even remember them? …The “young man” may actually be a city official. Nevertheless, the passage does mark Israelite society as literate, and archaeological findings support the contention that literacy extended beyond the scribal caste of city government.166 The relation of this digression to Judges is that excavations at ‘Izbet Sartah,167 a small settlement east of Aphek,168 unearthed an abecedary (alphabet) dating from the period of the Judges (c. 1200) that seems to be a student’s practice tablet. It is the longest Canaanite (Hebrew?) inscription from the 12th century discovered to date. Not only does it provide external confirmation of literacy at this time, and in a relatively rural area (in two scribal hands?), it fills a gap in our knowledge of the alphabet’s development (Demsky 1977, 1978; Kochavi 1977).

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Abecedaries and Development of the Semitic Alphabet

Compare [’] above with [’] in Ugaritic and Canaanite abecedaries. •

It shows what the letters looked like at this time. • This is important because the shapes of letters are one of the primary ways to date inscriptions (and the archaeological sites where they are found). 69

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • •

It shows that the direction people wrote was not fixed. • This scribe wrote left to right. Later inscriptions are almost exclusively right to left. It shows a different order for two of the letters (o-p). • The acrostic in Lamentations has the same two letters reversed, which has long puzzled scholars, but the identical switch in this abecedary suggests there may have been two traditions (a theory that finds support in four 8th century Hebrew abecedaries from Kuntillet ‘Ajrud, a site in the Sinai, south of Kadesh-Barnea; Meshel 1979:31).

Query: Should Gideon’s faults disqualify him for leadership? I mentioned before that Gideon is an unlikely candidate for this job of delivering Israel, because he simply does not have the proper qualifications. • First, Gideon has faults in his background. • He is a nobody. He comes from a relatively poor family and cannot even claim to be a prominent member of that family.169 • He is a pagan, at least in heritage, because his father is in charge of the village shrine to Baal.170 • Second, Gideon has faults in his character. • He is afraid. Before his appointment, he is hiding in a wine press and, after his appointment, he performs his first act of obedience at night “because he was afraid of his family and the men of the town” (6:27). • He is a doubter. He needs repeated assurances that God is with him and that the promised victory is really going to happen. It is obvious that God needs to run better background and character checks on people before He gives them such important assignments, right? …No, what is obvious is that God can overcome faults in background and character. He can accomplish great things in a person’s life, even if the high school yearbook said he would never amount to much. Still, God did require something from Gideon prior to his engaging the enemy…. Gideon had to destroy the altar of Baal before he could defeat the army of Midian. The lesson is that… If you would do great things for God, you must first be wholly devoted to God. Despite Gideon’s apparent unsuitability for the position of judge, God delivers Israel through him, because Gideon is devoted to God. • Read 8:28 •

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge Gideon

Rebellion 6:1a Israelites evil in eyes of LORD”

“the did the the

Retribution

Repentance

6:1b “he gave them into the hands of the Midianites”

6:6 “the Israelites cried out to the LORD”

Restoration Deliver—Peace (6:14 “Am I not sending you?”) 8:28 “Midian was subdued”

8:28b “the land was quiet forty years”

There is a sobering corollary to this relationship between being devoted to God and doing great things for God, that comes at the end of the story. • Read 8:22-27 • Following the expulsion of Midianite forces, Gideon makes a golden ephod (an elaborate vest similar to what the high priest wears) from some of the plunder (v. 27a),171 perhaps to illustrate his proclamation that the LORD would rule over them (v. 23).172 Eventually, the people associate the ephod too closely with the LORD, so that it becomes an object of worship in Israel and a problem for Gideon (v. 27b).173 Furthermore, although it seems that Gideon piously declines the people’s invitation to establish a dynasty (vv. 22-23), he may simply have been following the practice of polite refusal that often precedes delicate negotiations.174 If so, then he is not refusing the kingship but saying that the LORD’s sovereignty will govern his own administration.175 Nevertheless, the context contains several indicators in support of the possibility that Gideon may, indeed, have accepted the position of king. • First, he manufactures an ephod (n. 171), a vestment God commissioned for the high priest.176 • Second, “he had many wives,” also a practice of kings,177 producing “seventy sons,” (8:30), enough to staff a small government (which is evidently the result). • Third, he names one son “Abimelech” (8:31), which means ‘my father [God/Gideon?] is king.’ • Fourth, that son, upon Gideon’s death, wins a struggle against his brothers, apparently over dynastic succession, and has himself crowned as king (albeit over a single city-state).178

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Application: The corollary to the earlier point is that having done great things for God does not guarantee a person will remain wholly devoted to God. Despite Gideon’s fine performance against the Midianites and Amalekites, he fails later in life to maintain the spiritual commitment that won him the victory. The important thing to remember is that God does accomplish great things, and whether or not He chooses to do them through you, your responsibility is always to be wholly devoted to Him. The author of this book ascribes many of the difficulties the people experienced to their turning from God to idols.179 Judg 2:17a …they would not listen to their judges but prostituted themselves to other gods and worshiped them…. 19b They refused to give up their evil practices and stubborn ways.

Earlier, Moses reminded the people about their experience at Sinai, explaining that they were not to make a representation of God, because they saw no representation of God.180 Deut 4:15 You saw no form of any kind the day the LORD spoke to you…. Therefore watch yourselves very carefully, 16 so that you do not become corrupt and make for yourselves an idol, an image of any shape, whether formed like a man or a woman….

Unfortunately, the people thought that worship was better with a visual aid.181 The idolatry in Judges remained a persistent problem for Israel and eventually became a major reason God sends the people into exile.182 Query: Is (literal) idolatry still a problem? The Babylonian exile seems to cure God’s people of idolatry, because there is little evidence of it after their return from captivity.183 Nevertheless, some people thought is best to avoid anything that might appear idolatrous.184 • In the 14th c., a Jewish scribe illuminated a Passover Haggadah with figures that had human bodies and avian heads, so as not to violate the biblical prohibition against making idols in human form.

Bird’s Head Haggadah (by Menahem, Germany c. 1300)

• In 2001, the Taliban government of Afghanistan determined that two, large Buddhist statues, carved into the sandstone of a mountainside, violated the Islamic prohibition against idolatry185 and destroyed them.186 72

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan (2nd-5th c.)

• In recent years, some Christians have objected to the Christmas tree, asserting that it violates the biblical prohibition against idolatry. Jer 10:2 This is what the LORD says: “Do not learn the ways of the nations or be terrified by signs in the sky, though the nations are terrified by them. 3 For the customs of the peoples are worthless; they cut a tree out of the forest, and a craftsman shapes it with his chisel. 4 They adorn it with silver and gold; they fasten it with hammer and nails so it will not totter.

According to this view, the establishment of Christmas at the winter solstice (the shortest day of the year, around Dec 25)187 confirms the pagan roots of this holiday and argues against its observance by Christians.188

O Tannenbaum (21st c.)

Is idolatry still a problem? …How relevant is the ancient precept to the modern practice? How should we make the determination as it pertains to a specific item? …We must bear in mind not just an item’s form but also its function, in particular, its current function. Does the item in question serve as a focus for adoration or a frame for decoration, as an aspect of mystery or an artifact of history? 189 73

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When evaluating the modern use of an ancient artifact, we must consider more than its original purpose. We must take into account how that purpose (or people’s perception of it) may have changed with the passage of time. It is, in fact, possible to invest something with a new and different significance that supercedes its original purpose, especially when the cultural or historical context also changes. There are several examples of such revision within our own religious tradition. Old Artifacts with New Associations • • • •

The text of Ps 29 may originally have been a Canaanite paean to Baal that David revised in praise to the LORD (Sabourin 1974:180-181). The teaching of 1 Cor 15:33 (“Bad company corrupts good character”) was originally from the Greek poet Menander (late 3rd century B.C.), whom Paul quoted to instruct the Corinthian Christians. The tune of “From Heaven Above” (VOM HIMMEL HOCH, 1539) was originally a popular secular melody that Martin Luther chose for this Christmas hymn (LBW #51). The tree of Christmas may originally have been (according to some) a pagan fertility symbol that early 8th century Christians adapted for use in ornamenting the celebration of Jesus’ birth.190

Whatever the profane roots of such things, they have a different significance for people today that has replaced their original purpose. Very few people associate these items with their roots, and few are even aware of them. Similarly, for most westerners, idols have no religious importance.191 They are museum pieces, relics of a bygone age. They may have artistic or historical value, but they are not objects of devotion. Paul’s admonition to “flee from idolatry” (1 Cor 10:14) does not apply to the case of the Christmas tree, because the alleged, cultural context of the ancient audience is different from that of the modern audience.192 ****************

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Death of the sons of Gideon by Gustave Doré (engraving, 1865)

So far, the book of Judges has focused on Israel’s foreign policy, usually as it related to the external pressure God brought to bear because of the nation’s moral vacillation. Chapter 9 offers a glimpse at Israel’s internal affairs. Here we see that the unity people display in the face of a common enemy can break down when there is no longer an outside threat. They are still willing to rally around a military leader, but this time he is not a judge, and they are more concerned about protection against each other. 9:1-57

•

King Abimelech (Manasseh; 3 yrs, c.1085) • Reread 8:22-35 •

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Gideon, the last judge we studied, came from “Ophrah” (Judg 6:11), an Israelite village presumably in the hill country of Manasseh, and he returned there after his successful campaign against the Midianites (vv. 27a, 29).193 His victory brought him both fame and power.194 He must also have been quite wealthy, because he was able to support a large, immediate family (“seventy sons” v. 30). Despite the people’s original suggestion that Gideon establish the first Israelite dynasty, their pledge of loyalty to his house lasted only until his death (v. 35), at which time they returned again to Baal worship (v. 33).195 That spiritual decline is also the only remark the narrator makes for the new administration’s part in… The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge Abimelech

Rebellion

Retribution

Repentance

Restoration Deliver—Peace

(8:33 “the Israelites prostituted themselves to the Baals”)

Whatever advantage Gideon’s sons enjoyed because of their father’s reputation also waned with his passing. Therefore, if they wished to retain political influence, they had to form political alliances of their own. The most ambitious and ruthless of Gideon’s sons was Abimelech.196 • Read 9:1-6 • After his father’s death, Abimelech convinces the leaders of Shechem that he should be their ruler, tugging the strings of both their purse and their heart.

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M A N A S S E H M A N A SThebez S E H Shechem Gerizim, Mt. Arumah

DAN

EPHRAIM

G A D

Ophrah

BENJAMIN REUBEN

J U D A H

S I M E O N What is his platform—his campaign promise and his political appeal? 1. He pledges a vastly reduced bureaucracy: the rule of a single man rather than seventy men (v. 2b). 2. He appeals to ethnic identity, blood ties with them through his mother, who was a citizen of Shechem (v. 2c).197 The leaders agree and give him an advance on his new salary,198 70 shekels of silver199 from the local, temple treasury (v. 4),200 which he uses to hire a private army to deal with his political rivals at Orpah, his 70 step-brothers (vv. 4-5).201 Once he eliminates the competition, Abimelech returns to become king of Shechem. At some point during the coronation, however, the participants hear a lone voice calling from nearby Mount Gerizim (southwest of Shechem). It is Jotham, the only one of Gideon’s sons to escape Abimelech’s purge, and he is telling them a story. 77

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• Read 9:7-21 • What kind of story is it? …It is a fable—Yes, there are fables in the Bible, but that does not mean the Bible is full of fables. In fact, there are only two.202 Query: What is a fable? A fable is a story in which flora and fauna assume human characteristics and abilities such as speech and rational thought. Like a parable, a fable has a single point or moral, and we should not attempt to press the imagery by identifying the details of the story with details in real life (e.g., the three major fruit producers that refused the crown with the three major judges that preceded Abimelech; Terry 1974:265-267). [X] Comment: On the structure of the fable The fable employs a clear and repetitive pattern. 8 The trees were going to anoint a king over them. So they said to the olive tree: “Reign over us!” 9 But the olive tree said to them: “Should I give up my oil, by which gods and men show honor, that I should go to wave over the trees?” 10 Then the trees said to the fig tree: “Come, reign over us!” 11 But the fig tree said to them: “Should I give up my sweet produce that I should go to wave over the trees?” 12 Then the trees said to the grape vine: “Come, reign over us!” 13 But the grape vine said to them: “Should I give up my new wine, which gladdens gods and men, that I should go to wave over the trees?” 14 Then all the trees said to the bramble bush: “Come, reign over us!” 15 But the bramble bush said to the trees: “If you truly anoint me as king over you, come and take refuge in my shade, lest fire go out from the bramble bush and devour the cedars of Lebanon!”

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Jotham uses the bramble’s invitation in v. 15, “come and take refuge in my shade,” to evoke a ridiculous image in the minds of the Shechemite leaders. How so? …A bramble bush is not designed to offer protection against the sun, so it is futile to take refuge in its shade, and it is especially futile for towering trees like the cedars of Lebanon. Furthermore, once they make him king, they are stuck with him (literally), because to reject his “protection” is to evoke his wrath. What is the moral of Jotham’s fable? …The moral is: You get what you pay for.203 The elders of Shechem have made a ruthless man their king, and Jotham says they will suffer for it. Indeed, the people and their new leader deserve each other, for both parties have dishonored the house of Gideon, their benefactor (v. 18). Application: The selection of leaders is an important process. Perhaps if the people of Shechem had been better informed about Abimelech’s character, they would not have been so easily swayed by the arguments of their local councilmen.204 One does not suddenly become the kind of person Abimelech proved to be, and no doubt a little questioning [from the] proper people would have uncovered revealing clues. It is clear that the people of Shechem did not do this, however, but accepted Abimelech too easily and quickly. Within a few months it is certain that they wished they had [inquired further], for they came to regret their choice deeply. (Wood 1975:240)

I sometimes get annoyed at the press for their incessant probing into the private lives of our government officials. At the same time, I must admit that there is value in developing a profile of an individual based not only on his public record or pronouncements but also on certain private matters. Such a profile can help us evaluate his suitability for office by showing how he makes decisions or how he responds to pressure. Choosing officials is an important task, one we should make from an informed position, lest they lead us in the wrong direction. Jotham’s word is prophetic. Three years later the people turn against Abimelech, actively challenging his control in the region. Control over what?205 • Read 9:22-25 • Abimelech would have had charge of protecting the major north-south route that runs through the central hill country and the pass leading west to the coast between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim. Naturally, he would exact a toll from travelers for this service in order to finance his operation. With support from the residents of Shechem, he could concentrate his efforts on the occasional highwaymen. Without that support or facing outright opposition, the task of monitoring trade would be considerably more difficult.206 • Read 9:26-29 • 79

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Resistance from Abimelech’s original base of support places the legitimacy of his rule in question. The Shechemites probably realize that a showdown is inevitable, so they fix their hope on Gaal (√log = to loath), a political rival who claims to have even closer blood ties to the city than Abimelech. Gaal traces his lineage back to the clan of Hamor, the city’s Canaanite founders,207 which indicates that Shechem is not exclusively Israelite.208 Moreover, Gaal boasts that he could defeat Abimelech in combat (v. 29).209 Abimelech still has some support on the city council and receives word of Gaal’s plans. Abimelech waits outside the walls of the city and ambushes Gaal’s forces, driving them out of Shechem. The citizens of the city assume the matter is closed, and the next day they go out to the fields to conduct their business as usual (or to check the damage), but Abimelech is not disposed to drop the issue. He attacks the city and destroys it,210 including the fortress-temple of Baal-Berith/ElBerith (= Beth Millo of 9:6, 20; so Boling 1975:171).211 Abimelech then attacks Thebez (= Tirzah), six miles northeast of Shechem, presumably because the people there were in league with the Shechemites against him. (Tirzah lies off the main north-south route but guards a pass east to the Jordan Valley.) The assault breaks off, though, when Abimelech dies in battle (9:55). In previous accounts, we have seen outside forces war against Israel. To what should we attribute this blot on the nation’s history, when the people fight against each other? What clues does the narrator provide as a reason for this behavior? • First, the Israelites returned to Baal worship immediately after Gideon’s death (8:33a). • They made Baal-Berith (= Baal of the covenant, a local deity) their god (8:33b) and “did not remember the LORD their God, who had rescued them from the hands of all their enemies on every side” (8:33-34). • They also did not show dRsRj—a Hebrew term that denotes covenant loyalty—to Gideon’s house (8:35). • Second, the citizens of Shechem used the proceeds collected at this pagan shrine to finance Abimelech’s political campaign (9:4). • Third, the people succumb to another attraction of Baal worship, evident in the behavior of the various parties,212 an attraction we did not cover before. We talked about the authority, responsibility, and liturgy of Baal, but here we get some sense of the morality of Baal, the notion that selfishness is Baal’s drive, which stands in stark contrast to the selfless, even sacrificial, standards of scripture (n. 42).213

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy This lack of ethics is evident in the despicable behavior of Abimelech and the Shechemites toward each other. If loyalty to their mutual commitments does not bring them satisfaction, then the principle of expediency—“Do whatever is good for you!”—allows them to take whatever measures they deem appropriate to get what they want. Baal imposes no moral constraints to do otherwise. Application: One of the most important aspects of a relationship with the true God is the moral guidelines He gives His people. Torah distinguished the Israelites from the nations around them, at least when they obeyed it. That is not to say pagans were without ethics. We have examples of great law codes from ancient civilizations (e.g., Hammurabi) as well as highly developed judicial systems (e.g., contracts, wills), but those legal strictures take second place to self-interest and do not entail the inner transformation that accompanies a relationship with God. What is it that distinguishes you from your unbelieving neighbor? …In part, it is that you choose to conform your behavior to the guidelines God has established, because you recognize that they are in your best interest. As such, certain actions and reactions are simply not part of your lifestyle. The story of Abimelech illustrates life based on another principle, and we could all add examples from our own experience—both positive and negative—experience that demonstrates the value of adhering to the ethical system God has provided. When was the last time that system helped you to make the right decision? …When was the last time you thanked God for His law? [X] Excursus: The Extent of the Monarchy Abimelech was king in Israel (although never of Israel) and, as such, we can compare him to other kings. How was his reign similar to and different from the next king, Saul, and from Saul’s successor, David? • They were similar in that… • All three men started with less than full support in Israel.214 • Abimelech began with the support of his mother’s clan. • Saul probably had real support only from Benjamin, his tribe, at least until the first crisis of his administration. • David, likewise, had only Judah’s support at first. • All three men based their administration in or near their hometown. • Abimelech’s was in “Ophrah” (Judg 9:5). • Saul’s was in “Gibeah” (1 Sam 10:26). • David’s was in “Hebron” (2 Sam 2:11). • All three men began with a small private army. • Abimelech hired “reckless adventurers, who became his followers” (Judg 9:4). 81

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Saul had “valiant men whose hearts God had touched” (1 Sam 10:26). • David attracted “those who were in distress or in debt or discontented” (1 Sam 22:2).215 • All three men encountered divine opposition during their reign. • Abimelech’s relationship with Shechem suffered when “God sent an evil spirit” (9:23). • Saul’s mental health suffered when “an evil spirit from the LORD tormented him” (1 Sam 16:14). • David’s people suffered when the LORD used Satan to incite David “against them” (2 Sam 24:1).216 • Abimelech was different from Saul and David in that… • Only Abimelech became king on his own initiative.217 • He approached the leaders of Shechem and suggested that he take the crown. • Saul was approached by Samuel and resisted taking the crown. • David was approached by Samuel and resisted taking the crown. • Only Abimelech ruled a domain smaller than a single tribe.218 • He ruled just Shechem and its vicinity. • Saul ruled all Israel, although he lost Judah’s support in the end. • David ruled Judah and eventually all Israel. • Abimelech and Saul were different from David in that… • Only David served God.219 • Abimelech was probably a Baal worshipper. • Saul repeatedly disobeyed God. • David alone was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (1 Sam 13:14) who did “what was just and right for all his people” (2 Sam 8:15). • Only David led a united Israel at his death.220 • Abimelech never ruled more than his own tribe. • Saul lost Judah’s support when he began to persecute David. • David alone left a kingdom united. • Only David established a dynasty.221 • Abimelech left no known heir. • Saul’s son succeeded him just briefly. • David’s descendants continue as legitimate heirs to the monarchy. • Only David finished the conquest.222 • Abimelech fought just fellow Israelites. • Saul fought the Philistines but did not defeat them. • David subdued all the hostile forces around him.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy [?] Excursus: The Social Structure of Israel We tend to think of Israel only in terms of tribes, but there were smaller units as well that competed for the loyalty of their members. Two such units appear in this section.223 • V. 1 mentions the “clan” (NIV) of Abimelech’s mother (lit. “the brothers of his mother”). • V. 5 mentions the house of Abimelech’s father. The story of Achan’s sin in Josh 7, though, provides a more complete structural description. Josh 7:16 Early the next morning Joshua had Israel [amphictyony l)randy] come forward by tribes [fRbEv], and Judah was taken. 17 The clans [hDjDÚpVvIm] of Judah came forward, and he took the Zerahites. He had the clan of the Zerahites come forward by families [tˆyA;b, actually present only in v. 18], and Zimri was taken. 18 Joshua had his family come forward man by man [rRb‰…g], and Achan son of Carmi, the son of Zimri, the son of Zerah, of the tribe of Judah, was taken.224

The Social Structure in Israel Tribe [fRbEv] ! " Clan [hDjDÚpVvIm] ! Family [tˆyA;b] !" [rRb‰…g] [rRb…g‰ ] Man Man

Clan [hDjDÚpVvIm] "

!

Family [tˆyA;b] !" [rRb‰…g] [rRb‰…g] Man Man

Family [tˆyA;b] !" [rRb‰…g] [rRb‰…g] Man Man

" Family [tˆyA;b] !" [rRb‰…g] [rRb‰…g] Man Man

By recognizing these various units, we can understand some of the internal politics at work in the stories of Judges. • A judge from one tribe may appeal for help from other tribes, especially if an oppressor is too strong for his tribe to overcome.225 • Ehud of Benjamin appealed to his northern neighbor Ephraim for help against the Moabites. • Deborah of Benjamin appealed to Zebulun’s neighbors for help against the Canaanites. • Gideon of Manasseh appealed to Naphtali, Asher, and Ephraim for help against the Midianites. 83

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Nevertheless, the confederation is not a tightly knit organization, and selfinterest more than common lineage often dictates tribal participation in joint actions.226 • All the tribes Deborah summoned did not come. • Ephraim challenged Gideon when he held that tribe’s forces in reserve. • A judge may use troops from his own (extended) family as the core of his army.227 • Gideon first mustered Abiezrite soldiers from his father’s house. • Personal loyalty is strongest at the bottom of the social structure, as is most evident here in chapter 9.228 • Abimelech makes a successful appeal to the blood ties he has with the Shechemites through his mother’s clan to gain their support against his half brothers. • Gaal makes a successful appeal to the blood ties he has with the Shechemites through his father’s house (a smaller unit than clan) to gain their support against Abimelech. Israel is not a nation during the period of the judges and does not become a nation until David’s time. Unfortunately, that unity is short-lived, for the tribal confederation splits in two following Solomon’s reign. Nevertheless, the day is coming when the various factions will unite under one head. God speaks of that time through Ezekiel, and if we were not familiar with the crisis Israel would face at that time, namely the Babylonian exile, we might think the prophet is addressing the very conditions we see in Judges. Listen. Ezek 37:21…This is what the Sovereign LORD says: “…22 I will make [the Israelites] one nation in the land, on the mountains of Israel. There will be one king over all of them and they will never again…be divided….23 They will no longer defile themselves with their idols and vile images or with any of their offenses, for I will save them from all their sinful backsliding, and I will cleanse them. They will be my people, and I will be their God. 24…They will follow my laws and be careful to keep my decrees….28a Then the nations will know that I the LORD make Israel holy….”

The story of Abimelech is the account of a power struggle within Israel in which neither side wins. By the end of the chapter, two cities lie in ruins, and the combatants who survive simply go home (v. 55). The writer concludes by saying: “Thus God repaid the wickedness” of the two factions (vv. 56-57)—not a very cheerful or rousing finale. It illustrates that people really do get what they deserve, sometimes immediately—a frightening prospect. It also reminds us, though, that sometimes the only thing capable of easing tensions between groups or individuals is their commitment to an ethic that does not simply allow them to do as they please. 84

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Application: God has given quite a detailed ethical system to govern your relationships with each other. You could probably quote several relevant precepts from memory, and the expediency clause of the Baal cult—“Just do what’s best for you”—would be conspicuously absent. It is hard to practice God’s system, though, when you are in the middle of an argument with your spouse or your kid or your friend. There is such a temptation to apply the pagan expediency clause. That is when it becomes obvious whose ethical system you have adopted: God’s or someone else’s. ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The story of Abimelech and his abortive attempt to establish a dynasty in Israel concludes the first group of judges. The second group begins with short accounts of two minor judges: Tola and Jair.229 B. Second group ......................................... 10:1-16:31 10:1-2 • Tola (Issachar; 23 yrs) • Read 10:1-2 • As in the description of Shamgar (3:31), the story of Tola picks up with the conditions prevailing when the last judge died—in this case, Gideon. (His son, Abimelech, was not a judge.) Judg 8:33 says that no sooner did Gideon die than “the Israelites again prostituted themselves to the Baals” and, because Tola begins where Gideon leaves off, there is no need to repeat the charge here in chapter 10.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

M A N A S S E H

Kamon?

M A N A S S E H

DAN

G A GILEAD D

EPHRAIM BENJAMIN

REUBEN

J U D A H

S I M E O N

The narrator provides few details about the life of Tola. What little information he does offer enables us to piece together only a brief sketch.230 • He followed the three-year reign of Abimelech (cf. 9:22), a period when Israel had no judge. • He came from the tribe of Issachar, but lived and died in (Shamir = Samaria, less than 10 miles northwest of Shechem) Ephraim (Boling 1975:187), which meant that he probably had to deal with the legacy of Abimelech’s administration (Wood 1975:276, n. 31). 87

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy 3. He was a judge in both capacities of that office. • He began his career as a military leader, although the enemy is nameless. Presumably, it was whatever pagan neighbor God used to discipline His people. • After saving Israel, Tola continued to serve as a judicial arbitrator for 23 years. The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge Tola

Rebellion

Retribution

(8:33 “the Israelites prostituted themselves to the Baals”)

Repentance

Restoration Deliver—Peace 10:1 “rose to save Israel”

*****************************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy 10:3-5

•

Jair (Manasseh-Gilead; 22 yrs) • Read 10:3-5 •

After Tola, the details again are few and allow only a partial reconstruction for the life of Jair, the next judge (same map). 1. He follows Tola’s 23-year term, providing both continuity with the previous administration and regional stability, at least for the central areas on both sides of the Jordan. 2. He is a wealthy land owner from Gilead, whose family has extensive holdings in the Transjordan, and he is the first judge from that region. 3. He is also the first judge not to engage in military ventures and seems only to serve Israel in the judicial role of his office, which he holds for 22 years. [?] Comment: On the role of judges Let us step back up for a moment and make some general observations about the place of these judges in the period. We noted already that at the end of chapter 8, Israel turns to Baal after Gideon’s death. In all the previous episodes, God used a foreign power to punish the Israelites for their apostasy, but after Gideon, God seems to let them be the source of their own punishment through Abimelech, at least in the hill country of Manasseh. Elsewhere, God apparently uses the traditional method, for Tola, the next judge, “rose to save [√ovy] Israel” (10:1), a phrase that refers to military activity.231 Two details are missing at this point: one we can supply with some confidence, and another we can only guess. • First, the name of the oppressor is unknown. The narrator does not identify the foreign power that God uses to humble His people before Tola’s appointment. Because the Jezreel Valley lies in the middle of Issachar’s territory, the Canaanite cities there may be causing trouble (e.g., Megiddo, Taanach, Ibleam, Beth-shean),232 but we cannot be sure. • Second, the repentance of Israel is unstated, yet according to the repeating cycle in Judges, we can safely assume that Israel does cry out to God at some point prior to Tola’s advent. What is particularly interesting is that for the first time, Israel apparently does not forsake God after a judge dies. The description of Jair’s tenure does not begin with the all too familiar phrase: “and the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD,” nor do we read that Jair arose “to save Israel.” There is no oppressor. Instead, there is a peaceful transition from one administration to the next. 89

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge

Rebellion

Retribution

Repentance

Jair

Restoration Deliver—Peace (10:3 “led Israel”)

It is possible to disrupt the cycle in Judges, even if only temporarily. All it requires is maintaining a commitment to the Lord. While everyone in Israel probably did not remain faithful, a substantial number did not turn to Baal after Tola died, sparing the population as a whole from disruptive elements, both foreign and domestic, that God uses to discipline His people. While the trend does not continue after Jair’s death—when “[a]gain the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD” (10:6a)—it does demonstrate that the cycle is not a vicious one, that it is possible to turn things around by turning to God. Application: The same is true for you. Going your own way instead of God’s way does not improve life. It only makes you vulnerable to forces that could disrupt and even destroy you. Only turning back to God, surrendering to His will can restore order to life, the assured presence of the only one who cares for you and controls your destiny, guaranteeing your success and your security. ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy While the administration of Jair, the previous judge, was not troubled by apostasy or invasion, our euphoria is short-lived, because the next section begins with those familiar, fateful words. • Read 10:6-14 • 10:6-12:7

1.

Jephthah (Manasseh-Gilead) vs. Ammonites (6 yrs, c.1070-1065)

These opening verses should sound uncomfortably familiar: • They are similar to the LORD’s response the last time the people went apostate, in chapter 6. [X] Judg 6:7 When the Israelites cried out to the LORD because of Midian, 8 he sent them a prophet, who said, “This is what the LORD, the God of Israel, says: I brought you up out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery. 9 I snatched you from the power of Egypt and from the hand of all your oppressors. I drove them from before you and gave you their land. 10 I said to you, ‘I am the LORD your God; do not worship the gods of the Amorites, in whose land you live.’ But you have not listened to me.”

• They also recall Moses’ warning before the people entered Canaan. [?] Deut 32:36 The LORD will judge his people….37 He will say: “Now where are their gods, the rock they took refuge in, 38 the gods who ate the fat of their sacrifices and drank the wine of their drink offerings? Let them rise up to help you! Let them give you shelter!”

Application: It is possible to get ourselves in such a fix that, when we ask the LORD for help, His answer is: “You made your bed; now lie in it!” God does not promise deliverance the moment we call out, nor does He promise deliverance on our terms. Does that mean God has forsaken us? (No.) What does it mean? …He may want some tangible evidence of repentance, or He may want us to reflect a while on the seriousness of our offense. Perhaps then we will think twice before repeating it. Does there ever come a time when He says: “You’ve blown it once too often. You’re on your own now. I’ll have nothing to do with you”? If a person persists in rejecting God, God will eventually give up on him and may even confirm that person in his rebellion.233 But, God will never turn away from a person who truly repents. In this Judges passage, though, there is another, perhaps more important lesson. • Read 10:15-16 • 91

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy What do the Israelites do? …They back up their words with action, and God will never give up on those who truly repent and commit themselves to His care. No matter how bad it is or how bad it seems to be—and what the Israelites were doing was in direct and flagrant violation of God’s revealed will—even so, God will always heed the cry of anyone who sincerely repents.234 [Repeat] [?] Excursus: Prayer in the Bible (generally) and in Judges (especially) • Forms of prayer The Bible records three kinds of prayer, all of which were used in ancient Israel and all of which appear in Judges.235 They differ in their content and structure, ranging from the informal to the formal (Greenberg 1983:45-46).236 The most common types include… • Free prayer (e.g., “Help!”; Samson’s petition in…) Judg 15:18 You have given your servant this great victory. Must I now die of thirst and fall into the hands of the uncircumcised?”

• This is a spontaneous cry for help (e.g., “Water!”). • Patterned prayer (e.g., congregational prayer; Israel’s petition in…) Judg 10:15 We have sinned. Do with us whatever you think best, but please rescue us now.

Three steps are evident in this prayer after eighteen years of oppression under Philistia and Ammon. • Step #1: Recognition • The supplicant establishes a point of identification or agreement with God on which to base his appeal, including, when relevant, a confession of guilt:237 “We have sinned.” • Step #2: Resignation • If the supplicant has sinned, he asks for a restoration of fellowship (reconciliation), renouncing any repetition of his misdeed and trusting (surrendering) his future to God: “Do with us whatever you think best.” • Step #3: Request • The supplicant then states his petition, which is usually an appeal for divine aid:238 “Please rescue us now.” • Ritualized prayer (e.g., benediction; Deborah’s praise in…) Judg 5:24 Most blessed of women be Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, most blessed of tent-dwelling women. 25 He asked for water, and she gave him milk; in a bowl fit for nobles she brought him curdled milk. 26 Her hand reached for the tent peg, her right hand for the workman's hammer. She struck Sisera, she crushed his head, she shattered and pierced his temple. 27 At her feet he sank, he fell; there he lay. At her feet he sank, he fell; where he sank, there he fell—dead…. 31 So may all your enemies perish, O LORD! But may they who love you be like the sun when it rises in its strength.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • We have already noted some of the literary devices Deborah uses to compose her poem (e.g., parallelism, chiasmus, tricolon). Free and patterned prayers are for particular situations, and the specific content of such prayers makes them non-recyclable. They are appropriate to one set of circumstances only. Ritualized prayer, on the other hand, is usually the work of skilled poets, but the general nature of its content makes it suitable for anyone who wants something appropriate to use in worship. From these and other occurrences, we can derive several… • Lessons of prayer. • Prayer is not the exclusive domain of experts; anyone can pray.239 It is as much the practice of common people240—like most of the examples in Judges—as it is of religious professionals.241 • Prayer comes in several forms, and the appropriateness of a particular form depends on the circumstances. • When the situation is especially urgent, or one’s emotions demand immediate outlet, free prayer is the most natural and readily available means of expression (e.g., “Water!”). • When a situation in not urgent, and there is time for reflection, patterned prayer—which often borrows from existing prayers—offers an orderly and reverent way of approaching God. • When there is time for careful reflection, and one has the necessary literary skills, ritualized prayer—the kind that appears in the Psalms— can be a special offering to God as well as a vehicle for others to pray. • Prayer, especially petitionary prayer, often appeals to God’s self-interest, such as His character (that He is forgiving) or His plan (that He will ensure victory over sin) in order to elicit His response. • Prayer is essentially a matter of the heart; it does not require special training. The mere fact that scripture contains examples of artless, unconventional, spontaneous prayer—which God hears and answers242— indicates that a person’s motive is more important than his method.243 Nevertheless, method is important, and one must not be careless or presumptuous when approaching the sovereign of the universe.244 [?] Of the three basic forms of prayer—free, patterned, and ritualized—what kind of prayer is in… 1 Chr 4:10 Jabez cried out to the God of Israel, “Oh, that you would bless me and enlarge my territory! Let your hand be with me, and keep me from harm so that I will be free from pain.” And God granted his request.

This is an example of free prayer: specific, spontaneous…and non-recyclable. 93

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

In 2000, Bruce Wilkinson (founder of Walk Thru the Bible Ministries) wrote The Prayer of Jabez: Breaking Through to the Blessed Life (Portland: Multnomah Press), an inspirational and international bestseller.245 Wilkinson says (p. 86), I challenge you to make the Jabez prayer for blessing part of the daily fabric of your life. To do that, I encourage you to follow unwaveringly the plan outlined here for the next thirty days. By the end of that time, you'll be noticing significant changes in your life, and the prayer will be on its way to becoming a treasured, lifelong habit.

Query: Should you adopt the prayer of Jabez? Should believers make this petition a regular practice with the expectation that God will respond to them as He responded to Jabez? …This notion is similar to another popular trend, known variously as the “Health and Wealth (or Prosperity) Gospel” and the “Name It and Claim It” approach to prayer, both of which assert that God wants you to be financially successful (even affluent) and that by faith you can realize God’s abundant material blessing. Along with the theological problems that attend such a notion,246 this practice violates two principles of biblical interpretation. The first principle is… • Do not base doctrine on a narrative passage. Narrative or historical passages provide an accurate account of the events they record, but they do not necessarily offer reliable or applicable instruction about doctrine. For faith and practice we must rely on didactic texts, those the biblical authors intended for teaching, lest we misinterpret and misapply what is written.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • For example, failing to recognize this distinction could make Jesus’ admonition to one discipleship candidate a prerequisite for all disciples.247 Matt 19:21 …sell your possessions and give to the poor…. Then come, follow me.

Jesus’ instruction (total divestiture) in this story was for this individual only. There is no evidence that Jesus intended it for other disciples, let alone all disciples. Do not base doctrine on a narrative passage. The second principle is… • Do not base doctrine on a single passage.248 A proper understanding of what God has revealed in His word must consider the whole counsel of scripture. Focusing on one passage to the neglect of others will give an unbalanced and potentially faulty view of what He intends. • For example, failing to consider the full range of Jesus’ instruction could assume his prohibition of criticism in one verse is a ban on all criticism. Matt 7:1 Do not judge, or you too will be judged.

Is Jesus condemning criticism (or critical thinking)? …No, only the superficial or careless kind,249 as is clear in something else he said. John 7:24 Stop judging by mere appearances, and make a right judgment.

What Jesus (or any biblical author) states in one place is not necessarily all he has to say on a matter. Do not base doctrine on a single passage. Making the prayer of Jabez normative for Christians violates both these interpretive principles. First… • It is a narrative passage. The biblical writer records the experience of this saint, which is certainly positive, but does not suggest, as Wilkinson does, that it should be a practice for all believers.250 Second… • It is a single passage.251 The Bible includes several other passages that present a different perspective, advocating for us a broader and more nuanced position; whereas Wilkinson’s focus on one passage leaves no room for alternatives, suitable to varying situations.252 Prayer is neither formulaic nor automatic, where a particular wording guarantees a particular response.253 We must develop a “Competence in Prayer”254 according to the protocols God has established for those who seek an audience with Him.255 These protocols require more than repeating, even sincerely, the (free) prayer of another. In other words, you should not adopt the prayer of Jabez. • Reread 10:6-7 • 95

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy In response to Israel’s apostasy, God had allowed the Philistines to pressure the Cisjordanian tribes and allowed the Ammonites to pressure the Transjordanian tribes.256 Sidon

A R A M

Kedesh

M A N A S S E H

M A N A S S E H

Zaphon Jabbok R.

DAN

EPHRAIM Mizpah

BENJAMIN

G A GILEAD D

A M M O N

Abel-keramim? Heshbon

REUBEN

J U D A H

Jahaz(ah)?

Aroer

Arnon R.

S I M E O N

MOAB

There is no evidence that they coordinated their efforts, only that they took advantage of Israel’s divided attention. The Ammonites are apparently the greater threat, for they cross the Jordan to harass the western tribes as well.257 After eighteen years, Ammon decides to make a more ambitious bid for territorial control and masses its troops at Mizpah preparation for the actual conquest of E D in O M Israelite holdings. To this point, the Ammonites seem to have been satisfied with occasional raids designed to weaken Israel’s defenses and steal Israel’s resources. 96

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Their present action, however, represents an escalation of the conflict. What are they after and why? The Transjordan tribes realize that they must act or lose their land and control of, even access to, the King’s Highway.258 In desperation, they call for a military commander, promising that the candidate will continue to lead them even in peace time. No one comes forward to fill the post, so the elders decide to recruit someone. They have heard about a man named Jephthah, once from Gilead, who now lives in Tob and has a small private army (perhaps protecting residents there from Ammonite raids; Wood 1975:281).259 Years earlier, his brothers drove him out of Gilead in a dispute over inheritance rights, but that conflict pales in comparison to the danger Israel presently faces, so the elders attempt to persuade Jephthah to return with them to Mizpah. • Read 11:5-11 • After taking the oath of office (for both civilian and military roles; v. 11), Jephthah sends messengers to the enemy king, ostensibly to learn why the Ammonites are embarking on this campaign. Here is the only record in Judges of diplomacy between Israel and one of its neighbors. Does Jephthah really not know the king’s intentions, does he hope to negotiate a peaceful settlement (so Wood 1975:286), or is he merely buying time to organize his forces? …The narrator does not say. • Skim 11:12-28 • What is the Ammonite king’s grievance, and how does Jephthah respond? Which side has the stronger case? • King: Israel stole this land (“from the Arnon to the Jabbok” v. 13) from the Ammonites. • Jephthah: Israel won this land (“from the Arnon to the Jabbok” v. 22) from the Amorites260 (= a technicality). Furthermore… • He cites international law on the spoils of war: “We won this land fair and square” (vv. 23-25). • He cites the statute of limitations on such claims: “You waited 300 years, far too long to press your case” (v. 26; = support for “early date” of Exodus). • He appeals to divine arbitration: “May the LORD judge between you and me” (v. 27).

97

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The Ammonite king, though, is not concerned with legalities (v. 28). Militarily, his position is stronger, having already subjugated Israel “[f]or eighteen years” (10:8). Nevertheless, God gives the Israelites victory.261 • Read 11:29-33 • From Mizpah (v. 29),262 Jephthah routs the Ammonite forces and lays waste several of their cities (= border fortresses, so Boling 1975:208; Wood 1975:284) “from Aroer to the vicinity of Minnith, as far as Abel Keramim” (v. 33). The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge Jephthah

Rebellion 10:6 Israelites evil in eyes of LORD”

“the did the the

Retribution

Repentance

10:7 “he sold them into the hands of the Philistines and the Ammonites”

10:10 “the Israelites cried out to the LORD”

Restoration Deliver—Peace 11:33 “Israel subdued Ammon” (12:7 “led Israel”)

Before the battle, Jephthah makes a vow, and after the battle, Jephthah is prepared to fulfill his vow. The opportunity to do so, however, is not at all what he expects.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Iron Age Pillared House (1200-1000)

The typical construction of early Israelite houses suggests that Jephthah thought he would see one of his animals first. When he returns home, however, it is his daughter who rushes to greet him. • Read 11:34-35 •

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Jephthah returns from victory and meets his daughter, by Francois Maitre (miniature, c. 1475)

Excursus: The Use of Oaths and Vows in Israel263 Oaths and vows are important features of ancient Israelite society. While both forms of speech appear in Judges and may even be used together,264 they are not the same thing. • An oath (hDlDa √obv) is a special appeal that strengthens the credibility of a statement, and is separate from the assertion it supports. • Oaths are obligatory in certain legal matters.265 For example: • If someone is suspected of stealing another’s property entrusted to his care, he may certify his innocence “by taking an oath before the LORD” (Exod 22:11) to that effect, and the other party must accept it.266 • In the NT, Caiaphas wanted Jesus to certify his messianic identity with an oath. Matt 26:63b The high priest said to him, “I charge you under oath by the living God: Tell us if you are the Christ, the Son of God.”

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Oaths have religious significance, because they invoke confirmation by God. They request His involvement in the legal process. • The common formulaic expression, “as the LORD lives” (hÎwh◊y_yAj), calls on God to witness the statement that (usually) follows. • After captured Midianite commanders identified some of the people they killed, Judg 8:19 Gideon replied, “Those were my brothers, the sons of my own mother. As surely as the LORD lives, if you had spared their lives, I would not kill you.”

• The special legal clause, “may the LORD judge between you and me” (ÔKy‰nyEbw… yˆnyE;b hÎwh◊y fOÚpVvˆy), is both a call for divine adjudication and an expression of one party’s certainty that he will win the case if it comes before the heavenly bar. • After Jephthah questions the elders’ resolve to make him judge, they reply with a variation of this expression. Judg 11:10b The LORD is our witness [lit. “May the LORD hear (the case) between us”]; we will certainly do as you say.

• Jephthah uses the same oath formula when concluding his argument to the king of Ammon. Judg 11:27 I have not wronged you, but you are doing me wrong by waging war against me. Let the LORD, the Judge, decide the dispute this day between the Israelites and the Ammonites.

• For even greater emphasis, an oath can invoke a curse, calling on God to punish the speaker if he is not truthful or if he reneges on his word.267 • The Israelites use a different oath-curse to prevent any of them from helping in Benjamin’s recovery. Judg 21:1 The men of Israel had taken an oath [√obv] at Mizpah: “Not one of us will give his daughter in marriage to a Benjamite.” …18 …we Israelites have taken this oath [√obv]: ‘Cursed [r…wrDa] be anyone who gives a wife to a Benjamite.’

Definition: An oath is a plea to God that reinforces the truth of a (separate) statement. On the other hand… • A vow (r®d‰n) is a solemn promise to do something, and is part of the assertion it supports. • Vows are optional (except in the case of a life-long Nazirite), but they are binding.268 • Vows also have religious significance, because they entail a pledge to God. For example: 101

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • A person may promise to make an offering if God will supply a certain need or in order to mark a special period of consecration.269 • Jephthah vows to offer whatever he encounters at his homecoming, if he returns victorious. Judg 11:30 And Jephthah made a vow to the LORD: “If you give the Ammonites into my hands, 31 whatever comes out of the door of my house to meet me when I return in triumph from the Ammonites will be the LORD’s, and I will sacrifice it as a burnt offering.”

• In the NT, Paul makes a Nazirite vow of dedication after God delivers him in Corinth.270 Definition: A vow is a pledge to God that commits the speaker to some action (usually to make an offering).271 In Jesus’ day, people are misusing oaths and vows. Some use an oath to circumvent the truth. They think that changing their words eliminates their obligation to be straightforward in their speech. Matt 5:34 But I tell you, Do not swear at all: either by heaven, for it is God’s throne; 35 or by the earth, for it is his footstool; or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the Great King. 36 And do not swear by your head, for you cannot make even one hair white or black.

Such word-parsing fools no one, least of all, God. It is better to avoid oaths than to abuse them. Matt 5:37a Simply let your ‘Yes’ be ‘Yes,’ and your ‘No,’

Some use a vow to circumvent the law. They think that devoting their wealth to God—a legal fiction that supposedly transfers ownership—eliminates their obligation to be supportive of their parents. Matt 15:5 …you say that if a man says to his father or mother, ‘Whatever help you might otherwise have received from me is a gift devoted [or ‘vowed’] to God,’ 6 he is not to ‘honor his father’ with it. Thus you nullify the word of God for the sake of your tradition.

Such legal machination also fools no one, least of all God. It is better to obey the law than to circumvent it. Oaths and vows are not bad, for God gives instruction on their use, but people must adhere to them, not alter or avoid them.272 What makes our use of an oath or a vow so serious is that we recognize it makes us accountable to God.

102

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Comment: On possibilities for Jephthah’s vow However rash we may think Jephthah is to vow in the first place, he recognizes his responsibility to fulfill it.273 The text does not make clear, though, what that fulfillment entailed. There are two main possibilities for how Jephthah may have satisfied his obligation: sacrifice or service. • Sacrifice • Had Jephthah met one of his animals, he would have offered it as a sacrifice, and he said as much.274 Judg 11:31 whatever comes out [Gh50 aExwø¥yAh] of the door of my house to meet me…I will sacrifice it [H24.0 …whItyIlSoAh] as a burnt offering. • Therefore, he may have assumed this was God’s will and sacrificed his daughter, just as Abraham was ready to do God’s will and sacrifice his son.275 • The shocking nature of the event would account for the traditional commemoration that continued in Israel at least until the time of the narrator. Judg 11:39b From this comes the Israelite custom 40 that each year the young women of Israel go out for four days to commemorate the daughter of Jephthah the Gileadite.276

• Service • On the other hand, God forbids child sacrifice277 but allows child (or adult) dedication to service in the sanctuary.278 • Women served in the sanctuary.279 • The Levites constituted an entire tribe dedicated to the LORD.280 • Furthermore, the people would probably have protested Jephthah’s killing of his daughter to fulfill a vow, just as they protested Saul’s killing of his son to fulfill a vow.281 • Therefore, Jephthah may have fulfilled his vow by consecrating his daughter, just as Hannah fulfilled her vow by consecrating her son.282 We have to withhold final judgment on this matter, though, because we cannot be sure which option Jephthah chose for his daughter: sacrifice or service. Can we make an educated guess?283 • Read 12:1-6 • If the events in chapter 12 follow those in chapter 11, then Jephthah is having a very bad time of it, for soon after the incident with his daughter, there arises another crisis. He has successfully eliminated the threat from outside Israel (Ammon) only to face one from inside Israel (Ephraim). Does Ephraim’s behavior sound familiar?284 103

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Sidon

A R A M

Kedesh

M A N A S S E H

M A N A S S E H

Zaphon Jabbok R.

DAN

EPHRAIM Mizpah

BENJAMIN

G A GILEAD D

A M M O N

Abel-keramim? Heshbon

REUBEN

J U D A H

Jahaz(ah)?

Aroer

Arnon R.

S I M E O N

MOAB

Gideon encountered similar dissatisfaction in chapter 8 but managed to talk his way out of it by acknowledging Ephraim’s superiority (v. 2): “What have I accomplished compared to you?” Coming from Manasseh, Gideon’s incentive to smooth things over may have been E Dgreater O than M Jephthah’s. Gideon’s tribe occupied the territory immediately north of Ephraim with no natural border between them, whereas the Jordan River lay between Ephraim and Jephthah’s tribe. 104

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Among the tribes of Israel, Ephraim was the bully and, like a bully, tried to push its weight around. The prophet Hosea wrote… Hos 13:1a When Ephraim spoke, men trembled….

Ephraim may have viewed the activities of these judges—unsanctioned by the most prominent Israelite tribe—as undermining its influence in the regions adjoining its borders. Prudence demanded that Gideon back down; his position was too weak. Jephthah’s position was stronger, so he decided to stand up to the bully and won. Jephthah defeated the Ephraimite forces, cut off their escape route across the Jordan, and used a password to capture the fleeing troops. Application: Ephraim’s fate is a reminder of the cost of pride and the wisdom of humility. How often are we guilty of causing strife and suffering in the church or in our homes over a similar test of pride? …What pain might we avoid for ourselves and for others by exercising humility instead? [X] Excursus: Dialect Differences in Israel The shibboleth incident has generated considerable debate, not the ethics of the incident but the linguistics of it. What does the difference in pronunciation indicate about Hebrew at this time? • Gileadites had a /t/ sound (written /s`´ / in the text), but Ephraimites (and other Cisjordanian tribes) had only /s/ (Speiser 1942:12; Rendsberg 1986:257) or /s`´ / (written /s/ in the text; Swiggers 1981:207).285 • Gileadites (and other Israelite tribes) had a /s`´ / sound, but Ephraimites had only /t/ (written /s/ in the text; Marquart 1888).286 • Gileadites had a /s`´ / sound, but Ephraimites had only /s´ / (Beeston 1979:175) or /s/ (Blau 1977:109; Faber 1992:4).287 • Israelites had a /s`´ / sound, but Ephraimites pronounced theirs a little differently from Gileadites (i.e., so that it sounded to them like /s/; Emerton 1985:155).288 • Canaanites had a /s`´ / sound, but Israelites had only /s´ /. The Gileadites wanted to distinguish the Ephraimites, who had no business being there, from their Canaanite neighbors (Marcus 1941:149).289 Gileadites said…

“Thibbolet”

Ephraimites said…

“S(h)ibbolet”

Gileadites said…

“Shibbolet”

Ephraimites said…

“Thibbolet” “Sibbolet”

Gileadites said… Canaanites said…

“Shibbolet” “Shibbolet”

Ephraimites said… Israelites said…

“Sh(?)ibbolet” “Sibbolet”

105

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Whichever proposal is correct, the passage indicates certain things about Hebrew at this time. • The language was not uniform. Hebrew had different dialects (cf. 18:3 “Who brought you here?”).290 • The Jordan River may have served both as a tribal boundary and as a dividing line between dialects (i.e., geographical isogloss). • What distinguished these dialects was not merely a slight variation in pronunciation (e.g., NYC w∂rd versus Brooklyn w⊃yd) but extended to differences in the phonemic inventory. That is, the number and kinds of sounds in these two Hebrew dialects may have been different (e.g., American English: northern strehq versus southern strenq). The reason Ephraimites said ‘Sibboleth’ instead of ‘Shibboleth’ (= “torrent, stream”) is because their dialect had no /s`´ / (or /t/) sound. [X] Excursus: Comparing Jephthah and Abimelech The stories of Jephthah and Abimelech have several similarities, leading some scholars to conclude that they are two versions of what was originally one story. • Both men are from Manasseh (8:31; 11:1). • Both men are illegitimate sons (8:31; 11:1). • Both men have conflict with the legitimate heirs of their father (9:5; 11:2). • Both men begin their careers as military leaders with a small private army (9:4; 11:3). • Both men lead a portion of Israel (9:18; 10:18; 11:8). How can we evaluate this suggestion? …We must look not only at the similarities but also at the differences. In this case, the stories have many more differences. • Jephthah was from the Transjordan (11:1); Abimelech was from the Cisjordan (8:31). • Jephthah fled from his brothers (11:3); Abimelech murdered his brothers (9:5). • The Gileadites approached Jephthah about the job (11:5); Abimelech approached the Shechemites about the job (9:1-2). • Jephthah thought his lineage would disqualify him for office (11:7); Abimelech thought his lineage would qualify him for office (9:2). • Jephthah attempted first to negotiate with his opponents (11:12, 14-27; 12:23); Abimelech simply attacked his opponents (9:34, 43, 50). • Jephthah acted with God’s support (11:29); Abimelech acted without God’s support (9:23-24, 56). • Jephthah fought mainly against Ammonites (11:32; cf. 12:4); Abimelech fought mainly against Israelites (9:39, 45, 50). 106

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Jephthah’s campaign ended in his daughter’s death (11:31, 39); Abimelech’s campaign ended in his own death (9:54). • Jephthah was a judge (11:7); Abimelech was a king (9:6, 18). It is unlikely that the stories of Jephthah and Abimelech are merely two versions of the same original tale. Regardless of their similarities, their differences are too great.

107

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy After Jephthah come three more judges. As with the two judges before Jephthah, the biblical writer gives few details about the respective administrations of the three judges that follow Jephthah. Nevertheless, the information the narrator does provide allows us to make some general comments about the period.291 12:8-10 12:11-12 12:13-15

• • •

Ibzan (Judah; 7 yrs) Elon (Zebulun; 10 yrs) Abdon (Ephraim; 8 yrs)

M A N A S S E H

M A N A S S E H Pirathon

DAN

EPHRAIM

G A D

BENJAMIN

Aijalon

Bethlehem

J U D A H

REUBEN

S I M E O N 292

• Read 12:8-15 • • None of these short accounts begins with the phrase, “and the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD,” suggesting that the people as a whole remain faithful to God for the next twenty-five years. • Correspondingly, there is no mention of an enemy, so these three judges all held office during a time of peace. Like Jair before them, they function only as judicial arbitrators and not as military commanders. 108

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • They come from different parts of the land—Ibzan from the southern tribe of Judah (Wood 1975:277, n. 38), Elon from the northern tribe of Zebulun, and Abdon from the central tribe of Ephraim—which raises the possibility that the position of judge may have rotated among the tribes, at least in peace time.293 The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge

Rebellion

Retribution

Repentance

Ibzan

Restoration Deliver—Peace (12:8 “led Israel”) (12:11 “led Israel”) (12:13 “led Israel”)

Elon Abdon

Some might ask why the narrator even bothers to include the six minor judges if he is going to say so little about them. Why not just tell about the six major judges? After all, it is their stories that illustrate the four-part cycle in the book. For example, as you look at the chart, which part of the cycle is missing from all of the minor judge sections? …Only one of them has any mention of Israel’s apostasy (Tola), suggesting again that this cycle is not a vicious (inescapable) circle. It is possible to break the pattern of sin. At the beginning of our study of Judges, I said that the Israelites’ failure to conquer the entire land meant they did not acquire the “A” of PLAK: autonomy. In fact, we might get the impression that the people’s progress has essentially stalled, that they are marking time at best and falling behind at worst. The minor judges, however, indicate that Israel is not stuck. There is slow but definite progress forward. Notice the sequence of the judges. • Othniel’s story begins with Israel’s sin, and Ehud’s story begins with Israel’s sin, but the cycle breaks with Shamgar, which mentions him as a military deliverer but not as a religious reformer. • Deborah’s story begins with Israel’s sin, Gideon’s story begins with Israel’s sin (including a graphic illustration with Abimelech), and Tola’s story begins with Israel’s sin, but the cycle breaks with Jair. • Jephthah’s story begins with Israel’s sin, but the cycle breaks three times with Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon. The writer does not want to raise his readers’ hopes too high or give them a false impression of the times, so… • Samson’s story begins again with Israel’s sin. 109

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Nevertheless, by including the minor judges, the writer shows that God’s people have not given up in the battle against sin and that they are moving forward, however haltingly. [?] Comment: On the relative time periods of the judges The narrator preempts the possible objection that this analysis does not take into account the relative time periods of the judges by stating that the number of years is not as significant a factor in Israel’s moral condition as is the passing of an administration. Judg 2:19a But when the judge died, the people returned to ways even more corrupt than those of their fathers…

Nevertheless, the breakdown is as follows, assuming that Israel remained devoted to God during each judge’s term. • After 8 years of apostasy, Israel remained faithful 40 years under Othniel; after 18 years of apostasy, Israel remained faithful 80 years under Ehud; and, apparently, after no further apostasy, Israel continued to be faithful under Shamgar (for an unspecified period). • After 20 years of apostasy, Israel remained faithful 40 years under Deborah; after 7 years of apostasy, Israel remained faithful 40 years under Gideon; after an unspecified period of apostasy, Israel remained faithful 23 years under Tola; and, apparently, after no further apostasy, Israel continued to be faithful under Jair 22 years. • After 18 years of apostasy, Israel remained faithful 6 years under Jephthah; and, apparently, after no further apostasy, Israel continued to be faithful under Ibzan 7 years, Elon 10 years, and Abdon 8 years. • After 40 years of apostasy, Israel remained faithful 20 years under Samson. • After 40 years of apostasy (under Eli!), Israel remained faithful for an unspecified period under Samuel. Application: The principle we observe here on a national level applies also on the personal level—sin is not an unbreakable habit. As long as people are willing to repent, they can change the direction of their lives and begin, at least, to reverse the devastating effects of rebellion against God, because… 1 John 1:9 If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness.

****************

110

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy We come now to the most famous judge:294 Samson. The first verse echoes that familiar refrain of apostasy. Judg 13:1 Again the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD, so the LORD delivered them into the hands of the Philistines for forty years.

The Israelites forsake the LORD for pagan worship, and God again uses a pagan neighbor to bring them back; this time, the Philistines. We have encountered them before but only briefly or in passing. When was that? • Shamgar killed “six hundred Philistines with an ox goad” (3:31). • Jephthah fought the Ammonites, who may have been harassing Israel from the east while the Philistines were pressuring Israel from the west.295 In the story of Jephthah, the Ammonites were the prominent enemy; in the story of Samson, the Philistines play the major role of the villain. 13-16

2.

Samson (Dan) vs. Philistines (20 yrs, c.1070-1050)

The Philistines are not Canaanites; they are relative newcomers to the land (c. 1200), arriving roughly the same time as the Israelites but entering Canaan from the west whereas the Israelites enter from the east.296 Possible Place of Origin

Possible Place of Origin

Brought About Collapse of the Hittite Empire

Settled in Cyprus

The Sea Peoples Philistines

The Philistines are part of a mass migration from the Aegean Islands and Asia Minor, pressured out by Dorian Greeks. Sweeping south along the Mediterranean coast, the Sea Peoples (as they were called) effectively usurp Egyptian control in Canaan. Pharaoh Rameses III stops their advance but is unable to retain his country’s long-held administrative center: Gaza.

111

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Rameses III Philistine Warrior (Statue from Karnak Temple) (Relief from Thebes Temple) (HAI p. 84)

Being outsiders, the Philistines had a different culture from that of the Israelites and other Semitic peoples in the area. What was their most distinguishing characteristic? …The Philistines did not practice circumcision; hence, the Bible specifically identifies them as “the uncircumcised Philistines” or, simply, “the uncircumcised.”297 Circumcision was common among most Western Semites, although it only had covenantal significance for the Israelites.298 [?] Comment: On circumcision and uncircumcision • God required Abraham’s descendants to be circumcised299 Does God still expect His people to practice circumcision? • Participation in the Abrahamic covenant (still) requires circumcision. • God uses the same terms to describe the permanence and significance of circumcision as He does later to describe the permanence and significance of the Sabbath. • Both are “a sign” (twøa) of His special relationship with Israel; • Both are “an everlasting covenant” (MDlwøo tyîrV;b) in effect “for the generations to come” (MRkyEtOrOdl V ); and… • Both carry the same penalty for disobedience: The transgressor is to be “cut off from his people” (DhyR;mAoEm awIhAh vRp‰…nAh hDt√rVkˆn).300 The importance of circumcision is also clear because the command to rest on the Sabbath does not supersede it. That is, if the day for an infant’s circumcision falls on a Sabbath, performing that procedure takes priority over the day of rest.301 • Participation in the Abrahamic covenant is for Jews not gentiles.302 • Consequently, neither circumcision nor the Sabbath is required for salvation, which God accomplishes for both by grace through faith.303 112

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • God forbade close ties with the uncircumcised. • Israelites had limited contact with their western neighbors.304 • The uncircumcised have no part in the Abrahamic covenant. • The uncircumcised may not eat the Passover sacrifice. • The uncircumcised may not enter the Temple. • The uncircumcised will not enter the millennial Jerusalem. • Israelites referred to the uncircumcised disparagingly. • The term, “uncircumcised Philistine,” was an insult signifying ungodliness.305 [?] • The shortened version, “uncircumcised,” and its metaphoric counterpart, “uncircumcised of heart,” both had the same negative connotation.306 (English has kept the other half of the term, “Philistine,” but it means uncultured rather than ungodly.) Because Greeks also did not practice circumcision, in addition to their being idolaters, devout Jews of the late Second Temple Period generally avoided contact with them. This presented a problem in the early church, but Jewish believers revised their policy regarding their gentile (yet uncircumcised) brethren to include fellowship with them.307 ****************

113

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The story of Samson begins with his birth, which seems like a reasonable enough place to start, except that it is earlier than any of the other judges’ accounts. Apparently, the writer considers the details in the opening chapter as important background information for the rest of the story, so we need to pay careful attention. • Read 13:2-5 •

Sacrifice of Manoah, by Gerrit Horst (painting, 1636-39) 13:1-24

a. His birth 114

EPHRAIM

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

DAN Timnah

EshtaolZorah

BENJAMIN Etam

Ashkelon

J U D A H Hebron

Gaza

SIMEON 308

The angel comes to Zorah in Dan and says that Israel’s next deliverer will be a Nazirite. Num 6 is the only reference to a Nazirite before this one.309 Num 6:2 …If a man or woman wants to make a special vow, a vow of separation to the LORD as a Nazirite, 3 he must abstain from wine and other fermented drink and must not drink vinegar made from wine or from other fermented drink. He must not drink grape juice or eat grapes or raisins. 4 As long as he is a Nazirite, he must not eat anything that comes from the grapevine, not even the seeds or skins. 5 During the entire period of his vow of separation no razor may be used on his head. He must be holy until the period of his separation to the LORD is over; he must let the hair of his head grow long. 6 Throughout the period of his separation to the LORD he must not go near a dead body. 7 Even if his own father or mother or brother or sister dies, he must not make himself ceremonially unclean on account of them, because the symbol of his separation to God is on his head. 8 Throughout the period of his separation he is consecrated to the LORD.310

115

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Comparing the description of a Nazirite’s dedication in Num 6 to the description of Samson’s dedication in Judg 13, it is evident that Samson is an unconventional Nazirite. While the purpose of the vow is the same (see the earlier definition), dedication to God (Num 6:2; assumed in Judg 13:5 ), and the prohibitions are the same, abstaining from beer and grape products, haircuts, and (human) corpse defilement (Num 6:4; assumed in Judg 13:5), there are significant differences. What are the differences between these two passages? • The scope of his vow is different. • For a Nazirite, its responsibilities include only the individual (Num 6:3). • For Samson, its responsibilities included also his mother (Judg 13:4), at least during her pregnancy.311 • The start of his vow is different. • For a Nazirite, it begins at adulthood (Num 6:2). • For Samson, it began at infancy (actually, pre-natal; Judg 13:5). • The acceptance of his vow is different. • For a Nazirite, it is voluntary (Num 6:2) and probably conditional (i.e., to answered prayer).312 • For Samson, it was obligatory (Judg 13:5)313 and certainly unconditional. • The duration of his vow is different. • For a Nazirite, it is limited to a set period (Num 6:5a, 13), generally thirty days.314 • For Samson, it lasted his entire life (Judg 13:5, 7).315 ****************

116

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy After Samson’s birth, the writer includes nothing about his boyhood, only that he “grew and the LORD blessed him” (Judg 13:24).316 When the next chapter opens, Samson is an adult contemplating marriage. He finds a young girl, but his parents are not thrilled with his choice. • Read 14:1-4 • 14:1-20

b. His marriage317

Timnah is a Philistine city northeast of Ekron in the Sorek Valley. (The narrator does not explain what Samson is doing there, apart from checking out the women.) His parents are shocked at the news he brings. Why can he not find a nice Israelite girl? (Even a Canaanite would be better. At least those people practice circumcision.) Why does this bother Samson’s parents so much?318 They know that intermarriage with unbelievers is in direct violation of God’s will, because it invites pagan influence.319 This is not like the stories of Rahab or Ruth, who broke with their pagan heritage and eventually married into Israel;320 such marriages are acceptable. Samson offers no such justification to his parents. He simply says, “She’s the right one for me” (Judg 14:3c). If God prohibits mixed marriages, how can Samson’s pending union with a Philistine girl be “from the LORD” (v. 4)? …The biblical author does not say that the God condones the marriage,321 only that He is using the relationship as an opportunity for Samson “to confront the Philistines” (v. 4).322 Application: Paul wrote in 1 Corinthians about mixed marriages; it apparently caused some difficulty for those early Christians.323 What a potential mate believes should be the first item on one’s list of qualifications, not just a person’s doctrine—although that may be important—but whether or not a person is committed to God. How can one determine that? (Actions and family) • Optional Discussion • • Why do people marry outside the faith? • What can a believer do, who has trouble finding a suitable mate? • Is there any way the church can help? Samson and his parents travel to Timnah to arrange for the wedding.

117

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Timnah Gate (10th c.; ALB p. 534; cf. 389)

A lion attacks Samson on the way and, were our senses not dulled by familiarity, the outcome of this particular adventure might surprise us. Judg 14:6a The Spirit of the LORD came upon him in power so that he tore the lion apart with his bare hands as he might have torn a young goat.

Here the narrator introduces Samson’s great strength. Until this time, Samson may not have known that he had such capabilities.324 In any case, he keeps the incident from his parents.

118

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Samson vanquishing the lion by Lucas Cranach the Elder (painting, 1520-25)

119

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy On a return trip from Timnah, he notices that bees have made a hive in the carcass, and he samples the honey. Some commentators think the narrator includes this incident to indicate the first in a series of transgressions in that Samson’s contact with the lion’s corpse violates his status as a Nazirite. Is this true? The Nazirite vow prohibits corpse defilement, but it refers specifically to a human corpse (so also Wood 1975:313).325 Num 6:7 Even if his own father or mother or brother or sister dies, he must not make himself ceremonially unclean on account of them, because the symbol of his separation to God is on his head…. 9 If someone dies suddenly in his presence, thus defiling the hair he has dedicated, he must shave his head on the day of his cleansing….

Why, then, does the narrator include this incident? …It prepares us, his audience, for the main event in this episode. The hive in the carcass is the inspiration for a riddle to provide some entertainment at the wedding feast. It is the riddle, or the wager that accompanies it, which leads to Samson’s first confrontation with the Philistines. Judg 14:14a …Out of the eater, something to eat; out of the strong, something sweet.”

The wedding celebration Samson throws in v. 10 (“feast” hR;tVvIm) probably involves drinking. Philistine pottery shows a particular fondness for beer (Boling 1975:219).

Philistine Beer Jar from Beth Shemesh (Stratum III = Early Iron Age = Period of Judges)

Did Samson violate the Nazirite prohibition against consuming alcohol? …Being the host does not require that he drink (Wood 1975:313). If he maintained a difference between himself and others with respect to his uncut hair—which certainly he did at this time—he may have done the same in regard to the drinking. In fact, the question is quite pertinent that, if Samson had broken his vow in respect to drinking here, would he not have lost his strength already at this early time, just as he did later when he broke the vow in respect to his hair?

120

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy A counter argument could be that Samson’s hair, being the most prominent feature of his dedication, was the primary determinant in maintaining his strength. Samson suggests as much. Judg 16:17 …“No razor has ever been used on my head,” he said, “because I have been a Nazirite set apart to God since birth. If my head were shaved, my strength would leave me, and I would become as weak as any other man.”

Either way, this incident does eventually contribute to his downfall by making enemies of the Philistines. When the young men who accept Samson’s challenge cannot solve the riddle, they threaten the family of Samson’s new wife if she does not get the answer for them (probably not something they would have done had they known the extent of his strength). After a bit of nagging, she succeeds and passes the information along. Samson figures out what happened and issues his famous reply. Judg 14:18b If you had not plowed with my heifer, you would not have solved my riddle.

Samson pays up but not in a way that endears him to the Philistines. Judg 14:19a-b Then the Spirit of the LORD came upon him in power. He went down to Ashkelon, struck down thirty of their men, stripped them of their belongings and gave their clothes to those who had explained the riddle.

It is the second time he receives special empowerment by the Spirit. Such manifestations are rare but not unique326 and supplement the regular ministry of the Holy Spirit as he indwells all believers.327

121

EPHRAIM

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

DAN Timnah

EshtaolZorah

BENJAMIN Etam

Ashkelon

J U D A H Hebron

Gaza

SIMEON 328

The men at the party get their unjust reward but at the expense of thirty other Philistines.329 Samson secures payment in the Philistine port city of Ashkelon (24 miles southwest of Timnah), perhaps to be sure that he has ample time to return home to Zorah before they discover the source of their winnings. ****************

122

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy This is only the first in a series of escalating confrontations with the Philistines. 15:1-20

c. His vengeance

Samson Threatening his father-in-law, by Rembrandt (painting, c. 1635)

Later, Samson returns to Timnah to visit the wife he left behind only to find her married to another man (v. 2). He considers this such an insult that he burns an entire field of Philistine grain (= an affront to their god Dagon [grain = NÎgD;d]?), vineyards, and olive groves in retaliation (v. 5).330 When the Philistine rulers discover the cause of this misadventure, they execute the father and his household. It is ironic that the threat Samson’s wife sought to avoid by betraying her husband 123

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy regarding the riddle, she now suffers because her father betrayed Samson regarding the marriage.331 That act of brutality by the Philistines, however, makes Samson even angrier, and he attacks those responsible, inflicting heavy casualties (v. 8). At this point, Samson’s reputation has probably spread throughout Philistia, and people are beginning to ask: “How can this Israelite act with such impunity? Aren’t we supposed to be in control?” (Wood 1975:316). Samson realizes that it is not a good idea for him to remain within easy reach of the Philistines, so he leaves Zorah and takes refuge in the hills of Judah near Etam.332 (This map is not in the HO.)

Timnah

EshtaolZorah Bethlehem

Etam Ashkelon

Tekoa

Hebron

Gaza

En-gedi

Why does he go there? …It is on the central north-south route just below Bethlehem and near a road heading southeast through the Wilderness of Judah past Tekoah to the oasis of En-gedi, a possible escape route. Is he successful? …Why not? Philistine control is not limited to the coast or even to the Shephelah; it penetrates the hill country, which is why they could demand of residents there the extradition of Samson rather than hunting him themselves.333 The Philistines want uncontested command of the coastal highway as well as unhindered use of the arable Shephelah.334 By keeping Israel cowed in the hill country, they effectively suppress any thought of Israelite expansion to the west. At this point, the story shows us something about the political balance in the region and about what one man can do to upset that balance. • Read 15:11-17 •

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Samson is not a typical judge and differs from previous judges in at least four respects. • The first difference for Samson is that he is a Nazirite. How does being a Nazirite relate to his position as judge and to his unusual strength? …One commentator offers this answer (Wood 1975:307-308): [The Nazirite vow meant that] Samson would have to live such a life of dedication that others, both Israelites and Philistines, would…see evidence that he was especially devoted to God, and that they might appropriately recognize the true source of his strength…. [It also served as a continual reminder for Samson] that his strength was really not his own, but it was God’s entrustment to him, and that he had to continue to live properly before God if this entrustment was to continue. The outward actions of the Nazirite form of life were suited exactly to helping Samson [meet] these responsibilities.

• The second difference for Samson (with the exception of one other judge) is that he is a poet of sorts, not in Deborah’s class, but he does have a flair for spontaneous verse (14:14, 18; 15:16). Out of the eater, something to eat; out of the strong, something sweet. If you had not plowed with my heifer, you would not have solved my riddle. With a donkey's jawbone I made donkeys of them. With a donkey's jawbone I killed a thousand men.

• The third difference for Samson is that he is a loner. When the Spirit of the LORD comes on other judges, what did they do?335 • When the Spirit of the LORD came upon Othniel, Israel’s first judge, he (presumably) led Israelite forces against the Arameans. • When the Spirit of the LORD came upon Gideon, he led Israelite forces against the Midianites. • When the Spirit of the LORD came upon Jephthah, he led Israelite forces against the Ammonites. • When the Spirit of the LORD came upon Samson, he fought alone against the Philistines. • The fourth difference for Samson is that he is a disruptor. • He keeps the Philistines occupied and off balance so they cannot give their full attention to whatever designs they have on Israel. • Remember how the angel outlined Samson’s mission when he announced Samson’s birth: Judg 13:5c [H]e will begin the deliverance of Israel from the hands of the Philistines.

• He does not defeat Israel’s enemy, though, a task that remains unfinished until Samuel and really until David.336 125

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Application: Samson is a solitary fighter engaging in guerrilla warfare. When the Judeans come to him, it is not in search of a commander but to turn him over to the Philistines. Samson does not have a great army, but God compensates for this “deficiency” by giving him great ability. We sometimes compare ourselves with others and wonder what we could accomplish if only we had their talents or skills. For example, I knew students who had photographic memories or who had a knack for learning languages, and I wondered how much better I could have done in my studies if I had their abilities. Have you ever thought that way? I have come to realize, however, that God has compensated for my “deficiency” by giving me certain strengths that are particularly suited to the kind of work He has called me to do. A photographic memory or a knack for languages might be nice, but it is more important for a teacher to be able to analyze material and structure it in such a way that is clear and easy for students to grasp. How has God equipped you? [?] Application: The church places great emphasis on cooperation, on its members’ working together for the common good. Paul, in discussing spiritual gifts, speaks about the importance of joint effort. Indeed, the believing community is one of the primary channels through which God accomplishes His will, but it is not the only channel. Some jobs are particularly suited to solo work, and God may call you to labor alone on a certain project. Doing something alone, though, does not mean that you are alone. Judg 15:11 states that Philistine control reached beyond the coastal region into the hill country of Judah. The story of Jephthah also mentions extensive Philistine expansion but concentrates on Ammonite activity in the Transjordan. It is quite possible, therefore, that the terms of Samson and Jephthah overlapped, with one resisting foreign oppression west of the Jordan and the other resisting foreign oppression east of the Jordan (Wood 1975:14, 271, 281). If so, then Samson was not really alone, because God had another judge doing the same job elsewhere. Perhaps you are all team players, but I suspect that there are several individuals here as well. If so, then you may think you are the only one engaged in a given task, the only one laboring in a particular field; but if God is behind it, then you are probably not alone. He has someone else working on it as well. ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy We come now to the last chapter in the life of Samson. I am treating this as a separate unit because that is how the narrator deals with it. He closes the previous chapter with a standard summary clause: Judg 15:20 Samson led Israel for twenty years in the days of the Philistines.

Rather than beginning the next chapter with another judge, though, the writer continues with Samson, adding an account of his entrapment and death. The narrator may separate the two sections because they deal with the two extremes in Samson’s career. Between chapters 15 and 16 lie about eighteen years when Samson led Israel, but about which we know very little. For example, there is no indication if Samson engaged in other anti-Philistine actions during the intervening period or if his reputation after killing the Philistines at Lehi was sufficient to prevent further aggression on their part. Their desire to eliminate him has clearly not abated, though, because the opening verses of chapter 16 tell about a plot to capture him. • Read 16:1-3 • 16:1-22

d. His affair

The narrator begins the chapter with a relatively brief description of Samson’s visit to Gaza.337

127

EPHRAIM

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

DAN Timnah

EshtaolZorah

BENJAMIN Etam

Ashkelon

J U D A H Hebron

Gaza

SIMEON Apart from these three verses, the first half of the chapter focuses on Samson’s racy affair with Delilah. Why does the narrator bother to include the Gaza incident, given its brevity? …There may be at least two reasons. • The first reason the writer may include this story is that it shows the vulnerability of Israel’s enemy. • Samson’s activity against the Philistines has grown in both intensity and audacity. • He killed thirty men in Ashkelon, one of the largest Philistine cities. • He burned acres of Philistine farmland in the Shephelah. • He killed a thousand Philistines soldiers sent to capture him. • While we cannot speculate about his activity during the intervening years, this latest venture is the boldest yet, for it demonstrates that Samson can operate with impunity in the very heart of enemy territory. • He travels through Philistia, all the way to the coast. • He enters Gaza, the main Philistine city.338 128

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • He visits a public figure (a prostitute). • He eludes capture by those who know exactly where he is. • He takes the city gate as a souvenir of his visit. Why? • The gate is a symbol of a city’s strength (being the weakest point in its defensive perimeter and, thus, the most heavily fortified).339 • Taking the gate has a profound psychological effect on the Philistines, as Samson demonstrates that he is stronger than the most fortified part of city, instilling both fear and humiliation in his opponents. • He then walks back through enemy territory, apparently unmolested, carrying the gate all the way to (16:3 y´nVÚp_lAo) Hebron, forty miles away in Judah (twenty miles from Tirzah and perhaps his headquarters; so Wood 1975:323). This Israelite is a real pain.

Samson carries the doors of the city of Gaza (illumination, c. 1450)

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • The second reason the writer may include this story is that it shows the vulnerability of Israel’s judge. • Samson’s last encounter with the opposite sex was a model of poor judgment. • He chose a Philistine woman instead of an Israelite one. • His relationship with her lacked the depth necessary for her to confide in him regarding the threat to her father’s house over the riddle. • He was unable to sustain the marriage past its first crisis. • While he probably went to Gaza to shake up the Philistines, Samson’s visit to a prostitute, highlights a weakness in his character. • He decides to mix business with pleasure and attempts to satisfy his sexual drive without the complications of a formal relationship. • He prefers to keep his indiscretions out of the public eye in Israel, as he occupies a prominent position there and might not want to visit an Israelite prostitute. • Gaza is non-Israelite and far away from Israelite territory. • Furthermore, few people, if any, are likely to recognize him there…so he may have thought. It is primarily for the second reason—to show the vulnerability of Israel’s judge—that the narrator begins the chapter with this episode, because it prepares us for Samson’s disastrous affair with Delilah. It confirms that Samson has a problem relating to the opposite sex, that the failure of his marriage was not just a fluke. It also marks him as susceptible, should the wrong woman attempt to exploit this weakness. Furthermore, it explains why Philistines from Gaza are intent on capturing him (6:21). • Read 16:4-6 • Samson’s first love was “a young Philistine woman” from Timnah (14:1), a Philistine town in the Sorek Valley. 340 Presumably, Delilah’s village, being in the same valley, is also Philistine. At this point the pattern is clear: Samson is not a good judge of women’s character. About the only thing he has learned is not to jump into marriage. • The first girl betrayed the secret of his riddle. • The second girl was a prostitute. • The third girl will betray the secret to his strength. In response to Delilah’s question, Samson puts her off three times. • Tie me with seven fresh thongs. • Tie me with new ropes.341 • Weave the seven braids (dread locks?) of my hair. 130

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Query: How can Samson be so dense? • He is in love with Delilah (v. 4). • She obviously does not feel the same way about him, but exploits his affection (v. 15): “How can you say, ‘I love you,’ when you won’t confide in me?” • He is unaware of the danger (v. 9). • Delilah’s wake-up calls—“Samson, the Philistines are upon you!” (vv. 9, 12)—rouse him, but there is never any real threat. It is just a game; there are no Philistines—at least none he sees. • He is overconfident of his ability (v. 20). • By this time, he may assume that his strength is his own and not from God or that his strength is not really connected to his hair. So oblivious is Samson, that he allows her to nag him until he relents (“tired to death” v. 16). This is like a rerun of his first romance. • When the young men who accepted Samson’s challenge could not solve the riddle, they threatened Samson’s new wife to get the answer for them. After a bit of nagging, she succeeded and passed the information along. Samson figured out what happened, but not until it was too late. He still lost the bet. • Here, when the Philistine leaders cannot overcome Samson’s strength the conventional way, they bribe Samson’s new girlfriend to do it for them.342 ($5775 [each] x = ). After a bit of nagging, she succeeds and advises the Philistines. Samson figures out what happened, but again it is too late. This time he loses more than a bet.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Samson and Delilah, by Matthias Stom (painting, c. 1630)

• Read 16:17-21 • At the very least, Samson should notice that she tests each reason he gives; so even if he does not question her loyalty, he should anticipate that she might cut his hair. Perhaps he assumes that she would not take such an irreversible step. He is wrong. Samson, like Sisera before him, falls prey to the deception of a woman.343 Unlike Jael, Delilah does not kill Samson in his sleep, but he still pays dearly for his misplaced trust. Samson loses both his strength and his sight. Why does Samson lose his strength with the cutting of his hair? What does great strength have to do with long hair? …Samson’s ability issues from his special dedication to God, of which his hair is an ever-visible sign. The cutting of a Nazirite’s hair marks the end of his period of dedication.344 Therefore, when Delilah cuts Samson’s hair, she terminates his dedication, which in turn nullifies his strength.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy 16:23-31

e. His death • Read 16:22-25 •

We do not know how much time passes between Samson’s capture and this celebration. Presumably several months go by, during which Samson works in the prison mill, and his hair begins to grow again. Because Samson is the center of attraction, the party may commemorate the anniversary of his arrest. Notice that the Philistines credit their god with Samson’s capture (vv. 23-24),345 although the narrator makes clear that the LORD is the one responsible (v. 20). Who is Dagon? …Like Baal, Dagon is the Philistine version of a god from the Mesopotamian pantheon, the equivalent of the weather god, Enlil, who also happens to be the (grand)father of Ishkur/Baal.346 The meteorological responsibilities of Enlil/Dagon make him the god of grain as well and, because much of the Philistine Plain consists of grain fields, the inhabitants of that region venerate him instead of Baal (Stigers 1975 2:3).347 • Read 16:28-30 • The finale of Samson’s “show” brings the house down and ends the career of this unusual judge. Having now come to the end of the story, the writer again appends the standard summary: Judg 16:31c He led Israel twenty years.

The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge Samson

Rebellion 13:1a Israelites evil in eyes of LORD”

“the did the the

Retribution

Repentance

13:1b “the LORD gave them into the hands of the Philistines”

133

Restoration Deliver—Peace (15:20 “led Israel”)

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

Death of Samson, by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (engraving, 1851-60)

Samson Pulls Down the Pillars, by James Tissot (painting, c. 1896-1900)

134

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Application: What can we learn from this final chapter in the life of Samson? On the negative side, although he was devoted to God, Samson allowed his sexual drive too much control in his life. To what extent are we vulnerable when we allow sensual passions to dominate our actions? On the positive side, Samson’s experience shows the grace of God. When Samson repented, he was able to close his life knowing that the LORD had restored His favor (Wood 1975:333). Furthermore, a single act of disobedience does not necessarily wipe out a life of service. Of the judges who make the Hall of Faith in Hebrews 11, Gideon and Samson both sinned, but both are counted among the faithful because of their obedience in other areas (faithfulness ≠ flawlessness).348 Samson apparently remained devoted to God throughout most of his twenty years in office, otherwise he presumably would have lost his strength before the Delilah affair. We remember Samson for his feats of strength and his fall into sin. According to the writer of Hebrews, what stands out to God is Samson’s lifetime of service. What will people remember about your life? …What will stand out to God? [?] Excursus: Suicide in the Bible How does Samson’s last request—“Let me die with the Philistines!” (v. 30)— inform our understanding of suicide? …That God would empower Samson to take his own life should make us cautious about adopting too rigid an opinion on the matter. The Bible contains no specific prohibition against suicide, no designation of it as a ‘mortal sin’ (so Catholicism).349 Commentators and ethicists often cite the laws on murder in this regard, but those statutes govern homicide not suicide.350 The penalty for transgressing the commandment against murder is death (i.e., execution),351 indicating that this particular prohibition concerns the taking of another person’s life not the taking of one’s own life (contra Hirsch 1915:748). In other words, the Bible distinguishes suicide from homicide. Although scripture contains several references to suicide, the writers simply record the act without comment, neither commending nor condemning the party responsible.352 So, what can we say about suicide? At its heart, suicide is linked to suffering. It is either an act of despair by one who is experiencing great suffering or an act of fear by one who is expecting great suffering.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Incidents of suicide in the Bible • Samson (Judg 16:30), already blind, pulled the temple of Dagon down on himself as well as on the Philistines because (?) he despaired of continuing as their prisoner. • Saul (1 Sam 31:4-5), already critically wounded, fell on his own sword because he feared that falling into Philistine hands would lead to greater suffering. His armor-bearer did the same. • Ahithophel (2 Sam 17:23), Absalom’s counselor, hanged himself either because he despaired of supporting the new king when Absalom did not heed his advice concerning David or because he feared the revenge of David, who had just escaped. • Zimri (1 Kgs 16:18), having lost the throne of the Northern Kingdom to Omri, burned his own palace while he was still inside, because he feared that falling into his opponent’s hands would lead to greater suffering. • Judas (Matt 27:5), having betrayed Jesus, hanged himself, because he despaired of his guilt.353 • Attempts at suicide in the Bible • Philippian jailer (Acts 16:27), assuming all his prisoners had escaped in the earthquake, intended to fall on his own sword, because he feared the consequences of his loss. • Note: Paul convinced the jailer to spare himself by appealing not to any biblical prohibition but to the actual situation—“Don’t harm yourself! We are all here!” • Counsel for suicide in the Bible • Job (Job 2:9), having lost his wealth and health, received advice from his wife to acknowledge his despair: “Curse God and die.” • Requests for euthanasia in the Bible • Moses (Num 11:15), burdened with the thankless task of leading an uncooperative people, asked God to end his life or give him some help. The request was purely rhetorical. • Abimelech (Judg 9:54), already critically wounded, despaired over the prospect of his death coming at a woman’s hand and asked his armorbearer to kill him. The armor-bearer granted his request. • Saul (1 Sam 31:4), already critically wounded, feared that falling into Philistine hands would lead to greater suffering and asked his armorbearer to kill him. The armor-bearer did not grant his request. • Elijah (1 Kgs 19:4), weary from repeated setbacks in the battle against Baalism, either in despair at his failure or in fear of reprisal, asked God to end his life. God did not grant his request. 136

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Job (Job 6:8-9), having lost wealth and health, despaired and asked God to end his life. God did not grant his request. • Jerusalemites (Jer 8:3), who survived the Babylonian siege, despaired of restoration and preferred death rather than endure the hardship of exile. There is no indication if God granted their request. • Jonah (Jonah 4:8), waiting in the hot sun to see if God would spare Nineveh, grew faint, lost confidence in God’s justice, and wanted to die. The request, if there was one, was probably rhetorical. • Simeon (Luke 2:29), content at having seen the messiah, asked God to dismiss him “in peace.” The request may have been rhetorical; nevertheless, there is no indication if God granted it. • Paul (Phil 1:23), under house arrest in Rome, wanted “to depart and be with Christ.” The statement may have been rhetorical; nevertheless, he decided to remain for the sake of the Philippians (and not because euthanasia is contrary to God’s will). • Unsealed people (Rev 9:6), in agony from the scorpion’s sting, despair and “long to die” but to no avail. God’s judgment consists of prolonging their suffering. Sometimes a person allows others to take his life rather than commit the act himself. It is a kind of martyrdom (or MÚvAh v…w;dIq) that might be called “assisted suicide” (often “state-assisted”). • Incidents of martyrdom ([state-]assisted suicide) in the Bible • H. ananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (Dan 3:18) were prepared to be burned alive rather than worship the image Nebuchadnezzar had erected. • Jesus (Matt 26:36-55) allowed himself to be arrested, knowing that it would end in his execution, but choosing “to give his life as a ransom for many” (20:28; cf. John 10:18). • Believers (Rev 20:4) will submit to beheading rather than worship the beast or receive his mark. Application: The biblical writers do not condemn suicide, nor do they show surprise at the practice. Therefore, we cannot assert that God categorically forbids it or assigns greater judgment for it (contra Catholicism), and such a simplistic response may even prevent us from addressing the heart of the matter. What does the Bible say, then, to someone contemplating suicide? …As with many issues, scripture does not give a single, unequivocal answer. Instead, it gives the right question to ask, to ask not only of ourselves but of others.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy In the biblical accounts of suicide, each one follows the loss of hope for relief from extreme suffering in this life. We cannot judge whether or not the situations of those men were indeed without recourse. It is difficult to identify a truly hopeless situation with any certainty. Nevertheless, it is the question we must ask and the one whose answer we must help those contemplating suicide to find: Is the situation truly hopeless, or is there a way out that is yet unnoticed? A more urgent problem than the morality of suicide is “the spiritual and mental despair that drags people down to it” (Smedes 2000:61). Bear in mind that… 1 Cor 10:13 No temptation [or ‘test’ peirasmo/ß] has seized you except what is common to man. And God is faithful; he will not let you be tempted [or ‘tested’ peira¿zw] beyond what you can bear. But when you are tempted, he will also provide a way out [not necessarily so that you can escape but] so that you can stand up under it.

How, then, can you respond to a person contemplating suicide? …The most helpful response may be to foster hope, hope in God’s ability to turn a bad situation to a person’s ultimate advantage. Rom 8:28 And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose.

Such assurance is available to those who know and love God, and it offers an alternative to the hopelessness that attends suicide. If a person has already committed suicide, leaving behind a grieving family, the most helpful response may still be to foster hope, although with eternity in view. As in other incidents of mourning, we should first offer our presence and our willingness to listen (mostly without commentary and certainly without condemnation). Later, if the opportunity arises, it may be appropriate to offer a biblical perspective on the matter (perhaps as outlined above, although not necessarily to that detail). If the incident involved a non-believer (“without hope and without God in the world” Eph 2:12), we should not offer false hope, and it might be best not to pursue the matter further. If, however, the incident involved a believer, we can offer some hope by stressing the mercy of God. Ps 103:8 The LORD is compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, abounding in love…. 13 As a father has compassion on his children, so the LORD has compassion on those who fear him; 14 for he knows how we are formed, he remembers that we are dust.

Whatever uncertainty there may be about a person’s eternal destiny, we can be confident that the judge of all the earth will indeed do right (cf. Gen 18:25). ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The second group of judges we have been studying does not end with Samson, although he is the last judge whose story appears in this book. Like the first group, the second group ends with a failed king, Saul, before whom Eli and Samuel also judge Israel. The stories of those two judges and of King Saul appear in the book of 1 Samuel. The Period of the Judges Continues in 1 Samuel. 1-4 3. Eli (Levi) vs. Philistines (40 yrs) 5-8 4. Samuel (Ephraim > Levi) vs. Philistines (20 yrs, c.1040-1020) 9-31 ◊ King Saul (Benjamin) vs. Philistines (42 yrs, c.1020-978) During the tenure of these men, the nation still wavers in its commitment to God, continuing in 1 Samuel… The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge

Rebellion

Retribution

Eli

(1 Sam 2:12 “Eli’s sons were wicked men….”)

1 Sam 4:2b “Israel was defeated by the Philistines…” (also v. 10)

Samuel

(1 Sam 7:3 “…rid yourselves of the foreign gods and the Ashtoreths”)

Saul

1 Sam 8:7b …they have rejected me as their king. (also 10:19a)

Repentance

Restoration Deliver—Peace (1 Sam 4:18 “led Israel”)

1 Sam 7:2 “Israel sought after the LORD” (cf. v. 4)

1 Sam 7:13 “the Philistines were subdued” (1 Sam 7:15 “judge over Israel”) (1 Sam 13:1b “reigned over Israel”)354

(1 Sam 7:14c …there was peace between Israel and the Amorites.)

The author of Judges does not describe those individuals, instead concluding his narrative with an epilogue. This section differs from the previous one in both form and content. 139

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • The difference in form is that the writer does not use the repeating cycle of rebellion, retribution, repentance, and restoration. Instead, he builds the narrative around the repeating phrase: “In those days Israel had no king” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). The implication is that the absence of strong central leadership is a major reason for people’s moral and spiritual decline.355 • The difference in content is that the writer makes no mention of any judge. Instead, he focuses on the adventures of two Levites, who would have had a role in the sanctuary, to demonstrate the decay of Israel’s religious and moral fiber. Although the writer places these stories at the end of the book, chronologically they fall sometime earlier, probably during one of Israel’s rebellious periods (see dates in Outline). III.

Epilogue 17:1-21:25 A. Danite migration 17:1-18:31 (c. 1060) • Read 17:1-6 •

The story opens with the confession of an Ephraimite named Micah.356

140

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Sidon

Dan Rehob?

M A N A S S E H

M A N A S S E H

Shiloh

DAN

EPHRAIM

G A D

BENJAMIN

Kiriath-jearim Eshtaol Zorah

Bethlehem

J U D A H

REUBEN

His name is clearly religious—“Who is like the LORD” (hÎwhyA;k yIm = hDkyIm)—but his unrighteousness behavior has not matched his name: He is a thief, having stolen $5775 (n. 199) Nevertheless, Micah has had a change of heart and S I from M E his O mother. N now wishes to return the money, perhaps motivated by fear of her curse. Overjoyed, his mother responds with two statements: • The first statement is a prayer—“May the LORD bless you, my son.” • The second statement is a promise—“I…consecrate my silver to the LORD.” From his name and from his mother’s pious utterances, we would deduce that Micah’s household is loyal to God, unlike so many other Israelite households. We would also be wrong. Why? …The practice in Micah’s household is an example of syncretism, the synthesis of elements from more than one religion. His family acknowledges the LORD but uses the trappings of paganism, such as idols.357 141

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

• Read 17:7-13 • Micah installs his sons as priests in the shrine but realizes that it would be far better to have a trained professional. So when a Levite from Bethlehem of Judah passes by, traveling north in search of another place to live, Micah hires him to oversee his shrine (at an annual salary of $52.50; see n. 199). Perhaps the prospect of a promotion is more than the Levite can pass up because, under normal conditions, a Levite could not be a priest.358 In any case, Micah’s statement closing the chapter expresses his expectation for the future of the sanctuary: Judg 17:13 …Now I know that the LORD will be good to me, since this Levite has become my priest.

Having a Levite, though, will not eliminate the pagan aspects of Micah’s religion and guarantee orthodoxy there. This Levite is no more orthodox than Micah.359

Micah and the Levite before the idol at Micah’s sanctuary (illumination, 1372)

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy [X] Excursus: Religious Sites in Israel (Haran 1985:26-42) After the military campaigns under Joshua, “the Israelites gathered at Shiloh and set up the Tent of Meeting” (Josh 18:1a), which serves as the nation’s religious center. There are other sanctuaries as well, many of which link the presence of God to the specific site (e.g., theophany). • Ark cult sites • Shechem: 1250 (Josh 8:33) • Shiloh: 1250-1050 (Josh 18:1; 19:51; 22:19, 29; Judg 18:31; 1 Sam 1:9; 3:3; 4:3-22; cf. Ps 78:60) • The ark toured Philistia (7 months): Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1) to Gath (v. 9) to Ekron (v. 10). • The ark then returned to Israel: Beth Shemesh (1 Sam 6:13) to… • Kiriath Jearim: 1050-1000 (7:1; = Baalah, 2 Sam 6:2) • Jerusalem: 1000-587 (2 Sam 6:12; cf. Jer 41:5) • Other holy sites • Dan (Judg 18:28-31; 1 Kgs 12:28-29) • Bethel (Gen 28:10-12, 16-22; Judg 20:26-27; 1 Kgs 12:28, 32-33; Amos 7:13; cf. 1 Sam 10:3) • Gilgal (Josh 4:19-24; 5:8-12; 9:6; 1 Sam 7:16; 15:12-21; Amos 4:4; 5:5; Hosea 4:15; 9:15; 12:12) • Mizpah in Benjamin (Judg 20:1; 21:5, 8; 1 Sam 7:16; 10:17-25) • Mizpah in Gilead (Gen 31:45-54; Judg 11:11) • Hebron (2 Sam 2:4; 5:3; 15:7) • Bethlehem (Judg 19:18; 1 Sam 20:6) • Nob (1 Sam 21:1-10) • Ophrah in Manasseh (Judg 6:24; 8:27) • Mount Carmel in Manasseh (1 Kgs 18:30) • Arad The difference between Shiloh and the other sites is that the location of the ark determines where God permits the Israelites to sacrifice, although there are exceptions.360 [Presumably, a]t the one central sanctuary the ceremonies would be conducted only by priests, who had been properly trained for the service and who had copies of the law for reference at any time. (Wood 1975:148)

The writer does not say where Micah sets up his shrine, other than it is in Ephraim, so there is no way of knowing if the site has an ancient tradition marking it as holy. Nevertheless, such shrines are not uncommon in the land. Sometimes the biblical writers mention them specifically; often they just use the phrase “before the LORD,” to signify the presence of a local sanctuary (Haran 1985:26). 143

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy In Judges alone, there are six references to places in various tribes that have religious shrines. These sacred sites generally have altars and may have priests as well as religious articles (e.g., idols).361

Dan

M A N A S S E H

M A N A S S E H

Shiloh

DAN

EPHRAIM

G A D

Ophrah Mizpah

BENJAMIN Bethlehem

REUBEN

J U D A H

S I M E O N

Religious Shrines in Judges

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Comment: Religious Shrines in Judges • Manasseh has the shrine Gideon builds in his hometown of Ophrah, replacing the Baal shrine he destroyed; there he erects an altar and places the ephod that people worship. • Gad and Reuben have a shrine in Mizpah of Gilead, where Jephthah takes his oath of office “before the LORD.” • Dan has a shrine in its northern settlement of Dan, where the people put the idols they steal from Micah and where they set up a priesthood. • Ephraim has Micah’s shrine in his unnamed village, where he sets the idols he makes, as well as the main shrine in Shiloh, where the ark is. • Judah may have a shrine in Bethlehem, whence the Levite comes. • Benjamin has a shrine in Mizpah (of Benjamin), where the Israelites gather to vow “before the LORD.” The next chapter opens by reiterating part of the editorial comment from chapter 17: Judg 18:1 [= 17:6a] In those days Israel had no king.

Does it again precede bad news? • Read 18:1-2 • What is the Danites allotted territory, and why are they not able to possess it?362 …As we saw in the story of Samson, the Philistines prevent Israel from expanding into the Shephelah, the fertile strip of land between of hill country of Judah and the coastal plain. This resistance particularly affects Dan, most of whose allotment falls in Philistine-controlled territory. The Philistines are different from other enemies Israel has faced in this book. • Unlike the Arameans, Moabites, Midianites, and Ammonites, the Philistines are residents in the land; they have settled in the region Israel wants to control. • Unlike the scattered Canaanite city-states, the Philistines have a concentrated and well-organized base of operation in the Shephelah and coastal plain. • Unlike the Israelites, the Philistines have the technological advantage of iron for their weaponry. These factors make the Philistines difficult to defeat decisively without a much greater mobilization of Israelite forces than is possible under a judge.363 • Samson keeps them off balance but does not achieve any great victories. • Samuel wins the battle at Mizpah but subdues the Philistines only temporarily. 145

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Saul wins at Micmash and Socoh but, again, it is only a temporary setback for the Philistines, who win later at Mount Gilboah. • Only after King David’s decisive victory in the Rephaim Valley do the Philistines cease to trouble Israel. As long as there is no king, however, the Philistines remain a problem, and Dan decides that it is easier to switch than fight. The tribe sends out a five-man scouting party to find a less contentious place to settle.364 They return with news of an area in the north that is ripe for conquest, and “six hundred men from the clan of the Danites, armed for battle, set out” (v. 11) along with “their…children, their livestock and their possessions” (v. 21).365 Dan’s failure to take its original allotment, is probably not the bad news to which the phrase in v. 1 refers;366 rather it is to the spread of syncretism northward, as the migrating Danites take with them the Levite and Micah’s idols from the shrine in the hill country of Ephraim. • Read 18:18-20, 27-31 • Excursus: Form and Worship Does it matter what form worship takes, as long as a person worships the Lord? It is more important that a person be sincere. After all… • The Bible (especially the NT) includes several statements suggesting that form is unimportant. • Jesus seems to tell the Samaritan woman that it does not matter where one worships. John 4:21 …a time is coming when you will worship the Father neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem…. 23 …the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth, for they are the kind of worshipers the Father seeks.

• Paul seems to tell the Roman believers that it does not matter when one worships. Rom 14:5 One man considers one day more sacred than another; another man considers every day alike. Each one should be fully convinced in his own mind.

• Paul seems to tell the Galatian believers that it does not matter how one worships. Gal 5:6 …in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value. The only thing that counts is faith expressing itself through love.

Form is irrelevant as long as a person is worshipping the LORD. Right? …Not quite. • God says the form worship takes does matter, especially as a person worships the Lord. The Bible (particularly the OT) includes several statements indicating that form is important.367 146

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • God tells the Israelites gathered at Mt. Sinai that He forbids the use of images in worship.368 Exod 20:4a You shall not make for yourself an idol….

• Moses reminds the Israelites about to enter Canaan that God forbids the use of images in worship. Deut 4:15 You saw no form of any kind the day the LORD spoke to you at Horeb out of the fire. Therefore watch yourselves very carefully, 16a so that you do not become corrupt and make for yourselves an idol…

Form is relevant, especially as a person worships the LORD. Even if the people are worshipping the true God and not a pagan god, as is the case with Micah’s household, they must not represent the LORD in any physical way. Each of the NT passages I quoted was not only out of context but the interpretation I offered was contrary to the context and to what God intends. Where, when, and how God’s people worship do matter. Those NT passages are addressing different issues. • Jesus is not saying to the Samaritan woman that where a person worships is irrelevant. God has clearly chosen Jerusalem, not Samaria as His permanent residence.369 2 Kgs 21:7b …the LORD…said to David and to his son Solomon, “In this temple and in Jerusalem, which I have chosen out of all the tribes of Israel, I will put my Name forever.

Jesus is rather hinting that the Romans will restrict where a person worships, making both Samaritan and Jewish sites inaccessible. • Paul is not talking to the Roman believers about when a person worships. God has clearly designated the Sabbath as having permanent priority over other days. Lev 23:3a There are six days when you may work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath of rest, a day of sacred assembly.

Paul is rather discussing when a person eats, his chosen day of fasting or feasting. • Paul is also not instructing the Galatians about how a person should worship, circumcised or uncircumcised. God has clearly indicated that circumcision is a permanent mark of the Abrahamic covenant. Gen 17:12a For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised…. 13b My covenant in your flesh is to be an everlasting covenant.

Paul is rather concerned with how a person is saved which, as he indicates, has nothing to do with circumcision.370

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Application: We find examples of syncretism throughout the OT371 and even in the NT. Paul warns the Colossians against it, because some of the believers there have adopted elements of Gnosticism. After the NT, the church often allowed new converts to retain some of their pagan heritage, which then led to syncretism in worship and practice.372 Is syncretism a problem in churches today? …How? If syncretism is bad, then the editorial comment at the beginning of the epilogue—“ In those days Israel had no king” (17:6a)—suggests that one of the monarchy’s responsibilities is to prevent such sinful activity, to support a state religion loyal to God in all respects.373 What does the second half of that statement mean? Judg 17:6 In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit.

…It indicates that there is no virtue for a person doing what is right in his opinion (lit. “in his own eyes”).374 That was Samson’s reason for marrying a Philistine woman. When his parents wanted him to find a nice Israelite girl instead… Judg 14:3c …Samson said… “She’s the right one for me [yÎnyEoVb

h∂rVvÎy ayIh].”

God, alone, is the judge of righteousness, so it is doing what is right in His eyes that counts.375 How can you be sure that His priorities are your priorities?376 …There must be constant review of and comparison with His word. ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The epilogue consists of two stories that are similar in several respects. 1. Both stories feature Levites who travel between Bethlehem of Judah and Ephraim. 2. Both stories conclude with a passing reference to the main sanctuary at Shiloh, where the ark is. 3. Both stories illustrate Israel’s social decay (religious and moral) in the absence of strong leadership (i.e., monarchy). As I mentioned earlier, the framework for these tales is not the repeating pattern we encountered in main body of Judges—rebellion, retribution, repentance, restoration—but a repeating phrase, which appears again in the first verse of the chapter: Judg 19:1 In those days Israel had no king.

Based on what we have read so far, that statement should raise in us a negative expectation, the anticipation that what follows will not be good. • Read 19:1-4 • B. Benjamite war

19:1-21:25 (c.1205)

So far, this is not too bad. We may object to the Levite’s keeping a concubine rather than taking a wife, but such an arrangement has been common since the Patriarchs377 and is permissible under Mosaic law.378 Besides, the girl’s father exhibits no concern regarding their relationship, is quite happy to see his “son-inlaw,” and insists upon entertaining him for several days. Furthermore, we could assume that the Levite cares for her, otherwise he would not make the journey to patch things up between them. The bad part is yet to come. Because of the father’s persistent hospitality, the Levite and his party set out for Ephraim late in the day. As night approaches, they come to Gibeah of Benjamin and find lodging with an old man, a fellow Ephraimite, who indicates that it is not safe for them to spend the night in the village square. During dinner, however, they discover that visitors are not secure even in the home of a resident. • Read 19:22-30 • We have finally reached the bad part, and the narrator intensifies the shock value of this material by assaulting us with one base act after another to emphasize the moral decay in parts of Israelite society. • Street gangs roam the city at night unchallenged by any authority, and one of their diversions is assaulting visitors. 149

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • The law of hospitality is not inviolate for travelers in some Israelite villages.379 • The host is ready to sacrifice his daughter and his female guest to placate the gang. • This sounds eerily reminiscent of what other incident?

The Levite of Ephraim, by Louis Cloude (painting, n.d.)

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy [?] Chart: A Comparison of between Sodom (Gen 19) and Gibeah (Judg 19)

Invitation

Caution (warning)

Reception (hospitality) Intrusion

Intervention (appeal)

Substitution

Sodom—Gen 19

Gibeah—Judg 19

2a-b “My lords,” he said, “please turn aside to your servant’s house. You can wash your feet and spend the night and then go on your way early in the morning.” 2c “No,” they answered, “we will spend the night in the square.” 3a But he insisted so strongly that they did go with him 3b He prepared a meal for them, baking bread without yeast, and they ate. 4 …men from every part of the city…surrounded the house. 5 They called to Lot… “Bring them out to us so that we can have sex with them.”

20a-b “You are welcome at my house,” the old man said. “Let me supply whatever you need.

6 Lot went outside to meet them… 7 and said, “No, my friends. Don’t do this wicked thing. 8a-b Look, I have two daughters who have never slept with a man. Let me bring them out to you, and you can do what you like with them.

20c Only don’t spend the night in the square.”

21b After they had washed their feet, they had something to eat and drink. 22 …wicked men of the city surrounded the house…. [T]hey shouted to the old man… “Bring out the man who came to your house so we can have sex with him.” 23a The owner of the house went outside and said to them, “No, my friends, don’t be so vile. 24 Look, here is my virgin daughter, and his concubine. I will bring them out to you now, and you can use them and do to them whatever you wish. 24c But to this man, don’t do such a disgraceful thing.”

Intervention (appeal 8c But don’t do anything to these men, for they have come repeated) under the protection of my roof.” 9a “Get out of our way,” they 25a But the men would not Rejection replied. listen to him.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The difference between Sodom and Gibeah is that the guilty are not idolaters but Israelites. • What does the host’s treatment of his virgin daughter suggest about Jephthah’s treatment of his virgin daughter? (It supports the ‘sacrifice’ position versus ‘service’.) • The Levite gives them his concubine (v. 25b), whom gang members abuse until she dies.380 • The Levite shows no remorse, only anger, as he divides his concubine’s corpse to mobilize Israel into action.381 This is bad, but it gets worse.382 Dan

M A N A S S E H Jabesh-gilead

M A N A S S E H Shechem

G A GILEAD D

Lebonah Shiloh

DAN

EPHRAIM Bethel

Rimmon Mizpah Gibeah

BENJAMIN REUBEN

J U D A H

S I M Beer-sheba E O N

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy • Read 20:1-11 • The Israelites gather at Mizpah and decide to punish the gang according to the penalty listed in Torah for rape (= adultery). What is that penalty? …Death.383 Notice, by the way, what the Levite omits when recounting the crime—his own complicity (v. 5)! • The Benjamites, in whose territory the crime takes place, refuse to obey Torah in this matter and mobilize their troops instead to protect the guilty party. • “As no attempt was made subsequently by the rulers of Gibeah to punish the offenders, or to repudiate their vicious actions, it appears that the men of the city generally were involved, and not just a lewd minority” (Cundall 1968:196-197). • This may also account for the national summons, because the city elders would not bring the culprits to justice.384 • Read 20:29-48 • • Israelite forces defeat the Benjamite troops, but then go on to destroy all the cities in Benjamin and kill their inhabitants (v. 48).385 This is worse, but the worst is yet to come. Before the fighting begins, the coalition forces vow not to intermarry with Benjamin and, thereby, to ostracize the errant tribe. After the fighting ends, the Israelites realize that Benjamin is close to extinction, with only 600 men remaining. The vow prevents them from helping Benjamin rebuild its population, so they devise two creative alternatives. • Read 21:8-14 • • Israelite troops murder all the inhabitants of Jabesh Gilead they can find (for refusing to heed the national summons) except 400 virgins, whom they give to the Benjamites.386 • Read 21:20-23 • • Israelite leaders instruct the remaining Benjamites to kidnap 200 young women celebrating a harvest festival (Pesah or Sukkot?) at Shiloh, where the ark normally is (!), although it is now with the army at Bethel.387 153

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy The epilogue’s second episode is quite a catalogue of social ills: lawlessness, alienation of affection, rape, obstruction of justice, wholesale slaughter, kidnapping.388 What is the problem? Judg 21:25 In those days Israel had no king; everyone did as he saw fit.

****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Conclusion Why does the narrator end on such a depressing note? …One reason may be to leave the way open for a sequel, an account of how God arrests Israel’s social decay through the Davidic monarchy and transforms the nation into a theocracy. In fact, we could call the books of Samuel, “Judges II and III” because of the way they pick up where “Judges I” leaves off and demonstrate how God fulfills His promise to Abraham of people, land, autonomy, and king (PLAK). For the book’s original audience, however, that fulfillment in Samuel is already history. Both the writer and the people to whom he addresses this document live long after God established the Davidic monarchy. How do we know that? …The author refers to the Assyrian Captivity (722), which follows David by 250 years. Judg 18:30 There the Danites set up for themselves the idols, and Jonathan son of Gershom, the son of Moses, and his sons were priests for the tribe of Dan until the time of the captivity of the land.

The first readers of Judges probably live during the reign of Hezekiah. The question we need to ask is: What is the message of the book for them? Hezekiah spends the first part of his rule in religious reform, attempting to reverse the pagan trends of his father, King Ahaz.389 In order to make these reforms reach beyond Jerusalem, he needs the people’s support. They have to be willing to give up their high places and their idols. At the same time, the Southern Kingdom is facing renewed hostilities from the Philistines and the most dangerous threat of all, Assyria.390 In other words, the people in Hezekiah’s time have problems similar to the people in the time of the judges, internally as well as externally, and the writer of Judges is giving his audience hope. In effect, he is saying, “Look what God accomplished for us again and again when we devoted ourselves to Him; and that was before all the pieces of the theocracy were in place. Now we not only have autonomy, which was God’s goal for Israel during the period of the judges, we have a king; so imagine what the LORD will do if we simply commit ourselves to His service.” The message of Judges is much the same today. Just as God repeatedly met the needs of His people when they turned to Him from sin, and despite their repeated rebellion, so He will for us, if we devote ourselves to Him; and imagine what He will do if our service is not interrupted by rebellion. ****************

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy A Short Outline of the Book of Judges (Major judges are numbered.)

Dr. Paul Manuel I.

Prologue

1:1-3:6

A. Conquest summary 1:1-36 (c. 1230) B. Religious apostasy 2:1-3:6 (c. 1200) II.

Judges

3:7-16:31

A. First Group 3:7-9:57 1. Othniel (Judah) vs. Arameans (40 yrs, c. 1190-1150; 3:7-11) 2. Ehud (Benjamin) vs. Moabites (80 yrs, c. 1170-1090; 3:12-30) • Shamgar (Judah?) vs. Philistines (3:31) 3. Deborah (Benjamin) and Barak (Naphtali) vs. Canaanites (40 yrs, c. 1125-1085; 4:1-5:31) 4. Gideon (Manasseh) vs. Midianites (40 yrs, c. 1110-1070; 6:1-8:35) ◊ King Abimelech (Manasseh; 3 yrs; 9:1-57) B. Second Group10:1-16:31 • Tola (Issachar) vs. ??? (23 yrs; 10:1-2) • Jair (Manasseh-Gilead; 22 yrs; 10:3-5) 1. Jephthah (Manasseh-Gilead) vs. Ammonites (6 yrs, c. 1070-1065; 10:6-12:7) • Ibzan (Judah; 7 yrs; 12:8-10) • Elon (Zebulun; 10 yrs; 12:11-12) • Abdon (Ephraim; 8 yrs; 12:13-15) 2. Samson (Dan) vs. Philistines (20 yrs, c. 1070-1050; 13:1-16:31) The Period of the Judges Continues in 1 Samuel. 3. Eli (Levi) vs. Philistines (40 yrs, c. 1080-1040; 1 Sam 1-4) 4. Samuel (Ephraim > Levi) vs. Philistines (20 yrs, c. 1040-1020; 1 Sam 5-8) ◊ King Saul (Benjamin) vs. Philistines (42 yrs; 1 Sam 9-31) III.

Epilogue

17:1-21:25

A. Danite migration

17:1-18:31 (c. 1060)

B. Benjamite war

19:1-21:25 (c. 1205)

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Reprise: The Book of Judges from The Brick Testament Lessons in Legos The Brick Testament (Brendan Smith) is the most comprehensive illustrated Bible in the world with over 3,600 illustrations that retell more than 400 stories constructed entirely from LEGO brand building blocks.

During the conquest, the Israelites did not expel all the Canaanites, nor did they remain loyal to the Lord but violated His standard of holiness, which encompassed every aspect of life, from their diet to their devotion.391

Consequently, the Lord allowed others to oppress them until they repented and asked for His help, at which point, He raised up a deliverer, a judge, to free them. These are the judges who ruled Israel during this period. Some were military leaders, others just civil magistrates. * 1. Othniel (3:7-11), from Judah (?), defeated the Arameans and ruled 40 years.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy 2. Ehud (3:12-30), from Benjamin, defeated the Moabites and ruled 80 years.

• Shamgar (3:31), from Judah(?), defeated the Philistines and ruled ? years.

* 3. Deborah (4:1-5:31), from Benjamin, defeated the Canaanites and ruled 40 years.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy

* 4. Gideon (6:1-8:35), from Manasseh, defeated the Midianites and ruled 40 years.

* ◊ Abimelech (9:1-57), also from Manasseh, ruled 3 years.

* • Tola (10:1-2), from Issachar, defeated the ? and ruled 23 years.

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• Jair (10:3-5), from Manasseh in Gilead, ruled 22 years.

5. Jephthah (10:6-12:7), also from Manasseh in Gilead, defeated the Ammonites and ruled 6 years.

• Ibzan (12:8-10), from Judah, ruled 7 years.

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• Elon (12:11-12), from Zebulun, ruled 10 years.

• Abdon (12:13-15), from Ephraim, ruled 8 years.

* 6. Samson (13:1-16:31), from Dan, defeated the Philistines and ruled 20 years.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy [X] Postscript on Methodology: Constraints on Meaning in Judges and Elsewhere Determining the meaning of a text is the primary goal of Bible study, but how do we do that? What tools do we bring to bear on a passage to mine its truth? The biblical writers all had essentially the same ideology, lived in the same milieu, used the same poetics (i.e., literary devices), and spoke the same language. By reading the text with these conventions in mind, we should be able to understand what the writers were saying to their original audience. This approach will not expose every nuance in a text, but it will enable us to ask the right questions and should keep us from over-reading, that is, from finding more than the authors intended. There are at least four broad areas of inquiry that can help the reader to gain competence for understanding meaning as well as relevance, the by-product of meaning. These areas are the ideology, milieu, poetics, and language of a text. We have touched on each of them to some extent during our study of Judges, through a series of (optional, marked [X]) excurses. • The excursus on the Theocratic Ideal summarized the ideology of the writer and showed what aspect of God’s plan he was treating—the obligation to meet autonomy. • The excursus on geography showed the importance of the physical environment of Canaan in explaining the dynamic of the various stories. • The excursus on the Mesopotamian pantheon and the attraction of Baal worship demonstrated some of the cultural pressures Israel faced to assimilate into the pagan environment. • The excursus on genre and ornament gave some of the literary forms available to the people of that day, both Israelite and non-Israelite. • The excursus on the development of the alphabet (paleography) showed how the simplification that occurred just before the exodus, from many syllabic signs to a few consonantal signs, brought literacy within the reach of common people. Sometimes these supplementary studies shed light on specific passages, such as ornamentation in the Song of Deborah, but they are also part of a database of information that gives us the kind of general background helpful in approaching many passages in Judges and elsewhere. For example, the same list of ornamental devices can also help us appreciate the Psalms of David. The point is that as you study the Bible, these are some of the things you should consider, because they will help you recover the setting of the original audience, which is a necessary prerequisite to uncovering the meaning of the biblical text and, ultimately identifying its relevance. 162

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Appendix A: The Four-Part Cycle in Judges Judge *Othniel

*Ehud

Rebellion

Retribution

Repentance

3:7 “The Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD” 3:12a “the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD”

3:8 “he sold them into the hand of...Aram”

3:9a “the Israelites cried out to the LORD”

3:12b “the LORD gave Eglon power over Israel”

3:15a “the Israelites cried out to the LORD”

Shamgar *Deborah

*Gideon

Abimelech

Tola

4:1 “the Israelites... did evil in the eyes of the LORD” 6:1a “the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD”

Restoration Deliver—Peace 3:9b-10a “he raised up for them a deliverer...”

3:11 “the land was quiet forty years”

3:15b “he gave them a deliverer” 3:30a “Moab was made subject” 3:31 “He too saved Israel” 4:2 “the 4:3 “the 4:23 “God LORD sold Israelites subdued them into the cried out to Jabin” hands of the LORD” Jabin” 6:1b “he gave 6:6 “the (6:14 “Am I them into the Israelites not sending hands of the cried out to you?”) Midianites” the LORD” 8:28 “Midian was subdued”

3:30 “the land was quiet eighty years”

(8:33 “the Israelites prostituted themselves to the Baals”) (8:33 “the Israelites prostituted themselves to the Baals”)

10:1 “rose to save Israel”

Jair

(10:3 “led Israel”)

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5:31c “the land was quiet forty years” 8:28b “the land was quiet forty years”

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy *Jephthah

10:6 Israelites evil in eyes of LORD”

“the did the the

10:7 “he sold them into the hands of the Philistines and the Ammonites”

10:10 “the Israelites cried out to the LORD”

Ibzan

(12:8 Israel”) (12:11 Israel”) (12:13 Israel”) (15:20 Israel”)

Elon Abdon *Samson

*Eli

13:1a “the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD” (1 Sam 2:12 “Eli’s sons were wicked men….”)

*Samuel

(1 Sam 7:3 “…rid yourselves of the foreign gods and the Ashtoreths”)

Saul

1 Sam 8:7b …they have rejected me as their king. (also 10:19a)

11:33 “Israel subdued Ammon” (12:7 “led Israel”)

13:1b “the LORD gave them into the hands of the Philistines” 1 Sam 4:2b “Israel was defeated by the Philistines…” (also v. 10)

“led “led “led “led

(1 Sam 4:18 “led Israel”)

1 Sam 7:2 “Israel sought after the LORD” (cf. v. 4)

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1 Sam 7:13 “the Philistines were subdued” (1 Sam 7:15 “judge over Israel”) (1 Sam 13:1b “reigned over Israel”)

(1 Sam 7:14c …there was peace between Israel and the Amorites.)

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Appendix B: Mlv in Judges Recompense by punishing evil Judg 1:6 Adoni-Bezek fled, but they chased him and caught him, and cut off his thumbs and big toes. 7 Then Adoni-Bezek said, “Seventy kings with their thumbs and big toes cut off have picked up scraps under my table. Now God has paid me back [MA;lIv D10] for what I did to them.” They brought him to Jerusalem, and he died there.

Interpersonal relationships—man to man Judg 4:17 Sisera, however, fled on foot to the tent of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, because there were friendly relations between Jabin king of Hazor and the clan of Heber the Kenite.

Welfare—or—Tranquility (or both) Judg 6:22 When Gideon realized that it was the angel of the LORD, he exclaimed, “Ah, Sovereign LORD! I have seen the angel of the LORD face to face!” 23 But the LORD said to him, “Peace! Do not be afraid. You are not going to die.” 24 So Gideon built an altar to the LORD there and called it The LORD is Peace. To this day it stands in Ophrah of the Abiezrites.

Safety (—> triumph) Judg 8:5 [Gideon] said to the men of Succoth, “Give my troops some bread; they are worn out, and I am still pursuing Zebah and Zalmunna, the kings of Midian.” 6 But the officials of Succoth said, “Do you already have the hands of Zebah and Zalmunna in your possession? Why should we give bread to your troops?” 7 Then Gideon replied, “Just for that, when the LORD has given Zebah and Zalmunna into my hand, I will tear your flesh with desert thorns and briers.” 8 From there he went up to Peniel [a] and made the same request of them, but they answered as the men of Succoth had. 9 So he said to the men of Peniel, “When I return in triumph, I will tear down this tower.”

Completeness—or—Peace from war Judg 11:12 Then Jephthah sent messengers to the Ammonite king with the question: “What do you have against us that you have attacked our country?” 13 The king of the Ammonites answered Jephthah’s messengers, “When Israel came up out of Egypt, they took away my land from the Arnon to the Jabbok, all the way to the Jordan. Now give it back peaceably.”

Safety (—> triumph) Judg 11:30 And Jephthah made a vow to the LORD: “If you give the Ammonites into my hands, 31 whatever comes out of the door of my house to meet me when I return in triumph from the Ammonites will be the LORD’s, and I will sacrifice it as a burnt offering.”

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Welfare—or—Tranquility Judg 18:5 Then [the Danite warriors] said to [the Levite], “Please inquire of God to learn whether our journey will be successful.” 6 The priest answered them, “Go in peace. Your journey has the LORD’s approval.”

Welfare Judg 18:15 So [the Danite warriors] turned in there and went to the house of the young Levite at Micah’s place and greeted him. Judg 19:20a “You are welcome at my house,” the old man said. “Let me supply whatever you need.

Interpersonal relationships—God to man Judg 20:26 Then the Israelites, all the people, went up to Bethel, and there they sat weeping before the LORD. They fasted that day until evening and presented burnt offerings and fellowship offerings [MyImDlVv] to the LORD. Judg 21:4 Early the next day the people built an altar and presented burnt offerings and fellowship offerings [MyImDlVv].

Peace from war Judg 21:13 Then the whole assembly sent an offer of peace to the Benjamites at the rock of Rimmon. 14 So the Benjamites returned at that time and were given the women of Jabesh Gilead who had been spared. But there were not enough for all of them.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Appendix C: The Song of Deborah (Judg 5) [c. 1150] Superscription 1. And Deborah sang (with Barak, the son of Abinoam) on that day, saying: I.

+ =

– =–

– =– = ≠

II.

ABC

…

The Deliverer A. God 2. When leaders led in Israel,392 When people volunteered—Bless the LORD! [Inclusio] 3. Hear, O kings! Listen, O rulers! I, to the LORD, I will sing; I will chant to the LORD, the God of Israel. 4. O LORD, when You went out from Seir,393 [Theophany] when You marched from the field of Edom, earth quaked, also heaven dripped, also clouds dripped water; 5. mountains shook before the LORD, this One of Sinai, before the LORD, the God of Israel. B. Deborah 6. In the days of Shamgar, the son of Anat,394 In the days of Yael, highways ceased395 and travelers walked twisted paths; 7. peasantry ceased, ceased in Israel, Until I, Deborah, arose, Until I, a mother396 in Israel, arose. 8. New gods were chosen,397 then war was in the gates; [But] neither shield was seen, nor spear, among the forty units in Israel.398 9. My heart [goesout] to the commanders of Israel, the volunteers among the people— Bless the LORD! [Inclusio] The Combatants A. Leaders 10. O riders of white donkeys, O sitters on [cart] blankets, O walkers on [the] way— converse! 11. Among the sound of water drawers at watering places, there they will recount the righteous [deeds] of the LORD, the righteous [deeds] of His peasantry in Israel. Then the people of the LORD went down to the gates. 12. “Awake, awake, O Deborah! [Immediate repetition]

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy – =–

B. +

+ C.

– =–

Awake, awake; recite a poem! [Immediate repetition] Arise, O Barak! [Epithetic word pair: PN1//son of PN2 ⇓] And lead your captives, O son of Abinoam!” Troops 13. Then survivors came down to [the] nobles; The LORD’s people came down to me with the warriors: 14. from Ephraim, [those] whose root is in Amalek;399 after you, Benjamin,400 with your people; from Machir401 commanders came down, and from Zebulun, [those] who wield a scribe’s staff; 15. also officers from Issachar [were] with Deborah. And Issachar, like Barak, was sent on foot in the valley; Among the divisions of Reuben [were] chieftains resolute of heart. 16. [So] why did you sit with the saddlebags listening to the piping of the flock? The divisions of Reuben had chieftains faint of heart! 17. Gilead dwelled across the Jordan. And Dan, why did you sojourn in ships? Asher sat by the shore of the sea, and Issachar was by his landings. 18. [But] Zebulun is a people that reproached its soul to death, and Naphtali was on the heights of the field. Nature 19. Kings came, they fought; Then the kings of Canaan fought [Ballast variant] at Taanach by the waters of Megiddo; [but] they took no plunder of silver. 20. From heaven the stars fought; [Personification] From their courses they fought with Sisera. [Ballast variant] 21. The Kishon River swept them away, the ancient river, the Kishon River. You tread the throat of [the] mighty.402 [Personification] 22. Then horse’s hooves hammered, the galloping galloping of his mighty ones. [Onomatopoeia] 23. “Cursed is Meroz,”403 said the angel of the LORD. “Surely cursed is its inhabitants, because they did not come to the LORD’s aid, to the LORD’s aid against the warriors.”

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The Women A. Hostess 24. She is most blessed among women, X Yael, the wife of Heber the Kenite; Among tent women she is most blessed. 25. Water he requested: [Introductory monocolon] milk she gave, X in a magnificent bowl, she brought curds. 26. Her hand stretched out to the tent peg, … and her right hand to a laborer’s hammer. And she hammered Sisera; = she smashed his head, and she shattered and pierced his temple. 27. Between her feet he bent, he fell, ABC he slept. Between her feet he bent, he fell; where he bent, there he fell, devastated. B. Mother 28. Through the window she looked down, [Irony ⇓] + and the mother of Sisera cried out through the lattice: “Why does his mount delay in coming? = Why do the steps of his chariots tarry?” [Ballast variant] 29. The wise ones of her servants answer her (although she repeats her musings to herself): – =– 30. “Will they not find; will they not divide plunder— n, n+1 [= abundance] One woman, two women for each man; Plunder of dyed cloth for Sisera, plunder of dyed cloth; n, n+1 One piece of embroidered work, two pieces of dyed embroidered work?”

≠

Postscript 31. Thus may all Your enemies perish, O LORD; But may those who love You be like the sun rising in its strength. [Simile] And the land was quiet forty years.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Appendix D: The Anatomy of Apostasy I.

II.

III.

The attraction of Baal worship A. The Authority of Baal • Canaan B. The Responsibility of Baal • Rain (fertility) C. The Liturgy of Baal • Idolatrous (sensual) D. The Morality of Baal • Selfishness The influence of Baal worship A. The names of people • Jerub-Baal (“May Baal contend” 6:32; 7:1) B. The names of places • Baal-Berith (“Baal of the covenant” 8:33; 9:4) • Baal-Hermon (“Baal of Hermon” 3:3) • Baal-Tamar (“Baal of Tamar” 20:33) The Goddesses of Baal worship A. The mother of Baal • Asherah/Asheroth (3:7; 6:26-30) B. The consort of Baal • Ashtorah/Ashtaroth (2:13; 10:6)

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Appendix E: A List of Oaths in the OT I.

Divine Oaths (24): “As surely as I live” yˆnDa_yAj

Num 14:21 …as surely as I live and as surely as the glory of the LORD fills the whole earth, …23b No one who has treated me with contempt will ever see it…. 28 …As surely as I live, declares the LORD, I will do to you the very things I heard you say: Deut 32:40b As surely as I live forever… 41b I will take vengeance on my adversaries and repay those who hate me. Isa 49:18b As surely as I live,” declares the LORD, “you will wear them all as ornaments; you will put them on, like a bride. Jer 22:24 As surely as I live,” declares the LORD, even if you, Jehoiachin son of Jehoiakim king of Judah, were a signet ring on my right hand, I would still pull you off. Jer 46:18 As surely as I live, declares the King, whose name is the LORD Almighty, one will come who is like Tabor among the mountains, like Carmel by the sea. Ezek 5:11 …as surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, because you have defiled my sanctuary with all your vile images and detestable practices, I myself will withdraw my favor; I will not look on you with pity or spare you. Ezek 14:16 [= vv. 18, 20] as surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, even if these three men were in it, they could not save their own sons or daughters. They alone would be saved, but the land would be desolate. Ezek 16:48 As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, your sister Sodom and her daughters never did what you and your daughters have done. Ezek 17:16 As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, he shall die in Babylon, in the land of the king who put him on the throne, whose oath he despised and whose treaty he broke…. 19 …this is what the Sovereign LORD says: As surely as I live, I will bring down on his head my oath that he despised and my covenant that he broke. Ezek 18:3 As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, you will no longer quote this proverb in Israel. Ezek 20:3c [= v. 31c] As surely as I live, I will not let you inquire of me, declares the Sovereign LORD…. 33 As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, I will rule over you with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm and with outpoured wrath. Ezek 33:11a …As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, I take no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but rather that they turn from their ways and live…. 27 …This is what the Sovereign LORD says: As surely as I live, those who are left in the ruins will fall by the sword, those out in the country I will give to the wild animals to be devoured, and those in strongholds and caves will die of a plague. Ezek 34:8a As surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD… 10b I am against the shepherds and will hold them accountable for my flock. Ezek 35:6a …as surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, I will give you over to bloodshed and it will pursue you…. 11 …as surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, I will treat you in accordance with the anger and jealousy you showed in your hatred of them and I will make myself known among them when I judge you. Zeph 2:9a …as surely as I live,” declares the LORD Almighty…Moab will become like Sodom, the Ammonites like Gomorrah….

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy II.

Human Oaths (34): “As surely as the LORD lives” hÎwøh◊y_yAj

Judg 8:19 Gideon replied…, “As surely as the LORD lives, if you had spared their lives, I would not kill you.” Ruth 3:13b …if he is not willing [to redeem you], as surely as the LORD lives I will do it. 1 Sam 14:39a As surely as the LORD who rescues Israel lives, even if it lies with my son Jonathan, he must die." …45 …the men said…, “As surely as the LORD lives, not a hair of his head will fall to the ground….” 1 Sam 19:6 Saul…took this oath: “As surely as the LORD lives, David will not be put to death.” 1 Sam 20:3 …David took an oath… “…as surely as the LORD lives and as you live, there is only a step between me and death.” …21 [Jonathan said] “…as surely as the LORD lives, you are safe; there is no danger.” 1 Sam 25:26b “…as surely as the LORD lives and as you live, may your enemies and all who intend to harm my master be like Nabal…. 34 Otherwise, as surely as the LORD, the God of Israel, lives, who has kept me from harming you, if you had not come quickly to meet me, not one male belonging to Nabal would have been left alive by daybreak." 1 Sam 26:10 As surely as the LORD lives,” he said, “the LORD himself will strike him….” …16b “As surely as the LORD lives, you and your men deserve to die….” 1 Sam 28:10 Saul swore to her by the LORD, “As surely as the LORD lives, you will not be punished for this.” 1 Sam 29:6a …Achish called David… “As surely as the LORD lives, you have been reliable….” 2 Sam 4:9 David answered… “As surely as the LORD lives, who has delivered me out of all trouble, 10 when a man told me, ‘Saul is dead,’ …I…put him to death…. 2 Sam 12:5 David…said… “As surely as the LORD lives, the man who did this deserves to die!” 2 Sam 14:11b “As surely as the LORD lives,” he said, “not one hair of your son’s head will fall to the ground.” 2 Sam 15:21 …Ittai replied… “As surely as the LORD lives, and as my lord the king lives, wherever my lord the king may be, whether it means life or death, there will your servant be.” 1 Kgs 1:29 The king…took an oath: “As surely as the LORD lives, who has delivered me out of every trouble, 30 I will surely carry out today what I swore to you by the LORD, the God of Israel: Solomon your son shall be king after me, and he will sit on my throne in my place.” 1 Kgs 2:24 …as surely as the LORD lives…Adonijah shall be put to death today!” 1 Kgs 17:1 Now Elijah the Tishbite, from Tishbe in Gilead, said to Ahab, "As the LORD, the God of Israel, lives, whom I serve, there will be neither dew nor rain in the next few years except at my word.” …12a “As surely as the LORD your God lives,” she replied, “I don't have any bread--only a handful of flour in a jar and a little oil in a jug.” 1 Kgs 18:10a As surely as the LORD your God lives, there is not a nation or kingdom where my master has not sent someone to look for you…. 15 Elijah said, "As the LORD Almighty lives, whom I serve, I will surely present myself to Ahab today." 1 Kgs 22:14 [2 Chr 18:13]…Micaiah said, “As surely as the LORD lives, I can tell him only what the LORD tells me.”

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy 2 Kgs 2:2b Elisha said, “As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you.” …4b And he replied, "As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you…. 6b And he replied, "As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you." 2 Kgs 3:14 Elisha said, "As surely as the LORD Almighty lives, whom I serve, if I did not have respect for the presence of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, I would not look at you or even notice you. 2 Kgs 4:30a …the child’s mother said, “As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you.” 2 Kgs 5:16a The prophet answered, “As surely as the LORD lives, whom I serve, I will not accept a thing.” …20 Gehazi…said to himself, “As surely as the LORD lives, I will run after him and get something from him.” 2 Chr 18:13 But Micaiah said, "As surely as the LORD lives, I can tell him only what my God says." Jer 4:2 …if in a truthful, just and righteous way you swear, ‘As surely as the LORD lives,’ then the nations will be blessed by him and in him they will glory.” Jer 5:2 Although they say, ‘As surely as the LORD lives,’ still they are swearing falsely.” Jer 12:16 …if they…swear by my name, saying, ‘As surely as the LORD lives’…then they will be established among my people. Jer 16:14 [= 23:7-8] …men will no longer say, ‘As surely as the LORD lives, who brought the Israelites up out of Egypt,’ 15 but they will say, ‘As surely as the LORD lives, who brought the Israelites up out of the land of the north…. Jer 38:16 …King Zedekiah swore this oath… “As surely as the LORD lives, who has given us breath, I will neither kill you nor hand you over to those who are seeking your life.” Jer 44:26 But hear the word of the LORD, all Jews living in Egypt: 'I swear by my great name,' says the LORD, 'that no one from Judah living anywhere in Egypt will ever again invoke my name or swear, "As surely as the Sovereign LORD lives." Hos 4:15…do not swear, ‘As surely as the LORD lives!’ 2 Sam 2:27 Joab answered, "As surely as God lives, if you had not spoken, the men would have continued the pursuit of their brothers until morning. " Job 27:2 "As surely as God lives, who has denied me justice, the Almighty, who has made me taste bitterness of soul,

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Other Oaths

Gen 42:15b As surely as Pharaoh lives, you will not leave this place unless your youngest brother comes here…. 16b If you are not [telling the truth], then as surely as Pharaoh lives, you are spies!" 1 Sam 1:26 and she said to him, "As surely as you live, my lord, I am the woman who stood here beside you praying to the LORD. 1 Sam 17:55b Abner replied, "As surely as you live, O king, I don't know." 1 Sam 20:3b Yet as surely as the LORD lives and as you live, there is only a step between me and death." 1 Sam 25:26 "Now since the LORD has kept you, my master, from bloodshed and from avenging yourself with your own hands, as surely as the LORD lives and as you live, may your enemies and all who intend to harm my master be like Nabal. 2 Sam 11:11 Uriah said to David… "How could I go to my house to eat and drink and lie with my wife? As surely as you live, I will not do such a thing!" 2 Sam 14:19b The woman answered, "As surely as you live, my lord the king, no one can turn to the right or to the left from anything my lord the king says. 2 Sam 15:21 But Ittai replied to the king, "As surely as the LORD lives, and as my lord the king lives, wherever my lord the king may be, whether it means life or death, there will your servant be." 2 Kgs 2:2b But Elisha said, "As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you." …4b And he replied, "As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you." …6b And he replied, "As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you." 2 Kgs 4:30a But the child's mother said, "As surely as the LORD lives and as you live, I will not leave you." Amos 8:14 They who swear by the shame of Samaria, or say, 'As surely as your god lives, O Dan,' or, 'As surely as the god of Beersheba lives'--they will fall, never to rise again."

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Bibliography Aharoni, Yohanan 1979 The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Aharoni, Yohanan and Michael Avi-Yonah 1977 The Macmillan Bible Atlas. Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc. Beeston, A.F.L. 1979 “Hebrew `S´ ibbolet and `S´ obel.” JSS 24:175-177. Boling, Robert G. 1975 Judges. AB. Garden City: Doubleday and Company, Inc. Bright, John 1981 A History of Israel. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Cartledge, Tony W. 1989 “Were Nazirite Vows Unconditional?” CBQ 51:409-422. Cundall, A.E. 1975 “Judges, Period of.” ZPEB 3:754-758. Cundall, A.E. and Leon Morris 1968 Judges and Ruth: An Introduction and Commentary. TOTC 7. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. Davies, G. Henton 1963 “Judges viii.22-23.” VT 13/2:151-147. de Vaux, Roland 1967 Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Demsky, Aaron 1977 “A Proto-Canaanite Abecedary Dating from the Period of the Judges and Its Implications for the History of the Alphabet.” Tel Aviv 4:1427. Demsky, Aaron and Moshe Kochavi 1978 “An Alphabet from the Days of the Judges.” BAR 4:22-30. Drews, Robert 1989 “The ‘Chariots of Iron’ of Joshua and Judges.” JSOT 45:15-23.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Dumbrell, W.J. 1983 “‘In those days there was no king in Israel; every man did what was right in his own eyes.’ The Purpose of the Book of Judges Reconsidered.” JSOT 25:23-33. Eissfeldt, Otto 1968 “Renaming in the Old Testament.” In Words and Meanings: Essays Presented to David Winton Thomas, pp. 69-79. Edited by Peter R. Ackroyd and Barnabas Lindars. Cambridge: University Press. Emerton, J.A. 1982 “New Light on Israelite Religion: The Implications of the Inscriptions from Kuntillet ‘Ajrud.” ZAW 94:2-20. Gibson, J.C.L. 1978 Canaanite Myths and Legends. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, Ltd. Gordon, Cyrus H. 1935 “Myhla in Its Reputed Meaning of Judges, Rulers.” JBL 54:139-144. Greenberg, Moshe 1983 Biblical Prose Prayer as a Window to the Popular Religion of Israel. The Taubman Lectures in Jewish Studies: Sixth Series. Berkeley: University of California Press. Greenspahn, Frederick E. 1982 “An Egyptian Parallel to Judg 17:6 and 21:25.” JBL 101/1:129-130. Haran, Menahem 1985 Temples and Temple-Service in Ancient Israel: An Inquiry into Biblical Cult Phenomena and the Historical Setting of the Priestly School. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. Hirsch, Frank E. 1915 “Crime.” ISBE 2:745-748. Honeyman, A.M. 1953 “The Salting of Shechem.” VT 3:192-195. Kochavi, Moshe 1977 “An Ostracon of the Period of the Judges from ‘Izbet Sarteh.” Tel Aviv 4:1-13. Lewis, Arthur 1979 Judges/Ruth. EBC. Chicago: Moody Press.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Lewis, C.S. 1962 The Problem of Pain. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Manuel, Paul http://paulwmanuel.blogspot.com 1995 “The Angel of the Lord.” Angelology Excursus 1 in A Reader’s Digest Approach to Theology. 1999 “Erroneous Assumptions and Essential Attitudes about Worship.” 2000 “Deception in the Bible: Is Lying Always Wrong?” 2001 “Circumcision of the Heart.” Soteriology Excursus 9 in A Reader’s Digest Approach to Theology. “The Image of God in Man.” Anthropology Excursus 1 in A Reader’s Digest Approach to Theology. 2002 Biblically Correct: Applying Religious Principles to the Real World. “Divorce and Remarriage.” 2003 “Why Do They Hate Us?” “Worshiping God in the Light of His Holiness” (2 Sam 6). [Sermon] 2004 “The Holy Spirit’s Ministry in the OT” Pneumatology Excursus in A Reader’s Digest Approach to Theology. 2005 “The Promise of the Divine Presence.” Praying through Tough Problems: Biblical Models for Arguing with God. 2007 “The Practices of Covenant Review and Covenant Renewal and Their Relation to the New Covenant.” “What Is a Miracle?” Theology Excursus 6 in A Reader’s Digest Approach to Theology. 2009 “Understanding What God Has Said.” 2010 Toward Meaning. “Ideology—Theocratic Constraints.” “Language—Linguistic Constraints.” “Methodology—Interpretive Constraints.” “Milieu—Environmental Constraints” “Poetics—Literary Constraints.” “Why Did Jesus Come? Reasons for the Incarnation in the Savior’s Own Words.” 2012 “Unpardonable Sin.” Soteriology Excursus 6 in A Reader’s Digest Approach to Theology. Why Do the Righteous Suffer? Marquart, J. 1888 “s`´ ibbo¯ let = ephraimitisch sibbo¯ let = s´ ibbo¯ let?” ZAW 8:151-155. 177

Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Mazar, Amihai 1990 Archaeology of the Land of the Bible 10,000-586 B.C.E. New York: Doubleday. Meshel, Ze’ev 1979 “Did Yahweh Have a Consort? The New Religious Inscriptions from the Sinai.” BAR 5/2:24-35. Miller, J. Maxwell, and John H. Hayes 1986 A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. Pettinato, Giovanni 1980 “Ebla and the Bible.” BA 43:203-216. Rabinovich, Abraham 1992 “Tablet Mentions Canaanite King.” Jerusalem Post International Edition August 15, p. 5. Rendsburg, Gary A. 1986 “More on Hebrew `S´ ibbo¯ let.” JSS 33:255-258. Smeder, Lewis B. 2000 “Is Suicide Unforgivable?” CT 44/8 (July 10):61. Smith, Brendan 2001 The Brick Testament. www.thebricktestament.com. Stigers, H.G. 1975 “Dagon, Temples of.” ZPEB 2:2-6. Terry, Milton S. 1974 Biblical Hermeneutics: A Treatise on the Interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House. Wenham, J.W. 1967 “Large Numbers in the Old Testament.” Tyndale Bulletin 18:19-53. Wood, Leon 1975 Distressing Days of the Judges. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House.

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Judges: The Struggle for Autonomy Endnotes 1

Several passages chronicle Israel’s time before entering the land. • Egypt Gen 15:13 …your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own, and they will be enslaved and mistreated four hundred years. 16a In the fourth generation your descendants will come back here…. Exod 12:40 Now the length of time the Israelite people lived in Egypt was 430 years. 41 At the end of the 430 years, to the very day, all the LORD’s divisions left Egypt. Gal 3:17 …The law, introduced 430 years later, does not…do away with the promise. • Wilderness Exod 16:35a The Israelites ate manna forty years, until they came to a land that was settled…. Num 14:33 Your children will be shepherds here for forty years, suffering for your unfaithfulness…. 34 For forty years…you will suffer for your sins….’ Num 32:13a The LORD’s anger burned against Israel and he made them wander in the desert forty years…. Deut 2:7c These forty years the LORD your God has been with you, and you have not lacked anything. Deut 8:2a Remember how the LORD your God led you all the way in the desert these forty years…. 4 Your clothes did not wear out and your feet did not swell during these forty years. Deut 29:5a During the forty years that I led you through the desert…. 2 In the Hebrew Bible, these books are part of the Prophets. Cundall (1968:17) observes that: The implication of the inclusion of dominantly historical books amongst the Prophets should be carefully noted, for it reveals a fundamental attitude of the Israelite historians. They were not concerned merely to compile an authoritative record of their nation’s history; their motive was to draw out the religious truths which were implicit in that history. This in turn witnesses to their developed sense of the sovereignty of God, whose mind and will were discernible through historical events as well as through the words of His servants the prophets. See also Manuel 2010 Toward Meaning: “Ideology—Theocratic Constraints.” 3 This is one of the major constraints on meaning. For a fuller treatment of this particular aspect, see Manuel 2010 Toward Meaning: Ideology “Theocratic Constraints,” II. Obligations. 4 The psalmist notes how the Israelites’ repeated disobedience led to the repetition of this cycle. Ps 106:34 They did not destroy the peoples as the LORD had commanded them, 35 but they mingled with the nations and adopted their customs…. 40 Therefore the LORD was angry with his people and abhorred his inheritance. 41 He handed them over to the nations, and their foes ruled over them…. 43 Many times he delivered them, but they were bent on rebellion and they wasted away in their sin. 5 See Manuel 2009 “Understanding What God Has Said” and 2010 “Milieu—Environmental Constraints.” This is also another major constraint on meaning (see Manuel 2001 Toward Meaning: “Methodology—Interpretive Constraints.. 6 This phrase appears several times throughout the book. Judg 1:21b to this day the Jebusites live there…. 26b Luz…is its name to this day. Judg 6:24b To this day it stands in Ophrah of the Abiezrites.

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Judg 10:4b They controlled thirty towns in Gilead, which to this day are called Havvoth Jair. Judg 15:19c So the spring was called En Hakkore, and it is still there in Lehi. Judg 18:12b This is why the place west of Kiriath Jearim is called Mahaneh Dan to this day. 7 References to the movement of the ark include: 1 Sam 7:1 So the men of Kiriath Jearim came and took up the ark of the LORD. They took it to Abinadab’s house…consecrated Eleazar his son to guard the ark of the LORD. 2 Sam 6:12b So David went down and brought up the ark of God from the house of ObedEdom to the City of David with rejoicing. 8 This temporal marker is normally part of a longer phrase that appears four times. Judg 17:6a In those days Israel had no king…. Judg 18:1 In those days Israel had no king. And in those days the tribe of the Danites was seeking a place of their own where they might settle…. Judg 19:1a In those days Israel had no king. Judg 21:25a In those days Israel had no king…. 9 A similar time stamp occurs in… 2 Kgs 17:6a In the ninth year of Hoshea, the king of Assyria captured Samaria…. 10 For an alternate map, see #4 (Palestine During Ancient Times) in Miller (1986). 11 For alternate maps, see #10 (The Routes in Palestine) in Aharoni (1977) and #5 (Main Roads and Cities of Ancient Palestine) in Miller (1986). 12 Reference to those groups include: Judg 1:4a When Judah attacked, the LORD gave the Canaanites and Perizzites into their hands…. 34a The Amorites confined the Danites to the hill country…. Judg 3:5 The Israelites lived among the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites. 13 Israel’s structure was similar (see Excursus: The Social Structure of Israel). 14 Ease of access determined pre-tribal settlements. Judg 1:27a But Manasseh did not drive out the people of Beth Shan or Taanach or Dor or Ibleam or Megiddo…. 29a Nor did Ephraim drive out the Canaanites living in Gezer…. 31 Nor did Asher drive out those living in Acco or Sidon or Ahlab or Aczib or Helbah or Aphek or Rehob, 15 Chief examples were Jericho and Luz (Bethel). Josh 6:20 When the trumpets sounded, the people shouted, and…the wall collapsed…. Judg 1:24 the spies saw a man coming out of the city and they said to him, “Show us how to get into the city and we will see that you are treated well.” NB: The spies made the same offer to this man as they did to Rahab. Both residents kept their promises and gained some notoriety, one as an architect… Judg 1:26 He then went to the land of the Hittites, where he built a city and called it Luz, which is its name to this day. …the other as an ancestor of the messiah. Josh 6:25 But Joshua spared Rahab…and she lives among the Israelites to this day. Matt 1:5a Salmon the father of Boaz, whose mother was Rahab… 16 Examples of such cooperation include: Josh 10:5 Then the five kings of the Amorites—the kings of Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish and Eglon—joined forces. They moved up with all their troops and took up positions against Gibeon and attacked it.

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Josh 11:1 When Jabin king of Hazor heard of this, he sent word to Jobab king of Madon, to the kings of Shimron and Acshaph, 2 and to the northern kings who were in the mountains, in the Arabah south of Kinnereth, in the western foothills and in Naphoth Dor on the west; 3 to the Canaanites in the east and west; to the Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites and Jebusites in the hill country; and to the Hivites below Hermon in the region of Mizpah. 4 They came out with all their troops and a large number of horses and chariots—a huge army, as numerous as the sand on the seashore. 5 All these kings joined forces…to fight against Israel. 17 The Israelites encountered the first such alliance immediately upon entering the land. Judg 1:4 When Judah attacked, the LORD gave the Canaanites and Perizzites into their hands and they struck down ten thousand men at Bezek. More often, though, resistance was localized. Judg 1:8 The men of Judah attacked Jerusalem also and took it…. 10a They advanced against the Canaanites living in Hebron…. 11a From there they advanced against the people living in Debir…. 18 The Iron Age (which follows the Bronze Age), so-called because it represents the introduction and dissemination of iron implements for farming and warfare into Canaanite society, covers two main periods (Mazar 1990:30): • Iron Age I (1200-1000) extends from the conquest of Canaan to the reign of David. • Iron Age II (1000-586) extends from the reign of David to the destruction of the (first) temple. 19 For an alternate map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). 20 Foreign elements remained in the city even after the Israelite conquest. Judg 19:12a …We won’t go into an alien city, whose people are not Israelites. 2 Sam 24:16b The angel of the LORD was then at the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite. 21 Idolatry is often the cause of Israel’s repeated sin. Judg 2:11 Then the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD and served the Baals. Judg 3:7 The Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD; they forgot the LORD their God and served the Baals and the Asherahs. Judg 3:12 Once again the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD, and because they did this evil the LORD gave Eglon king of Moab power over Israel. Judg 4:1 After Ehud died, the Israelites once again did evil in the eyes of the LORD. Judg 6:1 Again the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD, and for seven years he gave them into the hands of the Midianites. Judg 10:6 Again the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD. They served the Baals and the Ashtoreths, and the gods of Aram, the gods of Sidon, the gods of Moab, the gods of the Ammonites and the gods of the Philistines. And because the Israelites forsook the LORD and no longer served him, Judg 13:1 Again the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD, so the LORD delivered them into the hands of the Philistines for forty years. 22 Military hardware was probably costly and affordable only for those who could support a standing army, for which control over trade routes doubtless provided necessary revenue. • Philistines Judg 1:19c …they were unable to drive the people from the plains, because they had iron chariots.

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1 Sam 13:19 Not a blacksmith could be found in the whole land of Israel, because the Philistines had said, “Otherwise the Hebrews will make swords or spears!” 20 So all Israel went down to the Philistines to have their plowshares, mattocks, axes and sickles sharpened…. 22 So on the day of the battle not a soldier with Saul and Jonathan had a sword or spear in his hand; only Saul and his son Jonathan had them. • Canaanites Judg 4:3 …he had nine hundred iron chariots and had cruelly oppressed the Israelites for twenty years…. 13a Sisera gathered together his nine hundred iron chariots…. Judg 5:8b …not a shield or spear was seen among forty thousand in Israel. Josh 17:16b …all the Canaanites who live in the plain have iron chariots…. 23 The author cites the same reason for several tribes. Judg 1:28 When Israel became strong, they pressed the Canaanites into forced labor but never drove them out completely…. 30 Neither did Zebulun drive out the Canaanites living in Kitron or Nahalol, who remained among them; but they did subject them to forced labor…. 33 Neither did Naphtali drive out those living in Beth Shemesh or Beth Anath; but the Naphtalites too lived among the Canaanite inhabitants of the land, and those living in Beth Shemesh and Beth Anath became forced laborers for them. 35 And the Amorites were determined also to hold out in Mount Heres, Aijalon and Shaalbim, but when the power of the house of Joseph increased, they too were pressed into forced labor. 24 Recognizing service as an alternative to slaughter, the Gibeonites use deception to avoid death. Josh 9:9a …“Your servants have come from a very distant country because of the fame of the LORD your God….” 14 The men of Israel sampled their provisions but did not inquire of the LORD. 15a Then Joshua made a treaty of peace with them to let them live…. 25 Earlier, these tribes had requested land east of the Jordan. Num 32:1 The Reubenites and Gadites, who had very large herds and flocks, saw that the lands of Jazer and Gilead were suitable for livestock…. 16 Then they came up to [Moses] and said, “We would like to build pens here for our livestock and cities for our women and children. 17 But we are ready to arm ourselves and go ahead of the Israelites until we have brought them to their place. Meanwhile our women and children will live in fortified cities, for protection from the inhabitants of the land. 18 We will not return to our homes until every Israelite has received his inheritance. When the time comes, Joshua calls them to honor their previous commitment. Josh 1:12 But to the Reubenites, the Gadites and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Joshua said… 14 Your wives, your children and your livestock may stay in the land that Moses gave you east of the Jordan, but all your fighting men, fully armed, must cross over ahead of your brothers. You are to help your brothers 15 until the LORD gives them rest, as he has done for you, and until they too have taken possession of the land that the LORD your God is giving them. After that, you may go back and occupy your own land, which Moses the servant of the LORD gave you east of the Jordan toward the sunrise.” 26 “[T]he development of a waterproof lime-plaster made possible an efficient water storage in large underground cisterns and this in turn facilitated the opening up of the hitherto sparselypopulated, central hill-country” (Cundall 1968:33-34). 27 The dismissal is at Joshua’s command, suggesting that he accepted the partial victory. Perhaps he decided to leave the rest of the conquest to individual tribes.

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Judg 2:6 After Joshua had dismissed the Israelites, they went to take possession of the land, each to his own inheritance. 28 The author of Judges attributes the continued enemy presence to the Lord, but this may simply be an illustration of God’s sovereign ability to use existing events in furthering His agenda. Judg 3:1 These are the nations the LORD left to test all those Israelites who had not experienced any of the wars in Canaan 2 (he did this only to teach warfare to the descendants of the Israelites who had not had previous battle experience): 29 Whether through supernatural or natural means, God defeated Israel’s enemy. Judg 4:15 At Barak’s advance, the LORD routed Sisera and all his chariots and army by the sword, and Sisera abandoned his chariot and fled on foot. Judg 5:20 From the heavens the stars fought, from their courses they fought against Sisera. 21 The river Kishon swept them away, the age-old river, the river Kishon. March on, my soul; be strong! 30 Joshua seems to release them early, perhaps because he realizes that the momentum is lost. Josh 22:1 Then Joshua summoned the Reubenites, the Gadites and the half-tribe of Manasseh2 and said to them, “You have done all that Moses the servant of the LORD commanded, and you have obeyed me in everything I commanded. 3 For a long time now— to this very day—you have not deserted your brothers but have carried out the mission the LORD your God gave you. 4 Now that the LORD your God has given your brothers rest as he promised, return to your homes in the land that Moses the servant of the LORD gave you on the other side of the Jordan. 31 The problems Israel faced ranged from military superiority to stubborn determination. Judg 1:19b …the people from the plains, because they had iron chariots…. 27b …the Canaanites were determined to live in that land. Rather than the Coastal Plain, Cundall (1968:36) considers the other corridor to be the Aijalon Valley which, along with the Esdraelon Valley, then divided the land into three parts. Nevertheless, the Aijalon Valley extends only from Aijalon to Gezer (its outlet) and does not penetrate the hill country. Even with the Jebus enclave, sitting on the north-south route, the central and southern hill country remained essentially under Israelite control. 32 This situation argues against a later rise of monotheism in Israel. “It would have been more than a miracle had such a religion developed after the settlement, with all the forces making for disintegration and deterioration pressing in upon it” (Cundall 1968:37). 33 The following material comes (with few of the footnotes) from Manuel 2003 “Why Do They Hate Us?” The Quran states, Surah 5:44d …whosoever does not judge [or govern] by what Allâh has revealed, such are the Kâfirûn (i.e., disbelievers). A later passage refers specifically to Christians. Surah 5:47 Let the people of the Injeel (Gospel) judge by what Allâh has revealed therein. And whosoever does not judge by what Allâh has revealed (then) such (people) are the Fâsiqûn (the rebellious i.e., disobedient (of a lesser degree) to Allâh. 34 Other passages also advocate forced conversion. Surah 9:29 Fight against those who (1) believe not in Allâh, (2) nor in the Last Day, (3) nor forbid that which has been forbidden by Allâh and His Messenger (4) and those who acknowledge not the religion of truth (i.e. Islâm) among the people of the Scripture (Jews

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and Christians), until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued. Surah 57:25 Indeed We have sent Our Messengers with clear proofs, and revealed with them the Scripture and the Balance (justice) that mankind may keep up justice. And We brought forth iron wherein is mighty power (in matters of war), as well as many benefits for mankind, that Allâh may test who it is that will help Him (His religion), and His Messengers in the unseen. Verily, Allâh is All-Strong, All-Mighty. 35 It is also contrary to what was probably an earlier revelation to Muhammad. Surah 2:256a There is no compulsion in religion. 36 At rare points in history, some Jews (e.g., during the reign of Aristobulus I) and some Christians (e.g., during the Inquisition) sought to impose their beliefs on others. Ant 13.318 [Aristobulus I (104-103 BCE)] made war against Iturea, and added a great part of it to Judea, and compelled the inhabitants, if they would continue in that country, to be circumcised, and to live according to the Jewish laws. Those moments, however, were aberrations, did not represent God’s intention, and have been rejected as such by subsequent generations. 37 For an optional map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). 38 That base camp becomes the launching point for further operations. Josh 4:19 On the tenth day of the first month the people went up from the Jordan and camped at Gilgal on the eastern border of Jericho. Josh 9:6 Then they went to Joshua in the camp at Gilgal and said to him and the men of Israel, “We have come from a distant country; make a treaty with us.” Josh 10:6a The Gibeonites then sent word to Joshua in the camp at Gilgal….7a So Joshua marched up from Gilgal with his entire army…. Josh 10:15 Then Joshua returned with all Israel to the camp at Gilgal. The site was probably not a captured Canaanite settlement, although one local ruler has some connection to it. Josh 12:23 the king of Dor (in Naphoth Dor) one the king of Goyim in Gilgal one It may simply have been an open area suitable to quartering troops. Josh 15:7a The boundary then went up to Debir from the Valley of Achor and turned north to Gilgal, which faces the Pass of Adummim south of the gorge. It acquired its name from an event at the beginning of the invasion. Josh 5:9 Then the LORD said to Joshua, “Today I have rolled away [√llg] the reproach of Egypt from you.” So the place has been called Gilgal to this day. 39 The name appears only twice. Judg 2:1a The angel of the LORD went up from Gilgal to Bokim…. 5 and they called that place Bokim. There they offered sacrifices to the LORD. 40 Alternatively, it may simply have been another name for Shechem. 41 The author of the next book also mentions the cycle. 1 Sam 12:9 But they forgot the LORD their God; so he sold them into the hand of Sisera, the commander of the army of Hazor, and into the hands of the Philistines and the king of Moab, who fought against them. 10 They cried out to the LORD and said, ‘We have sinned; we have forsaken the LORD and served the Baals and the Ashtoreths. But now deliver us from the hands of our enemies, and we will serve you.’ 11 Then the LORD sent Jerub-Baal, Barak,

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Jephthah and Samuel, and he delivered you from the hands of your enemies on every side, so that you lived securely. 42 For more, see Appendix D: The Anatomy of Apostasy and Manuel 2010 Toward Meaning: “Milieu—Environmental Constraints.” 43 Shechem does not have a reputation for paganism. Quite the contrary… Gen 35:2 …Jacob said to…all who were with him, “Get rid of the foreign gods you have with you….” 4 So they gave Jacob all the foreign gods they had…and Jacob buried them under the oak at Shechem. 44 There was some intermarriage while the people were in Egypt, but God anticipated it would become a problem in the land. Gen 41:45a Pharaoh gave Joseph…Asenath daughter of Potiphera, priest of On, to be his wife. Exod 34:15 Be careful not to make a treaty with those who live in the land; for when they prostitute themselves to their gods and sacrifice to them, they will invite you and you will eat their sacrifices. 16 And when you choose some of their daughters as wives for your sons and those daughters prostitute themselves to their gods, they will lead your sons to do the same. Joshua issued a similar warning. Josh 23:12 “But if you turn away and ally yourselves with the survivors of these nations that remain among you and if you intermarry with them and associate with them, 13 then you may be sure that the LORD your God will no longer drive out these nations before you. Instead, they will become snares and traps for you, whips on your backs and thorns in your eyes, until you perish from this good land, which the LORD your God has given you. 45 The following material comes (without footnotes) from Manuel 2002 “Divorce and Remarriage.” 46 Their conversion preceded their marriage. Heb 11:31 By faith the prostitute Rahab, because she welcomed the spies, was not killed with those who were disobedient. Ruth 1:16 But Ruth replied, “Don’t urge me to leave you or to turn back from you…. Your people will be my people and your God my God. 47 This, too, Paul condemns. 2 Cor 6:14a Do not be yoked together with unbelievers…. 15b What does a believer have in common with an unbeliever? 48 The believing party should not attempt to keep the marriage intact against the wishes of an unbelieving spouse in the hope of some later conversion. 1 Cor 7:16 How do you know, wife, whether you will save your husband? Or, how do you know, husband, whether you will save your wife? 17 Nevertheless, each one should retain the place in life that the Lord assigned to him and to which God has called him. This is the rule I lay down in all the churches. The governing principle—“God has called us to live in peace” (7:15)—indicates that it is better to end the marriage than to endure the unrelenting strife of conflicting beliefs. 49 A related question is: Who is to blame when bad things happen? (See below.) • When tragedy is indiscriminate, the unfocused result of natural disaster (e.g., hurricane Katrina), it is a reminder that we live in a fallen world and that we need God’s help to survive.

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• When tragedy is discrete, the focused expression of human depravity (e.g., attack of 9/11), it is a reminder that we live among a sinful people and that we need God’s help to prevail. 50 See Manuel 2012 Why Do the Righteous Suffer? n. 5. 51 Moses issued a similar challenge. Deut 11:26 See, I am setting before you today a blessing and a curse—27 the blessing if you obey the commands of the LORD your God that I am giving you today; 28 the curse if you disobey the commands of the LORD your God and turn from the way that I command you today…. Deut 30:19 This day I call heaven and earth as witnesses against you that I have set before you life and death, blessings and curses. Now choose life… God mentions the choice to Ezekiel. Ezek 3:27b Whoever will listen let him listen, and whoever will refuse let him refuse…. 52 See the excursus “On mediate and immediate causation” in Manuel 2005 Praying through Tough Problems. 53 Put another way… • When the devil afflicts Job, is God to blame for Job’s suffering, having goaded the devil by extolling Job’s virtue, or is Satan to blame? Other examples include: • When the Amalakites attack Israel, is God to blame for Israel’s plight, having previously condemned the nation, or are the Amalakites to blame, having actually mounted the assault? • When a storm threatens the disciples on the Sea of Galilee, is God to blame for their suffering, or is enduring the turmoil of nature simply the consequence of living in a fallen world? 54 The following material is from an excursus in Manuel 2005 Praying through Tough Problems. 55 It is important to understand the difference. • Prescience means that God knows all things (both possible and actual) before they happen. • Predestination means that God makes some things (versus all things) to happen. 56 Even the vast majority of natural disasters (so-called “acts of God”) are not immediately attributable to God. Only specific revelation allows us to assign responsibility for such events with any certainty (e.g., Egyptian plagues). Absent that, the most we can say is they reflect the consequences of Adam’s (and Eve’s) decision to disobey God, a choice that has had far-reaching affects on their descendants, impacting even the environment. Gen 3:17 To Adam he said, “Because you…ate from the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You must not eat of it,’ “Cursed is the ground because of you…. Cf. Gen 5:29b …the ground the LORD has cursed.” Rom 8:20 For the creation was subjected to frustration, not by its own choice, but by the will of the one who subjected it, in hope 21 that the creation itself will be liberated from its bondage to decay and brought into the glorious freedom of the children of God. This observation does not minimize the affect of natural disasters, the toll they take in life and property. It simply recognizes that viewing such events as retribution for some contemporary sin, especially in the absence of divine commentary, is specious. 57 The Lord forbade this repeatedly, directly as well as through His spokesmen. • God Exod 34:16 And when you choose some of their daughters as wives for your sons and those daughters prostitute themselves to their gods, they will lead your sons to do the same.

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• Moses Deut 7:3a Do not intermarry with them…. 4 for they will turn your sons away from following me to serve other gods, and the LORD’s anger will burn against you and will quickly destroy you. • Joshua Josh 23:12 “But if you turn away and ally yourselves with the survivors of these nations that remain among you and if you intermarry with them and associate with them, 13 then you may be sure that the LORD your God will no longer drive out these nations before you. Instead, they will become snares and traps for you, whips on your backs and thorns in your eyes, until you perish from this good land, which the LORD your God has given you. Nevertheless, it was an ongoing problem for several generations, at times requiring drastic counter-measures. Num 25:1 While Israel was staying in Shittim, the men began to indulge in sexual immorality with Moabite women, 2 who invited them to the sacrifices to their gods. The people ate and bowed down before these gods. Cf. Num 25:7 When Phinehas son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, the priest, saw this, he left the assembly, took a spear in his hand 8 and followed the Israelite into the tent. He drove the spear through both of them…. Then the plague against the Israelites was stopped; 9 but those who died in the plague numbered 24,000. Judg 3:6 They took their daughters in marriage and gave their own daughters to their sons, and served their gods. Cf. Ezra 9:7b Because of our sins, we and our kings and our priests have been subjected to the sword and captivity, to pillage and humiliation at the hand of foreign kings, as it is today. Ezra 9:2 They have taken some of their daughters as wives for themselves and their sons, and have mingled the holy race with the peoples around them. And the leaders and officials have led the way in this unfaithfulness. Cf. Ezra 10:3a Now let us make a covenant before our God to send away all these women and their children, in accordance with the counsel of my lord and of those who fear the commands of our God. Neh 10:30 We promise not to give our daughters in marriage to the peoples around us or take their daughters for our sons. Cf. Neh 13:23 Moreover, in those days I saw men of Judah who had married women from Ashdod, Ammon and Moab…. 25 I rebuked them and called curses down on them. I beat some of the men and pulled out their hair. I made them take an oath in God’s name and said: “You are not to give your daughters in marriage to their sons, nor are you to take their daughters in marriage for your sons or for yourselves. 58 God, Himself, expresses this consequence. Judg 2:3a Now therefore I tell you that I will not drive them out before you….21 I will no longer drive out before them any of the nations Joshua left when he died. 59 So Paul warns… 2 Cor 6:14 Do not be yoked together with unbelievers. For what do righteousness and wickedness have in common? Or what fellowship can light have with darkness? 60 Paul warns about this as well. 1 Cor 10:12 So, if you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don’t fall!

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For an alternate map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). Many question the MT reading because the distance between Aram and Debir is so great. Hence, scholars propose several different identifications for Aram Naharaim. • Aram Naharaim may be northern Syria (Bright 1981:178-179). • Aram should read Edom, and Naharaim is a secondary addition (cf. Boling 1975:85). • Aram Naharaim should be redivided to read Armon Harim (“Fortress of the mountains”) and is local (Boling 1975:85; cf. Wood 1975:162-163). • Aram Naharaim is Damascus, which is fed by two rivers (Steve Lancaster, private communication). Other biblical references include: Gen 24:10b [Abraham’s servant] set out for Aram Naharaim and made his way to the town of Nahor. Deut 23:4b [The Moabites] hired Balaam son of Beor from Pethor in Aram Naharaim to pronounce a curse on you. 63 Compare the slightly less extended conflict in the Jezreel Valley between Deborah from Ephraim and Sisera from Hazor. 64 “Like the surrounding dialects [e.g., Eblaite, Phoenician], Biblical Hebrew…gave to s`´ pt. a double meaning; the more common usage refers to the judge and the process of adjudication, while the other sense, less frequent and perhaps more archaic, designates political and military activity. The passage from one meaning to the other is readily explained; ‘justice’ has always been a basic ingredient of good government, so that from the more general signification of exercising authority the term came to indicate the more specific function of deciding disputes” (J. Alberto Soggin in Pettinato 1980:208). 65 Others also had this responsibility: • Deborah Judg 4:4 Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth, was leading Israel at that time. • Tola Judg 10:2 He led Israel twenty-three years; then he died, and was buried in Shamir. • Jair Judg 10:3 He was followed by Jair of Gilead, who led Israel twenty-two years. • Jephthah Judg 12:7a Jephthah led Israel six years. • Ibzan Judg 12:8 After him, Ibzan of Bethlehem led Israel…. 9c Ibzan led Israel seven years. • Elon Judg 12:11 After him, Elon the Zebulunite led Israel ten years. • Abdon Judg 12:13 After him, Abdon son of Hillel, from Pirathon, led Israel…. 14b …eight years. • Samson Judg 15:20 Samson led Israel for twenty years in the days of the Philistines. Judg 16:31c He had led Israel twenty years. • Eli 1 Sam 4:18c [Eli] had led Israel forty years. • Samuel 1 Sam 7:15 Samuel continued as judge over Israel all the days of his life. 62

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Others also had this responsibility: • Ehud Judg 3:28 “Follow me,” he ordered, “for the LORD has given Moab, your enemy, into your hands.” So they followed him down and, taking possession of the fords of the Jordan that led to Moab, they allowed no one to cross over. 29 At that time they struck down about ten thousand Moabites, all vigorous and strong; not a man escaped. • Shamgar Judg 3:31 …Shamgar son of Anath…struck down six hundred Philistines with an oxgoad. He too saved Israel. • Deborah (through Barak) Judg 4:14 Then Deborah said to Barak, “Go! This is the day the LORD has given Sisera into your hands. Has not the LORD gone ahead of you?” So Barak went down Mount Tabor, followed by ten thousand men. 15 At Barak’s advance, the LORD routed Sisera and all his chariots and army by the sword, and Sisera abandoned his chariot and fled on foot. 16 But Barak pursued the chariots and army as far as Harosheth Haggoyim. All the troops of Sisera fell by the sword; not a man was left. • Gideon Judg 8:10 Now Zebah and Zalmunna were in Karkor with a force of about fifteen thousand men, all that were left of the armies of the eastern peoples; a hundred and twenty thousand swordsmen had fallen. 11 Gideon went up by the route of the nomads east of Nobah and Jogbehah and fell upon the unsuspecting army. 12 Zebah and Zalmunna, the two kings of Midian, fled, but he pursued them and captured them, routing their entire army. • Jephthah Judg 11:32 Then Jephthah went over to fight the Ammonites, and the LORD gave them into his hands. 33 He devastated twenty towns from Aroer to the vicinity of Minnith, as far as Abel Keramim. Thus Israel subdued Ammon. • Samson Judg 14:19 Then the Spirit of the LORD came upon him in power. He went down to Ashkelon, struck down thirty of their men, stripped them of their belongings and gave their clothes to those who had explained the riddle. Judg 15:14 As he approached Lehi, the Philistines came toward him shouting. The Spirit of the LORD came upon him in power. The ropes on his arms became like charred flax, and the bindings dropped from his hands. 15 Finding a fresh jawbone of a donkey, he grabbed it and struck down a thousand men. Judg 16:30 Samson said, “Let me die with the Philistines!” Then he pushed with all his might, and down came the temple on the rulers and all the people in it. Thus he killed many more when he died than while he lived. • Samuel 1 Sam 7:10 While Samuel was sacrificing the burnt offering, the Philistines drew near to engage Israel in battle. But that day the LORD thundered with loud thunder against the Philistines and threw them into such a panic that they were routed before the Israelites. 11 The men of Israel rushed out of Mizpah and pursued the Philistines, slaughtering them along the way to a point below Beth Car. 67 Jesus notes this motivation. Rev 3:19 Those whom I love I rebuke and discipline. So be earnest, and repent.

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The sage mentions this motivation again later. Prov 10:17a He who heeds discipline shows the way to life…. 69 For an alternate map, see #71 (The Border of the Tribal Territories) in Aharoni (1977). 70 Other passages identify it as Jericho. Deut 34:3 the Negev and the whole region from the Valley of Jericho, the City of Palms, as far as Zoar. 2 Chr 28:15d So they took them back to their fellow countrymen at Jericho, the City of Palms, and returned to Samaria. 71 For an alternate map, see #71 (The Border of the Tribal Territories) in Aharoni (1977). 72 For an alternate map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). 73 For an additional map, see #74 (The War of Ehud) in Aharoni (1977). 74 Verse 19a is a detail the narrator could easily have omitted but may have included for its rhetorical effect. Here, the narrator juxtaposes this example of Israel’s dilemma—idols where the ark once stood—and the beginning of Israel’s deliverance (with Ehud’s return to kill Eglon), using as the main verb a word that also means repentance (√bwv), the action that makes possible Israel’s move from dilemma to deliverance, from servitude to salvation. 75 A later reference implies that Israelite travel was restricted or, at least, unsafe. Judg 5:6 In the days of Shamgar son of Anath, in the days of Jael, the roads were abandoned; travelers took to winding paths. 76 For an alternate map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). 77 Isaiah heard the same pronouncement. Isa 6:3b “Holy, holy, holy is the LORD Almighty; the whole earth is full of his glory.” 78 When God promised the land to Abraham’s descendants, He knew that the current residents would continue their trajectory of evil. Gen 15:16 In the fourth generation your descendants will come back here, for the sin of the Amorites has not yet reached its full measure. When the time arrived for Israel to enter Canaan, the wickedness of the current residents, evinced in their immorality and idolatry, had so permeated Canaanite society as to have defiled the land. • Immorality Lev 18:24 Do not defile yourselves in any of these ways, because this is how the nations that I am going to drive out before you became defiled. 25 Even the land was defiled; so I punished it for its sin, and the land vomited out its inhabitants. • Idolatry Deut 18:9 When you enter the land the LORD your God is giving you, do not learn to imitate the detestable ways of the nations there. 10 Let no one be found among you who sacrifices his son or daughter in the fire, who practices divination or sorcery, interprets omens, engages in witchcraft, 11 or casts spells, or who is a medium or spiritist or who consults the dead. 12 Anyone who does these things is detestable to the LORD, and because of these detestable practices the LORD your God will drive out those nations before you…. 14 The nations you will dispossess listen to those who practice sorcery or divination. But as for you, the LORD your God has not permitted you to do so. 79 Similarly, David notes… Ps 11:4 The LORD is in his holy temple…. He observes the sons of men…. 5 The LORD examines the righteous, but the wicked…his soul hates.

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It is a promise He reiterates numerous times. Gen 12:7 The LORD appeared to Abram and said, “To your offspring I will give this land.” So he built an altar there to the LORD, who had appeared to him. Gen 13:14 The LORD said to Abram after Lot had parted from him, “Lift up your eyes from where you are and look north and south, east and west. 15 All the land that you see I will give to you and your offspring forever…. 17 Go, walk through the length and breadth of the land, for I am giving it to you.” Gen 15:18 On that day the LORD made a covenant with Abram and said, “To your descendants I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river, the Euphrates Gen 17:8 The whole land of Canaan, where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God. Gen 26:3 Stay in this land for a while, and I will be with you and will bless you. For to you and your descendants I will give all these lands and will confirm the oath I swore to your father Abraham. Gen 28:13 There above it stood the LORD, and he said: “I am the LORD, the God of your father Abraham and the God of Isaac. I will give you and your descendants the land on which you are lying. Deut 34:4 Then the LORD said to him, “This is the land I promised on oath to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob when I said, ‘I will give it to your descendants.’ I have let you see it with your eyes, but you will not cross over into it.” 81 While the Israelites were to destroy completely enemy settlements in the land, they could deal leniently with enemy settlements outside the land (at least initially). • Outside the land Deut 20:10 When you march up to attack a city, make its people an offer of peace. 11 If they accept and open their gates, all the people in it shall be subject to forced labor and shall work for you. 12 If they refuse to make peace and they engage you in battle, lay siege to that city. 13 When the LORD your God delivers it into your hand, put to the sword all the men in it. 14 As for the women, the children, the livestock and everything else in the city, you may take these as plunder for yourselves. And you may use the plunder the LORD your God gives you from your enemies. 15 This is how you are to treat all the cities that are at a distance from you and do not belong to the nations nearby. • Inside the land Deut 20:16 However, in the cities of the nations the LORD your God is giving you as an inheritance, do not leave alive anything that breathes. 17 Completely destroy them—the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites—as the LORD your God has commanded you. 18 Otherwise, they will teach you to follow all the detestable things they do in worshiping their gods, and you will sin against the LORD your God. 82 God takes responsibility for destroying the pagan people in the land. Exod 23:23 My angel will go ahead of you and bring you into the land of the Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites, Canaanites, Hivites and Jebusites, and I will wipe them out. Deut 12:29a The LORD your God will cut off before you the nations you are about to invade and dispossess. Deut 31:3a-b The LORD your God himself will cross over ahead of you. He will destroy these nations before you, and you will take possession of their land.

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Deut 33:27 The eternal God is your refuge, and underneath are the everlasting arms. He will drive out your enemy before you, saying, ‘Destroy him!’ Josh 24:8 I brought you to the land of the Amorites who lived east of the Jordan. They fought against you, but I gave them into your hands. I destroyed them from before you, and you took possession of their land. 83 Israel must not tolerate the presence of pagan people in the land. Exod 23:33 Do not let them live in your land, or they will cause you to sin against me, because the worship of their gods will certainly be a snare to you.” Num 33:52a drive out all the inhabitants of the land before you. Cf. Num 33:55 But if you do not drive out the inhabitants of the land, those you allow to remain will become barbs in your eyes and thorns in your sides. They will give you trouble in the land where you will live. Deut 7:16 You must destroy all the peoples the LORD your God gives over to you. Do not look on them with pity and do not serve their gods, for that will be a snare to you. Deut 7:24 He will give their kings into your hand, and you will wipe out their names from under heaven. No one will be able to stand up against you; you will destroy them. Deut 20:16 However, in the cities of the nations the LORD your God is giving you as an inheritance, do not leave alive anything that breathes. 17 Completely destroy them—the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites—as the LORD your God has commanded you. Cf. Deut 20:18 Otherwise, they will teach you to follow all the detestable things they do in worshiping their gods, and you will sin against the LORD your God. 84 Israel must do its part by purging all elements of paganism from the land. Exod 23:24 Do not bow down before their gods or worship them or follow their practices. You must demolish them and break their sacred stones to pieces. Num 33:52b Destroy all their carved images and their cast idols, and demolish all their high places. Deut 12:2 Destroy completely all the places on the high mountains and on the hills and under every spreading tree where the nations you are dispossessing worship their gods. 3 Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones and burn their Asherah poles in the fire; cut down the idols of their gods and wipe out their names from those places. Deut 12:29b But when you have driven them out and settled in their land, 30 and after they have been destroyed before you, be careful not to be ensnared by inquiring about their gods, saying, “How do these nations serve their gods? We will do the same.” Cf. Judg 8:27 Gideon made the gold into an ephod, which he placed in Ophrah, his town. All Israel prostituted themselves by worshiping it there, and it became a snare to Gideon and his family. 85 Israel must not make a treaty or intermarry with pagan people in the land. Exod 34:15 “Be careful not to make a treaty with those who live in the land; for when they prostitute themselves to their gods and sacrifice to them, they will invite you and you will eat their sacrifices. 16 And when you choose some of their daughters as wives for your sons and those daughters prostitute themselves to their gods, they will lead your sons to do the same. Josh 23:12 But if you turn away and ally yourselves with the survivors of these nations that remain among you and if you intermarry with them and associate with them, 13 then you may be sure that the LORD your God will no longer drive out these nations before you.

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Instead, they will become snares and traps for you, whips on your backs and thorns in your eyes, until you perish from this good land, which the LORD your God has given you. Cf. 1 Kgs 11:1 King Solomon, however, loved many foreign women besides Pharaoh’s daughter…. 2 They were from nations about which the LORD had told the Israelites, “You must not intermarry with them, because they will surely turn your hearts after their gods.” Nevertheless, Solomon held fast to them in love. Ezra 9:2 They have taken some of their daughters as wives for themselves and their sons, and have mingled the holy race with the peoples around them. And the leaders and officials have led the way in this unfaithfulness.” Ezra 10:2 Then Shecaniah son of Jehiel, one of the descendants of Elam, said to Ezra, “We have been unfaithful to our God by marrying foreign women from the peoples around us. But in spite of this, there is still hope for Israel…. 18 Among the descendants of the priests, the following had married foreign women: From the descendants of Jeshua son of Jozadak, and his brothers: Maaseiah, Eliezer, Jarib and Gedaliah. Neh 10:30 We promise not to give our daughters in marriage to the peoples around us or take their daughters for our sons. Neh 13:23 Moreover, in those days I saw men of Judah who had married women from Ashdod, Ammon and Moab…. 25 I rebuked them and called curses down on them. I beat some of the men and pulled out their hair. I made them take an oath in God’s name and said: “You are not to give your daughters in marriage to their sons, nor are you to take their daughters in marriage for your sons or for yourselves. 86 God expected Israel’s complete compliance with His commands. Lev 18:26 But you must keep my decrees and my laws. The native-born and the aliens living among you must not do any of these detestable things, 27 for all these things were done by the people who lived in the land before you, and the land became defiled. 28 And if you defile the land, it will vomit you out as it vomited out the nations that were before you. Lev 20:22 Keep all my decrees and laws and follow them, so that the land where I am bringing you to live may not vomit you out. 87 For further development of this issue, see Manuel 2003 “Worshiping God in the Light of His Holiness” (2 Sam 6). 88 A similar admonition appears earlier. Lev 11:41 Every creature that moves about on the ground is detestable; it is not to be eaten…. 44 I am the LORD your God; consecrate yourselves and be holy, because I am holy. Do not make yourselves unclean by any creature that moves about on the ground. 89 This phrase recurs numerous times as justification for capital punishment. • Idolatry Deut 17:7 The hands of the witnesses must be the first in putting him to death, and then the hands of all the people. You must purge the evil from among you. • Contempt of court Deut 17:12 The man who shows contempt for the judge or for the priest who stands ministering there to the LORD your God must be put to death. You must purge the evil from Israel. • Premeditated murder Deut 19:13 Show him no pity. You must purge from Israel the guilt of shedding innocent blood, so that it may go well with you.

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• False testimony Deut 19:19 then do to him as he intended to do to his brother. You must purge the evil from among you. • Rebellious son Deut 21:21 Then all the men of his town shall stone him to death. You must purge the evil from among you. All Israel will hear of it and be afraid. • Fornication Deut 22:21 she shall be brought to the door of her father’s house and there the men of her town shall stone her to death. She has done a disgraceful thing in Israel by being promiscuous while still in her father’s house. You must purge the evil from among you. • Adultery Deut 22:24 you shall take both of them to the gate of that town and stone them to death—the girl because she was in a town and did not scream for help, and the man because he violated another man’s wife. You must purge the evil from among you. • Kidnapping Deut 24:7 If a man is caught kidnapping one of his brother Israelites and treats him as a slave or sells him, the kidnapper must die. You must purge the evil from among you. 90 Evidence of the destruction lies in Stratum III (c.1400) according to Wood 1975:102. Josh 11:10 At that time Joshua turned back and captured Hazor and put its king to the sword. (Hazor had been the head of all these kingdoms.) 11 Everyone in it they put to the sword. They totally destroyed them, not sparing anything that breathed, and he burned up Hazor itself. 91 For an alternate map, see #71 (The Border of the Tribal Territories) in Aharoni (1977). 92 There may have been other areas of tribal allotment that were not under tribal control. Josh 19:36 Adamah, Ramah, Hazor…. 39 These towns…were the inheritance of the tribe of Naphtali…. 93 For alternate maps, see #10 (The Routes in Palestine) in Aharoni (1977) and #5 (Main Roads and Cities of Ancient Palestine) in Miller (1986). 94 They were a concern earlier. Josh 17:16 The people of Joseph replied, “The hill country is not enough for us, and all the Canaanites who live in the plain have iron chariots, both those in Beth Shan and its settlements and those in the Valley of Jezreel.” …18b [Joshua said] though the Canaanites have iron chariots and though they are strong, you can drive them out.” Judg 1:19 The LORD was with the men of Judah. They took possession of the hill country, but they were unable to drive the people from the plains, because they had iron chariots. 95 Joshua overcame Hazor’s chariots earlier and burned them (an indication they were probably made of wood). Josh 11:1a When Jabin king of Hazor heard of this…. 4 They came out with all their troops and a large number of horses and chariots…. 6 The LORD said to Joshua, “Do not be afraid of them…. I will hand all of them over to Israel, slain. You are to hamstring their horses and burn their chariots.” …9 Joshua did to them as the LORD had directed: He hamstrung their horses and burned their chariots. 10a At that time Joshua turned back and captured Hazor and put its king to the sword. 96 For an optional map, see #46 (The Campaign of Merneptah) in Aharoni (1977). 97 For an optional map, see #66 (The Rise of the Sea Peoples) in Aharoni (1977).

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Most other judges arise in response to a need for deliverance, and a few (four) hold the office without any apparent military involvement. Judg 10:3 Jair of Gilead…led Israel twenty-two years. Judg 12:8 …Ibzan of Bethlehem led Israel. Judg 12:11 …Elon the Zebulunite led Israel ten years. Judg 12:13 …Abdon son of Hillel…led Israel. 99 Verse 5 states that she resides “in the hill country of Ephraim,” although the two towns nearby are both in Benjamin. Josh 18:21a The tribe of Benjamin, clan by clan, had the following cities…22 Beth Arabah, Zemaraim, Bethel…25 Gibeon, Ramah, Beeroth. 100 Manuel’s law of teaching: If an instructor resists stating the obvious, one of his students will do it for him. 101 The next book mentions his dual occupation. 1 Sam 3:19 The LORD was with Samuel as he grew up, and he let none of his words fall to the ground. 20 And all Israel from Dan to Beersheba recognized that Samuel was attested as a prophet of the LORD. 1 Sam 7:15 Samuel continued as judge over Israel all the days of his life. Ehud presented himself to Eglon as a divine messenger, a role that the Moabite king accepted and that served as a prelude to the Benjamite’s position as judge. Judg 3:20a-b Ehud then approached him while he was sitting alone in the upper room of his summer palace and said, “I have a message from God for you.” …27 [Ehud] blew a trumpet in the hill country of Ephraim, and the Israelites went down with him from the hills, with him leading them. 30 That day Moab was made subject to Israel, and the land had peace for eighty years. 102 The biblical writers mention several prophetesses. • True Exod 15:20a Then Miriam the prophetess, Aaron’s sister, took a tambourine in her hand…. 1 Kgs 22:14 But Micaiah said, “…I can tell him only what the LORD tells me.” Luke 2:36a There was also a prophetess, Anna, the daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher. Acts 21:9 [Philip] had four unmarried daughters who prophesied. • False Neh 6:14b remember also the prophetess Noadiah…who ha[s] been trying to intimidate me. Rev 2:20b You tolerate that woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess. 103 While she may not lead troops, she is certainly responsible for planning the action. Judg 4:7 I will lure Sisera, the commander of Jabin’s army, with his chariots and his troops to the Kishon River and give him into your hands.’ Nevertheless, later authors recognize Barak’s active role. 1 Sam 12:11 Then the LORD sent Jerub-Baal, Barak, Jephthah and Samuel, and he delivered you from the hands of your enemies on every side, so that you lived securely. Heb 11:32 And what more shall I say? I do not have time to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel and the prophets, 104 For an optional map, see #71 (The Border of the Tribal Territories) in Aharoni (1977).

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The Jabin in Judg 4:2 is probably the son of the king mentioned in Josh 11:1. It was apparently a common name, perhaps even a title. “Jabin, king of Hazor,” also appears on a cuneiform tablet dating from the 18th-17th centuries (Rabinovich 1992:5). 106 For example, I firmly believed that God called me to a ministry of teaching and that my pursuit of a university degree was an essential part of that assignment. When I successfully finished years of course work and the agony of prelims, and had the most difficult part behind me, there was a temptation to coast a bit. Others before me, who succumbed to that temptation, suffered considerable loss, either by never completing the degree or by having to retake courses and exams. Hence, it was imperative that I press on to the goal of graduation, which I did. 107 For an optional map, see #59 (The War of Deborah—The Deployment of Forces) in Aharoni (1977). 108 For an optional map, see #10 (The Routes in Palestine) in Aharoni (1977). 109 Despite Israel’s numbers (“[t]en thousand me” Judg 4:10), they would be no match for mounted troops. 110 For optional maps, see ##59-60 (The War of Deborah—The Deployment of Forces and The Battle) in Aharoni (1977). 111 This is composed of deposits from rushing streams. 112 Here, God and not Baal is the storm deity. Ps 18:9 He parted the heavens and came down; dark clouds were under his feet. 10 He mounted the cherubim and flew; he soared on the wings of the wind. 11 He made darkness his covering, his canopy around him — the dark rain clouds of the sky. 12 Out of the brightness of his presence clouds advanced, with hailstones and bolts of lightning. 13 The LORD thundered from heaven; the voice of the Most High resounded. 14 He shot his arrows and scattered [the enemies], great bolts of lightning and routed them. 15 The valleys of the sea were exposed and the foundations of the earth laid bare at your rebuke, O LORD, at the blast of breath from your nostrils. Other instances include: Josh 10:11 As they fled before Israel on the road down from Beth Horon to Azekah, the LORD hurled large hailstones down on them from the sky, and more of them died from the hailstones than were killed by the swords of the Israelites. 1 Sam 7:10 While Samuel was sacrificing the burnt offering, the Philistines drew near to engage Israel in battle. But that day the LORD thundered with loud thunder against the Philistines and threw them into such a panic that they were routed before the Israelites. 113 For an optional map, see #61 (The Death of Sisera) in Aharoni (1977). 114 Most of the Kenites remained in Judah. Judg 1:16 The descendants of Moses’ father-in-law, the Kenite, went up from the City of Palms with the men of Judah to live among the people of the Desert of Judah in the Negev near Arad. 115 Wood suggests that Stratum I represents Barak’s destruction of the city (1975:102). 116 This is a common commitment of God to His people. Isa 45:2a I will go before you and will level the mountains…. Isa 52:12b …the LORD will go before you, the God of Israel will be your rear guard. It is an allusion to His leading in the wilderness.

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Exod 13:21 By day the LORD went ahead of them in a pillar of cloud to guide them on their way and by night in a pillar of fire to give them light, so that they could travel by day or night. Num 14:14c …you go before them in a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night. The more frequent wording is the simple promise of God’s presence (see Manuel 2005 “The Promise of the Divine Presence”). 117 Wood appeals to the 1cs pronouns in vv. 3 and 7 to support authorship by Deborah alone, rather than a joint venture with Barak (1975:188), a distinction the superscription of v. 1 allows. And Deborah sang (as well as Barak, the son of Abinoam) on that day, saying… Reference to her in the second person (v. 12a), however, indicates the presence of another (antiphonal?) voice, Barak’s being a likely candidate. 118 See the treatment of genre and ornament in Manuel 2010 Toward Meaning: “Poetics—Literary Constraints.” 119 For a fuller treatment of these trope, see Manuel 2010 Toward Meaning: “Poetics—Literary Constraints.” 120 For a fuller analysis of the poem’s construction, see Appendix B: The Song of Deborah. 121 A similar example of divine involvement occurred earlier. Josh 10:12 On the day the LORD gave the Amorites over to Israel, Joshua said to the LORD in the presence of Israel: “O sun, stand still over Gibeon, O moon, over the Valley of Aijalon.” 13 So the sun stood still, and the moon stopped, till the nation avenged itself on its enemies, as it is written in the Book of Jashar. The sun stopped in the middle of the sky and delayed going down about a full day. 14 There has never been a day like it before or since, a day when the LORD listened to a man. Surely the LORD was fighting for Israel! 122 A second example appears in v. 25. Milk she gave, in a magnificent bowl, she brought curds. 123 In the same verse, the phrase “New gods were chosen” may refer to the campaign leaders. Other passages use MyIhølTa in this manner (n. 397; see Gordon 1935:143). 124 For optional maps, see #10 (The Routes in Palestine) in Aharoni (1977) and #5 (Main Roads and Cities of Ancient Palestine) in Miller (1986). 125 For an optional map, see #60 (The War of Deborah—The Battle) in Aharoni (1977). 126 If Deborah and Barak had not been able to muster enough tribal support, their plan may have failed. Ambitious programs often require the cooperation of several people or groups, and one of the most difficult jobs of the initiator is to win the support necessary to accomplish a given task. This reminded me of the Madison congregation’s brief involvement in the local homeless shelter. Try as he might, Rev. Kev could not get the support necessary to keep that going. Some of us went—and we enjoyed it once we got there—but our motivation was probably more a mixture of guilt and a desire to please Kevin than it was any deep concern for the work at the shelter. It simply did not appeal to our self-interest enough to rate a spot on our list of priorities. Sometimes we have great ideas, and we cannot understand why others do not catch the vision and jump at the chance to get involved. The reason is often the same one that may account for Israel’s partial response to Deborah’s call: insufficient appeal to self-interest. For example, if Deacon Jim said, “I’m looking for someone to go with me to the mall and hand out tracts,” even after the initial shock, I would probably not volunteer, because I have no interest in handing out

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tracts no matter how enthusiastic someone else might be about it. If, on the other hand, he said, “I’m starting a home Bible study for some neighbors, and I’d like some help with the first couple of sessions,” I might volunteer for that, because I am interested in promoting Bible study. The point is that we should not necessarily expect an enthusiastic response to our ideas from people who have no real interest in them apart from whatever relationship they have with us. 127 While the author of Judges highlights Jael’s role, the author of Hebrews remembers Barak’s contribution. Heb 11:32b I do not have time to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel and the prophets, 128 For a discussion of deception in scripture, see Manuel 2000 “Deception in the Bible: Is Lying Always Wrong?” 129 For optional maps, see #4 (Palestine During Ancient Times) in Miller (1986) or #7 (Geographical Regions) in Aharoni (1977). 130 The earliest contact with Midian was not hostile, but it only involved one person, hardly a threat. Exod 2:15 …Pharaoh…tried to kill Moses, but Moses…went to live in Midian…. Later contact was decidedly hostile. Num 31:7 They fought against Midian, as the LORD commanded Moses, and killed every man. 8a Among their victims were…the five kings of Midian…. 9 The Israelites captured the Midianite women and children and took all the Midianite herds, flocks and goods as plunder. 10 They burned all the towns where the Midianites had settled, as well as all their camps. The Midianites were most times in the south, although they did occasionally venture north of Moab. Num 22:4a The Moabites said to the elders of Midian…. Josh 13:15 This is what Moses had given to the tribe of Reuben… 21 all the towns on the plateau and the entire realm of…Midianite chiefs…princes allied with Sihon—who lived in that country. 131 The Amalikites were most times in the Negev, although they did occasionally venture north. Num 13:29a The Amalekites live in the Negev…. Num 14:25 Since the Amalekites and Canaanites are living in the [southern] valleys…. Judg 12:15 Then Abdon…was buried…in Ephraim, in the hill country of the Amalekites. 132 Their early encounters with Israel, which they initiated, did not end well for them. Num 31:7 They fought against Midian…and killed every man. Exod 17:13 So Joshua overcame the Amalekite army with the sword. Given their early hostilities toward Israel, God was not inclined to be friendly later. Num 25:17 “Treat the Midianites as enemies and kill them, 18a because they treated you as enemies when they deceived you in the affair of Peor.” Num 31:2a “Take vengeance on the Midianites for the Israelites.” Exod 17:14 Then the LORD said to Moses… “I will completely blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven…. 16b The LORD will be at war against the Amalekites from generation to generation.” Deut 25:17 Remember what the Amalekites did to you along the way when you came out of Egypt. 133 “Instead of an answer to their appeal for relief from the Easterners they are reminded…how they have accommodated themselves to the gods of the Westerners” (Boling 1975:127).

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134

When there was too much water, the Lord gave His people dry land. Exod 14:29 …the Israelites went through the sea on dry ground, with a wall of water on their right and on their left. When there was too little water, the Lord gave His people a rock fountain. Exod 17:6b-c “Strike the rock, and water will come out of it for the people to drink.” So Moses did this in the sight of the elders of Israel. 135 This includes a representation of Him. Deut 4:15 You saw no form of any kind the day the LORD spoke to you at Horeb out of the fire. Therefore watch yourselves very carefully, 16a so that you do not become corrupt and make for yourselves an idol…. 136 This inability is not lost to Joash, Gideon’s father, who uses Baal’s impotence to defend his son’s destruction of a pagan sanctuary later in the story. Judg 6:31e If Baal really is a god, he can defend himself when someone breaks down his altar. 137 For an additional map, see #75 (The War of Gideon) in Aharoni (1977). 138 For a fuller discussion, see Manuel 1995 “The Angel of the LORD.” 139 Gideon’s dismay at having seen the LORD’s angel is a common response to divine visitations: Judg 6:22b “Ah, Sovereign LORD! I have seen the angel of the LORD face to face!” • Israel Exod 20:19b …do not have God speak to us or we will die.” • Manoah Judg 13:22 “We are doomed to die!” he said to his wife. “We have seen God!” • Isaiah Isa 6:5 “Woe to me!” I cried. “…my eyes have seen the King, the LORD Almighty.” 140 Examples of angel with the indefinite article: 1 Kgs 19:5 Then he lay down under the tree and fell asleep. All at once an angel touched him and said, "Get up and eat." …7 The angel of the LORD came back a second time and touched him and said, "Get up and eat, for the journey is too much for you." 2 Kgs 19:35a That night the angel of the LORD went out and put to death a hundred and eighty-five thousand men in the Assyrian camp. Cf. 2 Chr 32:21a And the LORD sent an angel, who annihilated all the fighting men and the leaders and officers in the camp of the Assyrian king. 1 Chr 21:15 And God sent an angel to destroy Jerusalem. But as the angel was doing so, the LORD saw it and was grieved because of the calamity and said to the angel who was destroying the people, "Enough! Withdraw your hand." The angel of the LORD was then standing at the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite. 141 For a fuller discussion, see Manuel 2007 “The Practices of Covenant Review and Covenant Renewal.” 142 The covenant assertion formula appears in human as well as divine speech (Manuel 2005 “The Promise of the Divine Presence”). 143 Examples of renaming a geographical sites include: Judg 1:17 Then the men of Judah went with the Simeonites…and attacked the Canaanites living in Zephath, and they totally destroyed the city. Therefore it was called Hormah. Judg 18:29 They named it Dan after their forefather Dan, who was born to Israel—though the city used to be called Laish.

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144

Examples of naming a person include: Judg 6:32 So that day they called Gideon “Jerub-Baal,” saying, “Let Baal contend with him,” because he broke down Baal’s altar. 145 A similar definition probably applies also to the Midianite forces, as well as to military contingents in later stories. • Israelites Judg 7:3b So twenty-two thousand [or 22 clans of] men left, while ten thousand [or 10 clans] remained. Judg 20:2b …four hundred thousand [or 400 clans] soldiers…. 21 The Benjamites…cut down twenty-two thousand [22 clans of] Israelites on the battlefield…. 25 This time…they cut down another eighteen thousand [or 18 clans of] Israelites…. 34a Then ten thousand [or 10 clans] of Israel’s finest men made a frontal attack on Gibeah. • Midianites Judg 8:10 Now Zebah and Zalmunna were in Karkor with a force of about fifteen thousand [or 15 clans of] men, all that were left of the armies of the eastern peoples; a hundred and twenty thousand [or 120 clans of] swordsmen had fallen. • Ephraimites Judg 12:6c Forty-two thousand [or 42 clans of] Ephraimites were killed at that time. • Benjamites Judg 20:15 At once the Benjamites mobilized twenty-six thousand [or 26 clans of] swordsmen…. It becomes difficult when the number would be a fraction. Judg 20:35b Israelites struck down 25,100 25 1/10 clans of] Benjamites, all armed with swords. Wenham suggests that PRlRa can also indicate a “professional, fully-armed soldier,” which would reduce actual numbers even further (1967:25, 41-42). 146 For a broader view of this term, see Manuel 2007 “What Is a Miracle?” 147 Positive examples of a non-miraculous sign include: • Events Exod 3:12 And God said, “I will be with you. And this will be the sign to you that it is I who have sent you: When you have brought the people out of Egypt, you will worship God on this mountain.” Isa 7:11 Ask the LORD your God for a sign, whether in the deepest depths or in the highest heights…. 14 Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign: The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son…. • Blood Exod 12:13 The blood will be a sign for you on the houses where you are; and when I see the blood, I will pass over you. No destructive plague will touch you when I strike Egypt. • Sabbath Exod 31:13 “Say to the Israelites, ‘You must observe my Sabbaths. This will be a sign between me and you for the generations to come, so you may know that I am the LORD, who makes you holy. Ezek 20:12 Also I gave them my Sabbaths as a sign between us, so they would know that I the LORD made them holy…. 20a Keep my Sabbaths holy, that they may be a sign between us.

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• Phylacteries Deut 6:8 Tie them as symbols on your hands and bind them on your foreheads. Cf. Exod 13:9a This observance will be for you like a sign on your hand and a reminder on your forehead that the law of the LORD is to be on your lips…. 16 And it will be like a sign on your hand and a symbol on your forehead that the LORD brought us out of Egypt with his mighty hand.” Deut 11:18 Fix these words of mine in your hearts and minds; tie them as symbols on your hands and bind them on your foreheads. • Actions Josh 2:12 Now then, please swear to me by the LORD that you will show kindness to my family, because I have shown kindness to you. Give me a sure sign Isa 20:3 Then the LORD said, “Just as my servant Isaiah has gone stripped and barefoot for three years, as a sign and portent against Egypt and Cush, Ezek 4:3 Then take an iron pan, place it as an iron wall between you and the city and turn your face toward it. It will be under siege, and you shall besiege it. This will be a sign to the house of Israel. Ezek 14:8 I will set my face against that man and make him a[ sign] and a byword. I will cut him off from my people. Then you will know that I am the LORD. • Monument Josh 4:6 to serve as a sign among you. In the future, when your children ask you, ‘What do these stones mean?’ • People Isa 8:18 Here am I, and the children the LORD has given me. We are signs and symbols in Israel from the LORD Almighty, who dwells on Mount Zion. 148 The term often appears in the compound phrase “signs and wonders” (MyItVpOm…w twøtOa). Exod 7:3 But I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, and though I multiply my miraculous signs and wonders in Egypt, Exod 10:1 Then the LORD said to Moses, “Go to Pharaoh, for I have hardened his heart and the hearts of his officials so that I may perform these miraculous signs of mine among them 2 that you may tell your children and grandchildren how I dealt harshly with the Egyptians and how I performed my signs among them, and that you may know that I am the LORD.” Num 14:11 The LORD said to Moses… “How long will they refuse to believe in me, in spite of all the miraculous signs I have performed among them? …22 not one of the men who saw my glory and the miraculous signs I performed in Egypt and in the desert but who disobeyed me and tested me ten times — Deut 4:34 Has any god ever tried to take for himself one nation out of another nation, by testings, by miraculous signs and wonders, by war, by a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, or by great and awesome deeds, like all the things the LORD your God did for you in Egypt before your very eyes? Deut 6:22 Before our eyes the LORD sent miraculous signs and wonders…upon Egypt…. Deut 7:19a You saw with your own eyes the great trials, the miraculous signs and wonders, the mighty hand and outstretched arm, with which the LORD your God brought you out. Deut 11:3a the signs he performed and the things he did in the heart of Egypt… Deut 26:8 So the LORD brought us out of Egypt with a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, with great terror and with miraculous signs and wonders.

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Deut 29:3 …you saw those great trials, those miraculous signs and great wonders. Deut 34:11 who did all those miraculous signs and wonders the LORD sent him to do…. Jer 32:20a You performed miraculous signs and wonders in Egypt…. 21 You brought your people Israel out of Egypt with signs and wonders, by a mighty hand and an outstretched arm and with great terror. 149 God compounds the evidence of His concern to confirm Gideon’s confidence in His care. 2 Cor 13:1b “Every matter must be established by the testimony of two or three witnesses.” 150 NB: This picture is not in the PP file. 151 The author of Hebrews would argue otherwise. Heb 11:32b I do not have time to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel and the prophets…. 39a These were all commended for their faith…. 152 Gideon’s initial response is quite different from that of Moses when God told him to confront Pharaoh. In both cases, God’s answer was similar: the promise of His presence and a sign (albeit after the fact for Moses). Exod 3:11 But Moses said to God, “Who am I, that I should go to Pharaoh and bring the Israelites out of Egypt?” 12 And God said, “I will be with you. And this will be the sign to you that it is I who have sent you: When you have brought the people out of Egypt, you will worship God on this mountain.” 153 Gideon’s force may be small, but God has chosen the best in Israel (contra Boling 1975:146). • He eliminates the fearful. Judg 7:3 “Anyone who trembles with fear may turn back and leave Mount Gilead.” So twenty-two thousand men left, while ten thousand remained. Cf. Deut 20:8b “Is any man afraid or fainthearted? Let him go home so that his brothers will not become disheartened too.” • He eliminates the careless. Judg 7:5b “Separate those who lap the water with their tongues like a dog from those who kneel down to drink.” Furthermore, when Gideon mobilized his own tribe (Manasseh), he also put others on alert, who then helped in mop-up operations. Judg 6:35 He sent messengers throughout Manasseh, calling them to arms, and also into Asher, Zebulun and Naphtali, so that they too went up to meet them. Judg 7:23 Israelites from Naphtali, Asher and all Manasseh were called out, and they pursued the Midianites. 154 There were no original estimates of enemy troop strength. Judg 7:12 The Midianites, the Amalekites and all the other eastern peoples had settled in the valley…. Their camels could no more be counted than the sand on the seashore. Even after the initial engagement and significant enemy casualties, a considerable number remained. Judg 8:10 Now Zebah and Zalmunna were in Karkor with a force of about fifteen thousand men, all that were left of the armies of the eastern peoples; a hundred and twenty thousand swordsmen had fallen. 155 This is the final bit of encouragement for Gideon. Judg 7:13a Gideon arrived just as a man was telling a friend his dream…. 15 When Gideon heard the dream and its interpretation, he….called out, “Get up! The LORD has given the Midianite camp into your hands.”

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The Israelite attack took place “at the beginning of the middle watch” (7:19). The ANE practice divided the night into three watches. Ps 63:6b I think of you through the watches of the night. Ps 119:148a My eyes stay open through the watches of the night…. • The first watch was from sunset to 10 p.m. Lam 2:19a Arise, cry out in the night, as the watches of the night begin…. • The second or middle watch was from 10 p.m. to 2 a.m. Judg 7:19a Gideon…reached the edge of the camp at the beginning of the middle watch…. • The third watch was from 2 a.m. to sunrise. Exod 14:24a During the last watch of the night the LORD looked down…. 1 Sam 11:11b during the last watch of the night they broke into the camp of the Ammonites…. The Roman practice divided the night into four watches (see Mark 13:35 where the terms indicate termination of the watch). Mark 13:35 Therefore keep watch because you do not know when the owner of the house will come back—whether in the evening, or at midnight, or when the rooster crows, or at dawn. • The first watch was from sunset to 9 p.m. • The second watch was from 9 p.m. to midnight. Luke 12:38 It will be good for those servants whose master finds them ready, even if he comes in the second or third watch of the night. • The third watch was from midnight to 3 a.m. • The fourth watch was from 3 a.m. to sunrise. Matt 14:25 During the fourth watch of the night Jesus went out to them…. Whether or not Israelites used a 3 or 4-part division is the subject of debate. b Ber 3a Rabbi Eliezar [early 2nd c.] says: The night has three watches…. b Our Rabbis taught: The night has four watches. 156 This incident may have influenced Jonathan. 1 Sam 14:6 …“Come, let’s go over to the outpost of those uncircumcised fellows. Perhaps the LORD will act in our behalf. Nothing can hinder the LORD from saving, whether by many or by few.” 157 The battle cry “For the LORD and for Gideon” (7:18) “asserts the unity of [the LORD’s] action and the people’s destiny, as in the stories of Ehud (3:28) and Deborah (5:8-9)” (Boling 1975:147). It is important to God that His people not credit the wrong source. Judg 7:2 The LORD said to Gideon, “You have too many men for me to deliver Midian into their hands. In order that Israel may not boast against me that her own strength has saved her, Cf. Deut 8:17 You may say to yourself, “My power and the strength of my hands have produced this wealth for me.” 158 God does the same on other occasions. Exod 14:13 …“Do not be afraid. Stand firm and you will see the deliverance the LORD will bring you today…. 14 The LORD will fight for you; you need only to be still.” …24 …the LORD looked down…at the Egyptian army and threw it into confusion. 25 He made the wheels of their chariots come off so that they had difficulty driving. And the Egyptians said, “Let’s get away from the Israelites! The LORD is fighting for them against Egypt.” ……30

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That day the LORD saved Israel from the hands of the Egyptians, and Israel saw the Egyptians lying dead on the shore. 2 Chr 20:15b ‘Do not be afraid or discouraged because of this vast army. For the battle is not yours, but God’s…. 17b …stand firm and see the deliverance the LORD will give you….’” 22a …the LORD set ambushes against the men…. 23 The men of Ammon and Moab rose up against the men from Mount Seir to destroy and annihilate them. After they finished slaughtering the men from Seir, they helped to destroy one another. 159 Gideon is perhaps like the father who asks Jesus to heal his demon-possessed son (Mark 9:24), saying: “I do believe; help me overcome my unbelief!” 160 The devil’s most active period will be at the end. 2 Thess 2:9 The coming of the lawless one will be in accordance with the work of Satan displayed in all kinds of counterfeit miracles, signs and wonders, Rev 13:3 One of the heads of the beast seemed to have had a fatal wound, but the fatal wound had been healed. The whole world was astonished and followed the beast. 161 Both sites appear on the map of (initial) Conquest Failure (p. 12). 162 For an additional map, see #76 (The Pursuit after the Midianites) in Aharoni (1977). 163 Succoth appears in the city list of Gad’s inheritance. Josh 13:24 This is what Moses had given to the tribe of Gad…. 27a and in the valley, Beth Haram, Beth Nimrah, Succoth and Zaphon with the rest of the realm of Sihon king of Heshbon…. 164 For an additional map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). 165 Boling (1975:149) suggests that Gideon should have been satisfied with the flight of Midian and Amalek from Canaan and should not have pursued them in the Transjordan, that he usurped the divine prerogative for vengeance by seeking retribution for personal reasons (1975:157). Judg 8:19 Gideon replied, “Those were my brothers, the sons of my own mother. As surely as the LORD lives, if you had spared their lives, I would not kill you.” Cf. Deut 32:35a It is mine to avenge; I will repay. Gideon’s motivation may be to prevent a regrouping of enemy forces and to preclude another invasion, requiring him to face a more determined foe. In that sense, he did not want to repeat the error of earlier battles that failed to produce a decisive and lasting victory. 166 See the treatment of paleography in Manuel 2010 Toward Meaning: “Language—Linguistic Constraints.” 167 This may be the biblical Ebenezer. 1 Sam 4:1c The Israelites camped at Ebenezer, and the Philistines at Aphek. 1 Sam 5:1 After the Philistines had captured the ark of God, they took it from Ebenezer to Ashdod. 1 Sam 7:12 Then Samuel took a stone and set it up between Mizpah and Shen. He named it Ebenezer, saying, “Thus far has the LORD helped us.” 168 For an additional map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). 169 This, at least, is his testimony before God and others. Judg 6:15b My clan is the weakest in Manasseh, and I am the least in my family. Judg 8:2a …What have I accomplished compared to you? 170 This becomes his first test of obedience. Judg 6:25b Tear down your father’s altar to Baal and cut down the Asherah pole beside it. 171 The high priest’s vest has the breastplate attached,

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Exod 28:6 Make the ephod of gold, and of blue, purple and scarlet yarn, and of finely twisted linen—the work of a skilled craftsman. Exod 39:2 They made the ephod of gold, and of blue, purple and scarlet yarn, and of finely twisted linen. It is unclear whether the author is referring to the presence of Ishmaelites or simply to their customary dress the Israelites had adopted. Judg 8:24 And he said, “I do have one request, that each of you give me an earring from your share of the plunder.” (It was the custom of the Ishmaelites to wear gold earrings.) Gideon collected 1700 shekels in gold, which he used to make the ephod. As of 2010, this would be worth more than half a million dollars (1 shekel = 8.5 grams; 1700 shekels = 14,450 grams = 510 oz. @ $1150 oz. = $586,500). His vest was a symbol of priesthood, even a false priesthood Judg 17:5 …Micah…made an ephod and some idols and installed one of his sons as his priest. 172 The ephod (albeit, the original one) was and continued to be a mark of divine authority and guidance. 1 Sam 14:3a [With Saul] was Ahijah, who was wearing an ephod. 1 Sam 23:9 When David learned that Saul was plotting against him, he said to Abiathar the priest, “Bring the ephod.” 10 David said, “O LORD, God of Israel, your servant has heard definitely that Saul plans to come to Keilah and destroy the town on account of me. 11 Will the citizens of Keilah surrender me to him? Will Saul come down, as your servant has heard? O LORD, God of Israel, tell your servant.” And the LORD said, “He will.” 12 Again David asked, “Will the citizens of Keilah surrender me and my men to Saul?” And the LORD said, “They will.” 1 Sam 30:7 Then David said to Abiathar the priest, the son of Ahimelech, “Bring me the ephod.” Abiathar brought it to him, 8 and David inquired of the LORD, “Shall I pursue this raiding party? Will I overtake them?” “Pursue them,” he answered. “You will certainly overtake them and succeed in the rescue.” 173 This is similar to the peoples’ treatment of another artifact, albeit one that initially had God’s approval. 2 Kgs 18:4b He broke into pieces the bronze snake Moses had made, for up to that time the Israelites had been burning incense to it. 174 Gideon’s use of the 1cs pronoun is emphatic, here “to draw attention away from the speaker” (Davies 1963:154). People see the benefit of having a centralized government, at least for national security. Similar negotiations in scripture are over land not authority, but the outcome is similar. • Abraham Gen 23:10 Ephron the Hittite was sitting among his people and he replied to Abraham in the hearing of all the Hittites who had come16 Abraham agreed to Ephron’s terms and weighed out for him the price he had named in the hearing of the Hittites: four hundred shekels of silver, according to the weight current among the merchants. • David 2 Sam 24:21 Araunah said, “Why has my lord the king come to his servant?” ¶ “To buy your threshing floor,” David answered, “so I can build an altar to the LORD, that the plague on the people may be stopped.” …24b So David bought the threshing floor and the oxen and paid fifty shekels of silver for them.

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175

“[J]ust as Gideon’s victory was really the LORD’s victory (Jdg. vii 7, 9, 14 f., 18, 20, 22) and was embraced within it, so Gideon’s kingship was the LORD’s kingship and was embraced within it” (Davies 1963:154, 156). 176 The original garment was quite ornate. Exod 28:6 Make the ephod of gold, and of blue, purple and scarlet yarn, and of finely twisted linen—the work of a skilled craftsman. The original garment also included elements the Levite’s version probably did not. • Tribal stones Exod 28:9 Take two onyx stones and engrave on them the names of the sons of Israel 10 in the order of their birth—six names on one stone and the remaining six on the other. 11 Engrave the names of the sons of Israel on the two stones the way a gem cutter engraves a seal. Then mount the stones in gold filigree settings 12 and fasten them on the shoulder pieces of the ephod as memorial stones for the sons of Israel. Aaron is to bear the names on his shoulders as a memorial before the LORD…. 29a Whenever Aaron enters the Holy Place, he will bear the names of the sons of Israel over his heart…. • Divination stones Exod 28:30 Also put the Urim and the Thummim in the breastpiece, so they may be over Aaron’s heart whenever he enters the presence of the LORD. Thus Aaron will always bear the means of making decisions for the Israelites over his heart before the LORD. 177 This is a practice God forbids but which many kings followed. It demonstrated the opulence of privilege and greatly enlarged the royal house. Deut 17:17a He must not take many wives, or his heart will be led astray. 2 Sam 5:13 …David took more concubines and wives in Jerusalem, and more sons and daughters were born to him. 1 Kgs 11:3 [Solomon] had seven hundred wives of royal birth and three hundred concubines, and his wives led him astray. 178 It was a particularly bloody coup, and for the privilege of ruling a single city-state, yet one that had a generously-endowed temple treasury as well as access to a major trade route. Judg 9:1 Abimelech son of Jerub-Baal went to his mother’s brothers in Shechem and said to them and to all his mother’s clan, 2 “Ask all the citizens of Shechem, ‘Which is better for you: to have all seventy of Jerub-Baal’s sons rule over you, or just one man?’ Remember, I am your flesh and blood.” 3 When the brothers repeated all this to the citizens of Shechem, they were inclined to follow Abimelech, for they said, “He is our brother.” 4 They gave him seventy shekels of silver from the temple of Baal-Berith, and Abimelech used it to hire reckless adventurers, who became his followers. 5a He went to his father’s home in Ophrah and on one stone murdered his seventy brothers, the sons of Jerub-Baal. 179 It seemed as if the people had no resistance or, more likely, no will to resist. Judg 2:11 Then the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD and served the Baals…. 12b They followed and worshiped various gods of the peoples around them. 13 [T]hey…served Baal and the Ashtoreths. Judg 3:7b [T]hey forgot the LORD their God and served the Baals and the Asherahs. Judg 8:33a No sooner had Gideon died than the Israelites again prostituted themselves to the Baals. Judg 10:6b They served the Baals and the Ashtoreths, and the gods of Aram, the gods of Sidon, the gods of Moab, the gods of the Ammonites and the gods of the Philistines.

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180

This is not always the case, and several other biblical texts depict God in physical form (Manuel 2001 “The Image of God in Man”). 181 In Aaron’s declaration to the people, he may be referring to the true God (see Manuel 2009 “Understanding What God Has Said”). Exod 32:4b “These are your gods [or ‘This is your God’ ÔKyRhølTa hR;lEa]…who brought you up out of Egypt.” 182 God anticipated the problem and warned of its punishment, later reiterating it as the cause of their suffering. Deut 4:25 After you have had children and grandchildren and have lived in the land a long time—if you then become corrupt and make any kind of idol, doing evil in the eyes of the LORD your God and provoking him to anger, 26 I call heaven and earth as witnesses against you this day that you will quickly perish from the land that you are crossing the Jordan to possess. You will not live there long but will certainly be destroyed. 27 The LORD will scatter you among the peoples, and only a few of you will survive among the nations to which the LORD will drive you. 28 There you will worship man-made gods of wood and stone, which cannot see or hear or eat or smell. Deut 28:36 The LORD will drive you and the king you set over you to a nation unknown to you or your fathers. There you will worship other gods, gods of wood and stone…. 63 Just as it pleased the LORD to make you prosper and increase in number, so it will please him to ruin and destroy you. You will be uprooted from the land you are entering to possess. 64 Then the LORD will scatter you among all nations, from one end of the earth to the other. There you will worship other gods—gods of wood and stone, which neither you nor your fathers have known. Deut 30:17 But if your heart turns away and you are not obedient, and if you are drawn away to bow down to other gods and worship them, 18 I declare to you this day that you will certainly be destroyed. You will not live long in the land you are crossing the Jordan to enter and possess. Ezek 23:30 [I] have brought this upon you, because you lusted after the nations and defiled yourself with their idols. Ezek 36:18 So I poured out my wrath on them because they…defiled [the land] with their idols. 183 Some vestiges may remain, but they are not as prevalent. 1 Cor 8:7b Some people are still so accustomed to idols that when they eat such food they think of it as having been sacrificed to an idol, and since their conscience is weak, it is defiled. 1 Cor 10:7a Do not be idolaters, as some of them were…. 14b flee from idolatry. 1 John 5:21 Dear children, keep yourselves from idols. 184 This reservation about depicting human forms exists mainly in the ultra-orthodox community. Other examples of Jewish art have no reluctance about such depictions (e.g., the frescos in the Dura-Europos Synagogue, Syria, c. 240). 185 The Quran regards idolatry as association, which it prohibits. Surah 4:116b One who joins other gods with God has strayed far, far away. Surah 16:36b Serve God and shun false gods. 186 Despite an appeal that these statues, the tallest in the world (120’ and 175’), represented the culture of a once thriving Buddhist community—a community that no longer exists—and the

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offer by one museum to buy them, Muslim clerics from across the country voted to eliminate them. God’s command that the Israelites destroy idols and their paraphernalia pertained only to those in the land. He did not expect His people to conduct a similar purge among their pagan neighbors. Exod 23:24 Do not bow down before their gods or worship them or follow their practices. You must demolish them and break their sacred stones to pieces. Exod 34:13 Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones and cut down their Asherah poles. Num 33:52 drive out all the inhabitants of the land before you. Destroy all their carved images and their cast idols, and demolish all their high places. Deut 7:5 This is what you are to do to them: Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones, cut down their Asherah poles and burn their idols in the fire. Deut 12:3 Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones and burn their Asherah poles in the fire; cut down the idols of their gods and wipe out their names from those places. The Taliban effort reflects the global aspiration and endeavor of Islam to bring the whole world into the realm of Allah, peacefully or forcefully, to make every part of the globe Dar al-Islam (land in the domain of Islam; Manuel 2003 “Why do They Hate Us?”). 187 This is when daylight is the shortest, and the sun has its lowest arc in the sky, the turning point in the year that marks the beginning of longer days. 188 The Church chose the rebirth of the sun to mark the birth of the Son. 189 The following material is adapted from the ethics study, Manuel 2002 Biblically Correct. See that document for the complete footnotes. 190 The attempt by modern opponents of this tradition to trace the practice back to the seventh century B.C. is baseless, historically and theologically. Unlike the Asherah, against which Jeremiah inveighs, the Christmas tree is not an object of worship; it is merely an ornament of celebration. Moreover, while German Druids regarded the oak as sacred, that belief may not have survived their conversion to Christianity. In other words, it is possible that the fir tree has no pagan roots but developed from a Christian custom. 191 According to Paul, the Corinthian Christians should have had a similar attitude. 1 Cor 8:4b We know that an idol is nothing at all in the world and that there is no God but one. 1 Cor 10:19 Do I mean…that an idol is anything? 20a No…. 192 Even as Paul addresses relations between Christians and pagans, his advice seems to be: “Don’t ask. Don’t tell.” 1 Cor 10:27 If some unbeliever invites you to a meal and you want to go, eat whatever is put before you without raising questions of conscience. 193 For a supplementary map, see #82 (The Judges according to Their Tribes) in Aharoni (1977). 194 Gideon may have declined the people’s offer of kingship, but he still governed a large portion of Manasseh, including the city of Shechem and probably Thebez (= Tirzah), which his son had to subdue in order to consolidate his power. Judg 9:50 Next Abimelech went to Thebez and besieged it and captured it. 195 At this time, Israel’s legitimate religious center was in Shiloh, about twelve miles south of Shechem. Judg 18:31b …all the time the house of God was in Shiloh.

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196

Does the pronominal phrase in his name (“My father is king”) refers to Gideon or to God? It is possible the boy’s mother (not his father) named him hoping such a moniker would offer an advantage over his step-brothers. For alternate maps, see #76 (The Pursuit after the Midianites) and #77 (The Kingdom of Abimelech) in Aharoni (1977). 197 This illustrates the maxim: Blood is thicker than water. 198 The elders do not ask what he would do with the money, but later testimony confirms their complicity. • The surviving son Judg 9:18a …today you have revolted against my father’s family, murdered his seventy sons…. • The biblical author Judg 9:24 God did this in order that the crime against Jerub-Baal’s seventy sons, the shedding of their blood, might be avenged on their brother Abimelech and on the citizens of Shechem, who had helped him murder his brothers. 199 One shekel = 8.26 grams = .30 oz. @ $17.50 oz. (as of 2010) = $5.25. Usage in Judges includes: • The price of mercenary: 70 shekels x $5.25 = $367.50 Judg 9:4 They gave him seventy shekels of silver from the temple of Baal-Berith, and Abimelech used it to hire reckless adventurers, who became his followers. • The price of betrayal: 1100 x $5.25 = $5775.00 x 5 = $28,875.00 Judg 16:5 The [five] rulers of the Philistines…said…”Each one of us will give you eleven hundred shekels of silver.” • The price of conscience (same as above) Judg 17:2a [Micah] said to his mother, “The eleven hundred shekels of silver that were taken…I took it.” • The price of apostasy: 10 x .$5.25 = $52.50 Judg 17:10 …Micah said to him, “…be my…priest, and I’ll give you ten shekels of silver a year….” 200 ANE temples often served as community or royal treasuries. 1 Sam 5:2 Then they carried the ark into Dagon’s temple and set it beside Dagon. 1 Kgs 7:51b [Solomon] brought in the things his father David had dedicated—the silver and gold and the furnishings—and he placed them in the treasuries of the LORD’s temple. 1 Kgs 14:26a [Shishak] carried off the treasures of the temple of the LORD and the treasures of the royal palace. 1Kgs 15:18a Asa then took all the silver and gold that was left in the treasuries of the LORD’s temple and of his own palace. 2 Kgs 12:18 …Joash…took all the sacred objects…and the gifts he himself had dedicated and all the gold found in the treasuries of the temple of the LORD and of the royal palace, and he sent them to Hazael king of Aram…. 2 Kgs 14:14a [Jehoash king of Israel] took all the gold and silver and all the articles found in the temple of the LORD and in the treasuries of the royal palace. 2 Kgs 18:15 …Hezekiah gave [Sennacherib] all the silver that was found in the temple of the LORD and in the treasuries of the royal palace. 16 …Hezekiah…stripped off the gold with which he had covered the doors and doorposts of the temple of the LORD, and gave it to the king of Assyria.

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2 Kgs 24:13 …Nebuchadnezzar removed all the treasures from the temple of the LORD and from the royal palace, and took away all the gold articles that Solomon king of Israel had made for the temple of the LORD. Dan 1:2 And the Lord delivered Jehoiakim king of Judah into his hand, along with some of the articles from the temple of God. These he carried off to the temple of his god in Babylonia and put in the treasure house of his god. Hag 2:7 “I will shake all nations…and I will fill this house with glory…. 8 The silver is mine and the gold is mine…. 9a The glory of this present house will be greater than the glory of the former house,” says the LORD Almighty. 201 By slaughtering his opponents “on one stone” (v. 5), Abimelech may be attempting to restrict the contamination of bloodguilt and preclude the involvement of neighboring (and possibly rival) administrations. Deut 21:1a If a man is found slain, lying in a field….3a Then the elders of the town nearest the body shall take a heifer… 4b they are to break the heifer’s neck. 6 Then all the elders of the town nearest the body shall wash their hands over the heifer whose neck was broken in the valley, 7 and they shall declare: “Our hands did not shed this blood, nor did our eyes see it done.” Num 35:19a The avenger of blood shall put the murderer to death…. 24 the assembly must judge between him and the avenger of blood according to these regulations. Alternatively, he may simply want to limit the number of witnesses (v. 5b). Num 35:30b …no one is to be put to death on the testimony of only one witness. 202 They are when… • Jotham responds to the crowning of Abimelech. • Joash responds to the challenge of Amaziah. 2 Kgs 14:9b “A thistle in Lebanon sent a message to a cedar in Lebanon, ‘Give your daughter to my son in marriage.’ Then a wild beast in Lebanon came along and trampled the thistle underfoot.” 203 Other variations of this moral include: 1 Sam 24:13a From evildoers come evil deeds, Cf. Matt 7:17b …a bad tree bears bad fruit. Ps 106:15 …he gave them what they asked for, but sent a wasting disease upon them. Gal 6:7c A man reaps what he sows. 204 The citizens should have realized they were not dealing with unbiased reporting. Judg 9:3 When [his] brothers repeated all this to the citizens of Shechem, they were inclined to follow Abimelech…. 205 For a supplementary map, see #5 (Main Roads and Cities of Ancient Palestine) in Miller (1986). 206 Some years earlier, the situation was chaotic. Judg 5:6 In the days of Shamgar son of Anath, in the days of Jael, the roads were abandoned; travelers took to winding paths. 207 Gaal’s family lived in the city long before Israel entered the land. Gen 33:18 After Jacob came from Paddan Aram, he arrived safely at the city of Shechem in Canaan and camped within sight of the city. 19 For a hundred pieces of silver, he bought from the sons of Hamor, the father of Shechem, the plot of ground where he pitched his tent.

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Gen 34:2 When Shechem son of Hamor the Hivite, the ruler of that area, saw her, he took her and violated her. 208 That the city’s population has a Canaanite segment probably accounts for some of the religious syncretism there. The two names for the religious sanctuary, Baal-Berith (9:4) and El-Berith (9:46), may be a scribal error or may represent shared use of the facility (Wood 1975:251, n. 8). 209 For a supplementary map, see #77 (The Kingdom of Abimelech) in Aharoni (1977). 210 This destruction probably corresponds to the early 12th c. burn level (Boling 1975:184) in which archaeologists uncovered the base of a structure with “massive walls, measuring about 80 x 65 feet, with an entrance flanked by towers” (Wood 1975: 251, n.10). 211 Abimelech’s sowing the city with salt was not to render the site unproductive, for he would have had to include the fields as well, a mammoth undertaking. • According to Cundall (1968:134), “it indicates a symbolic ritual action in which the destroyed city was condemned to perpetual destruction” (cf. Deut 29:23; Job 39:6; Ps 107:34; Jer 17:6). • According to Honeyman (1953:194), it indicates a superstitious act designed to prevent the spirits of the dead Shechemites from “haunt[ing] the ruins of the town as ghouls crying for blood and moaning for placation.” 212 That behavior elicited a divine response. Judg 9:23 God sent an evil spirit between Abimelech and the citizens of Shechem, who acted treacherously against Abimelech…. 56 Thus God repaid the wickedness that Abimelech had done to his father by murdering his seventy brothers. 57 God also made the men of Shechem pay for all their wickedness. The curse of Jotham son of Jerub-Baal came on them. 213 This attitude is especially clear in the admonitions of Paul. Rom 15:2 Each of us should please his neighbor for his good, to build him up. 1 Cor 10:24 Nobody should seek his own good, but the good of others. 1 Cor 13:5a [Love] is not self-seeking…. Phil 2:4 Each of you should look not only to your own interests, but also to the interests of others. 214 Their initial support came from family and a few friends. • Abimelech Judg 9:1 Abimelech son of Jerub-Baal went to his mother’s brothers in Shechem and said to them and to all his mother’s clan, 2 “Ask all the citizens of Shechem, ‘Which is better for you: to have all seventy of Jerub-Baal’s sons rule over you, or just one man?’ Remember, I am your flesh and blood.” • Saul 1 Sam 10:27 But some troublemakers said, “How can this fellow save us?” They despised him and brought him no gifts. But Saul kept silent. 1 Sam 11:7 He took a pair of oxen, cut them into pieces, and sent the pieces by messengers throughout Israel, proclaiming, “This is what will be done to the oxen of anyone who does not follow Saul and Samuel.” Then the terror of the LORD fell on the people, and they turned out as one man. • David 2 Sam 2:4a Then the men of Judah came to Hebron and there they anointed David king over the house of Judah.

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Cf. 2 Sam 3:17 Abner conferred with the elders of Israel and said, “For some time you have wanted to make David your king. 215 David had several hundred followers. 1 Sam 27:2 So David and the six hundred men with him left and went over to Achish son of Maoch king of Gath. 3 David and his men settled in Gath with Achish. Each man had his family with him, and David had his two wives: Ahinoam of Jezreel and Abigail of Carmel, the widow of Nabal. 216 In the other cases, God employs an evil spirit. In this case, God uses Satan. 1 Chr 21:1 Satan rose up against Israel and incited David to take a census of Israel. God used a similar spirit against King Ahab. 1 Kgs 22:20 And the LORD said, ‘Who will entice Ahab into attacking Ramoth Gilead and going to his death there?’ “One suggested this, and another that. 21 Finally, a spirit came forward, stood before the LORD and said, ‘I will entice him.’ 22 “‘By what means?’ the LORD asked. “‘I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouths of all his prophets,’ he said. “‘You will succeed in enticing him,’ said the LORD. ‘Go and do it.’ 23 “So now the LORD has put a lying spirit in the mouths of all these prophets of yours. The LORD has decreed disaster for you.” 217 Kings generally came to power by popular acclaim or prophetic anointing. • Abimelech Judg 9:2 “Ask all the citizens of Shechem, ‘Which is better for you: to have all seventy of Jerub-Baal’s sons rule over you, or just one man?’ Remember, I am your flesh and blood.” • Saul 1 Sam 9:20 As for the donkeys you lost three days ago, do not worry about them; they have been found. And to whom is all the desire of Israel turned, if not to you and all your father’s family?” 21 Saul answered, “But am I not a Benjamite, from the smallest tribe of Israel, and is not my clan the least of all the clans of the tribe of Benjamin? Why do you say such a thing to me?” 1 Sam 10:1 Then Samuel took a flask of oil and poured it on Saul’s head and kissed him, saying, “Has not the LORD anointed you leader over his inheritance? …22 So they inquired further of the LORD, “Has the man come here yet?” And the LORD said, “Yes, he has hidden himself among the baggage.” • David 1 Sam 16:13 So Samuel took the horn of oil and anointed him in the presence of his brothers, and from that day on the Spirit of the LORD came upon David in power. Samuel then went to Ramah. 1 Sam 24:6 He said to his men, “The LORD forbid that I should do such a thing to my master, the LORD’s anointed, or lift my hand against him; for he is the anointed of the LORD.” 1 Sam 26:11 But the LORD forbid that I should lay a hand on the LORD’s anointed. Now get the spear and water jug that are near his head, and let’s go.” 218 Because multiple tribes generally recognized a king’s ascension, his authority had a comparable reach. • Abimelech Judg 9:6 Then all the citizens of Shechem and Beth Millo gathered beside the great tree at the pillar in Shechem to crown Abimelech king…. 18 (but today you have revolted against my

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father’s family, murdered his seventy sons on a single stone, and made Abimelech, the son of his slave girl, king over the citizens of Shechem because he is your brother)— • Saul 1 Sam 11:15 So all the people went to Gilgal and confirmed Saul as king in the presence of the LORD. There they sacrificed fellowship offerings before the LORD, and Saul and all the Israelites held a great celebration. 1 Sam 22:1 David left Gath and escaped to the cave of Adullam. When his brothers and his father’s household heard about it, they went down to him there. 2 All those who were in distress or in debt or discontented gathered around him, and he became their leader. About four hundred men were with him. 3 From there David went to Mizpah in Moab and said to the king of Moab, “Would you let my father and mother come and stay with you until I learn what God will do for me?” 4 So he left them with the king of Moab, and they stayed with him as long as David was in the stronghold. 5 But the prophet Gad said to David, “Do not stay in the stronghold. Go into the land of Judah.” So David left and went to the forest of Hereth. Cf. 2 Sam 2:10 Ish-Bosheth son of Saul was forty years old when he became king over Israel, and he reigned two years. The house of Judah, however, followed David. • David 2 Sam 2:4a Then the men of Judah came to Hebron and there they anointed David king over the house of Judah. 2 Sam 5:3 When all the elders of Israel had come to King David at Hebron, the king made a compact with them at Hebron before the LORD, and they anointed David king over Israel. 219 Other kings had more self-serving motives. • Abimelech Judg 9:4 They gave him seventy shekels of silver from the temple of Baal-Berith, and Abimelech used it to hire reckless adventurers, who became his followers. • Saul 1 Sam. 13:13 “You acted foolishly,” Samuel said. “You have not kept the command the LORD your God gave you; if you had, he would have established your kingdom over Israel for all time. 1 Sam 15:19 Why did you not obey the LORD? Why did you pounce on the plunder and do evil in the eyes of the LORD?” Cf. 1 Sam 28:6 He inquired of the LORD, but the LORD did not answer him by dreams or Urim or prophets. 220 Other kings may have hoped for unity, but only David accomplished it. • Abimelech Judg 9:6 Then all the citizens of Shechem and Beth Millo gathered beside the great tree at the pillar in Shechem to crown Abimelech king. • Saul 1 Sam 22:1 David left Gath and escaped to the cave of Adullam. When his brothers and his father’s household heard about it, they went down to him there. 2 All those who were in distress or in debt or discontented gathered around him, and he became their leader. About four hundred men were with him. 3 From there David went to Mizpah in Moab and said to the king of Moab, “Would you let my father and mother come and stay with you until I learn what God will do for me?” 4 So he left them with the king of Moab, and they stayed with

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him as long as David was in the stronghold. 5 But the prophet Gad said to David, “Do not stay in the stronghold. Go into the land of Judah.” So David left and went to the forest of Hereth. Cf. 2 Sam 2:10 Ish-Bosheth son of Saul was forty years old when he became king over Israel, and he reigned two years. The house of Judah, however, followed David. • David 2 Sam 5:1 All the tribes of Israel came to David at Hebron and said, “We are your own flesh and blood. 2 In the past, while Saul was king over us, you were the one who led Israel on their military campaigns. And the LORD said to you, ‘You will shepherd my people Israel, and you will become their ruler.’” 3 When all the elders of Israel had come to King David at Hebron, the king made a compact with them at Hebron before the LORD, and they anointed David king over Israel. 4 David was thirty years old when he became king, and he reigned forty years. 5 In Hebron he reigned over Judah seven years and six months, and in Jerusalem he reigned over all Israel and Judah thirty-three years. 221 Other kings may have hoped for a dynasty, but only David established it. • Abimelech Judg 9:54 Hurriedly he called to his armor-bearer, “Draw your sword and kill me, so that they can’t say, ‘A woman killed him.’” So his servant ran him through, and he died. 55 When the Israelites saw that Abimelech was dead, they went home. Judg 10:1 After the time of Abimelech a man of Issachar, Tola son of Puah, the son of Dodo, rose to save Israel. He lived in Shamir, in the hill country of Ephraim. • Saul 1 Sam 31:2 The Philistines pressed hard after Saul and his sons, and they killed his sons Jonathan, Abinadab and Malki-Shua. 2 Sam 2:8 Meanwhile, Abner son of Ner, the commander of Saul’s army, had taken IshBosheth son of Saul and brought him over to Mahanaim. 9 He made him king over Gilead, Ashuri and Jezreel, and also over Ephraim, Benjamin and all Israel. 2 Sam 4:7 They had gone into the house while he was lying on the bed in his bedroom. After they stabbed and killed him, they cut off his head. Taking it with them, they traveled all night by way of the Arabah. 8 They brought the head of Ish-Bosheth to David at Hebron and said to the king, “Here is the head of Ish-Bosheth son of Saul, your enemy, who tried to take your life. This day the LORD has avenged my lord the king against Saul and his offspring.” • David 2 Sam 7:11c “‘The LORD declares to you that the LORD himself will establish a house for you: 12 When your days are over and you rest with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring to succeed you, who will come from your own body, and I will establish his kingdom. 13 He is the one who will build a house for my Name, and I will establish the throne of his kingdom forever. 14 I will be his father, and he will be my son. When he does wrong, I will punish him with the rod of men, with floggings inflicted by men. 15 But my love will never be taken away from him, as I took it away from Saul, whom I removed from before you. 16 Your house and your kingdom will endure forever before me; your throne will be established forever.’” Jer 34:19 The leaders of Judah and Jerusalem, the court officials, the priests and all the people of the land who walked between the pieces of the calf, 20 I will hand over to their enemies who seek their lives. Their dead bodies will become food for the birds of the air and

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the beasts of the earth. 21 “I will hand Zedekiah king of Judah and his officials over to their enemies who seek their lives, to the army of the king of Babylon, which has withdrawn from you. 22 I am going to give the order, declares the LORD, and I will bring them back to this city. They will fight against it, take it and burn it down. And I will lay waste the towns of Judah so no one can live there.” 222 Other kings may have hoped for hegemony, but only David achieved it. • Abimelech Judg 9:39 So Gaal led out the citizens of Shechem and fought Abimelech. 40 Abimelech chased him, and many fell wounded in the flight — all the way to the entrance to the gate. 41 Abimelech stayed in Arumah, and Zebul drove Gaal and his brothers out of Shechem. 42 The next day the people of Shechem went out to the fields, and this was reported to Abimelech. 43 So he took his men, divided them into three companies and set an ambush in the fields. When he saw the people coming out of the city, he rose to attack them. 44 Abimelech and the companies with him rushed forward to a position at the entrance to the city gate. Then two companies rushed upon those in the fields and struck them down. 45 All that day Abimelech pressed his attack against the city until he had captured it and killed its people. Then he destroyed the city and scattered salt over it. 46 On hearing this, the citizens in the tower of Shechem went into the stronghold of the temple of El-Berith. 47 When Abimelech heard that they had assembled there, 48 he and all his men went up Mount Zalmon. He took an ax and cut off some branches, which he lifted to his shoulders. He ordered the men with him, “Quick! Do what you have seen me do!” 49 So all the men cut branches and followed Abimelech. They piled them against the stronghold and set it on fire over the people inside. So all the people in the tower of Shechem, about a thousand men and women, also died. 50 Next Abimelech went to Thebez and besieged it and captured it. • Saul 1 Sam 14:52 All the days of Saul there was bitter war with the Philistines, and whenever Saul saw a mighty or brave man, he took him into his service. • David 2 Sam 7:1 After the king was settled in his palace and the LORD had given him rest from all his enemies around him…. 11b I will also give you rest from all your enemies. 223 Gideon also refers to the social structure. Judg 6:15b My clan is the weakest in Manasseh, and I am the least in my family. 224 The story of Saul’s selection in 1 Sam 10 offers a similar description of Israelite society. 1 Sam 10:20 When Samuel brought all the tribes of Israel [amphictyony] near, the tribe [fRbEv] of Benjamin was chosen. 21 Then he brought forward the tribe of Benjamin, clan by clan [hDjDÚpVvIm], and Matri’s clan was chosen. Finally Saul son of Kish [= tˆyA;b] was chosen. But when they looked for him [= rRb‰…g], he was not to be found. 225 Several judges appealed to other tribes for help. • Ehud Judg 3:27 When he arrived there, he blew a trumpet in the hill country of Ephraim, and the Israelites went down with him from the hills, with him leading them. • Deborah Judg 4:10 where he summoned Zebulun and Naphtali. Ten thousand men followed him, and Deborah also went with him.

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Judg 5:14 Some came from Ephraim, whose roots were in Amalek; Benjamin was with the people who followed you. From Makir captains came down, from Zebulun those who bear a commander’s staff. 15 The princes of Issachar were with Deborah; yes, Issachar was with Barak, rushing after him into the valley. In the districts of Reuben there was much searching of heart. 16 Why did you stay among the campfires to hear the whistling for the flocks? In the districts of Reuben there was much searching of heart. 17 Gilead stayed beyond the Jordan. And Dan, why did he linger by the ships? Asher remained on the coast and stayed in his coves. 18 The people of Zebulun risked their very lives; so did Naphtali on the heights of the field. • Gideon Judg 6:35 He sent messengers throughout Manasseh, calling them to arms, and also into Asher, Zebulun and Naphtali, so that they too went up to meet them. Judg 7:23 Israelites from Naphtali, Asher and all Manasseh were called out, and they pursued the Midianites. 24 Gideon sent messengers throughout the hill country of Ephraim, saying, “Come down against the Midianites and seize the waters of the Jordan ahead of them as far as Beth Barah.” ¶ So all the men of Ephraim were called out and they took the waters of the Jordan as far as Beth Barah. 226 Self-interest probably plays a significant role in support for at least two campaigns. • Deborah Judg 5:16 Why did you stay among the campfires to hear the whistling for the flocks? In the districts of Reuben there was much searching of heart. 17 Gilead stayed beyond the Jordan. And Dan, why did he linger by the ships? Asher remained on the coast and stayed in his coves. • Gideon Judg 8:1 Now the Ephraimites asked Gideon, “Why have you treated us like this? Why didn’t you call us when you went to fight Midian?” And they criticized him sharply. Cf. Judg 12:1 The men of Ephraim called out their forces, crossed over to Zaphon and said to Jephthah, “Why did you go to fight the Ammonites without calling us to go with you? We’re going to burn down your house over your head.” 227 The actual strength of a judge’s following may not have extended much beyond his own household; hence, his difficulty enlisting troops beyond what he actually controlled. Judg 6:34 Then the Spirit of the LORD came upon Gideon, and he blew a trumpet, summoning the Abiezrites to follow him. Cf. Judg 6:11 The angel of the LORD came and sat down under the oak in Ophrah that belonged to Joash the Abiezrite, where his son Gideon was threshing wheat in a winepress to keep it from the Midianites. 228 Military support will often rally behind an individual others view as one of their own. • Abimelech Judg 9:2 “Ask all the citizens of Shechem, ‘Which is better for you: to have all seventy of Jerub-Baal’s sons rule over you, or just one man?’ Remember, I am your flesh and blood.” • Gaal Judg 9:28 Then Gaal son of Ebed said, “Who is Abimelech, and who is Shechem, that we should be subject to him? Isn’t he Jerub-Baal’s son, and isn’t Zebul his deputy? Serve the men of Hamor, Shechem’s father! Why should we serve Abimelech? 229 I could not locate any art for Tola or Jair.

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230

For an alternate map, see #82 (The Judges according to Their Tribes) in Aharoni (1977). It is so for the judges in general and for these judges in particular (contra Boling 1975:187; and Wood 1975:265, but cf. 267). Judg 2:16 Then the LORD raised up judges, who saved them out of the hands of these raiders…. 18a Whenever the LORD raised up a judge for them, he was with the judge and saved them out of the hands of their enemies…. • Othniel Judg 3:9 …the LORD…raised up for them a deliverer, Othniel…who saved them. • Ehud Judg 3:15a Again the Israelites cried out to the LORD, and he gave them a deliverer — Ehud, a left-handed man, the son of Gera the Benjamite. • Shamgar Judg 3:31b After Ehud came Shamgar son of Anath…. He too saved Israel. • Gideon Judg 6:14a The LORD…said, “…save Israel out of Midian’s hand….” 15a “But Lord,” Gideon asked, “how can I save Israel?” …36 Gideon said to God, “If you will save Israel by my hand… Judg 7:7a The LORD said to Gideon, “…I will save you and give the Midianites into your hands.” Judg 8:22 The Israelites said to Gideon, “…you have saved us out of the hand of Midian.” …34 …God…rescued them from the hands of all their enemies on every side. 232 These are actually cities in Manasseh’s territory. Judg 1:27 But Manasseh did not drive out the people of Beth Shan or Taanach or Dor or Ibleam or Megiddo and their surrounding settlements, for the Canaanites were determined to live in that land. 233 God gave up on those in Noah’s day… Gen 7:22 Everything on dry land that had the breath of life in its nostrils died. …and He will give up on those who persist on going their own way (see Manuel 2012 “Unpardonable Sin”). Rom 1:18 The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men who suppress the truth by their wickedness…. 22 Although they claimed to be wise, they became fools 23a and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images…. 24 Therefore God gave them over in the sinful desires of their hearts…. 25a They exchanged the truth of God for a lie…. 26a Because of this, God gave them over to shameful lusts. 234 The opportunity for repentance ends at death. Heb 9:27 …man is destined to die once, and after that to face judgment, 235 The narrator mentions prayer three times without giving the actual wording, saying only that people cry out (G √qoz) to God. Judg 3:9 But when they cried out to the LORD, he raised up for them a deliverer, Othniel son of Kenaz, Caleb's younger brother, who saved them. Judg 4:3 Because he had nine hundred iron chariots and had cruelly oppressed the Israelites for twenty years, they cried to the LORD for help. Judg 6:6 Midian so impoverished the Israelites that they cried out to the LORD for help. 231

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In several cases (8x), though, he provides a transcript of prayer, giving some (if not all) of what people said to God. • Judg 6 (petition—free) Gideon said to God, [Free prayer:] 36 “If you will save Israel by my hand as you have promised— 37 look, I will place a wool fleece on the threshing floor. If there is dew only on the fleece and all the ground is dry, then I will know that you will save Israel by my hand, as you said.” [Narrative interlude] 38 And that is what happened. Gideon rose early the next day; he squeezed the fleece and wrung out the dew—a bowlful of water. 39 Then Gideon said to God, [Free prayer:] “Do not be angry with me. Let me make just one more request. Allow me one more test with the fleece. This time make the fleece dry and the ground covered with dew.” [Narrative interlude] 40 That night God did so. Only the fleece was dry; all the ground was covered with dew. • Judg 13 (petition—patterned) 8 Then Manoah prayed to the LORD: [Address:] “O Lord, [Petition:] I beg you, let the man of God you sent to us come again to teach us how to bring up the boy who is to be born.” • Judg 16 (praise—free) 23 Now the rulers of the Philistines assembled to offer a great sacrifice to Dagon their god and to celebrate, saying, [Free prayer:] “Our god has delivered Samson, our enemy, into our hands.” [Narrative interlude] 24 When the people saw him, they praised their god, saying, [Free prayer:] “Our god has delivered our enemy into our hands, the one who laid waste our land and multiplied our slain.” • Judg 16 (petition—patterned) 28 Then Samson prayed to the LORD, [Address:] “O Sovereign LORD, [Petition:] remember me. O God, please strengthen me just once more, [Motivation:] and let me with one blow get revenge on the Philistines for my two eyes.” • Judg 21 (lament—patterned) 2 The people went to Bethel, where they sat before God until evening, raising their voices and weeping bitterly. [Address:] 3 “O LORD, the God of Israel,” they cried, [Question:] “why has this happened to Israel? Why should one tribe be missing from Israel today?” 236 Three major types of prayer display characteristic features. • Free prayer • Content—specific, product of a unique situation. • Form—free, spontaneous exclamation of the heart • Prerequisite—requires no special training • Use—non-recyclable • Patterned prayer • Content—specific, product of a unique situation. • Form—structured, using ordinary speech patterns • Prerequisite—requires some familiarity with poetics • Use—non-recyclable • Ritualized prayer • Content—general, adaptable to many situations. • Form—highly stylized, using ordinary speech patterns and extensive literary ornament • Prerequisite—requires knowledge of poetics • Use—recyclable 237 That point of identification depends on the situation: • Gideon reiterates God’s promise of deliverance and prays: “If you will save Israel by my hand as you have promised…” (6:36).

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• Samson acknowledges God’s aid and prays: “You have given your servant this great victory” (5:18a). 238 Requests of petitionary prayer in the book vary. • Gideon requests reassurance: “If there is dew only on the fleece and all the ground is dry, then I will know that you will save Israel by my hand, as you said” (6:37). • Samson requests water: “Must I now die of thirst and fall into the hands of the uncircumcised?” (15:18b). 239 Examples of petitionary prayer in the book include: • Prophetess (Deborah) Judg 5:31a-b Thus let all Your enemies perish, O LORD; But let those who love Him be like the rising of the sun in its might. • Prince (Gideon) Judg 6:22 When Gideon saw that he was the angel of the LORD, he said, “Alas, O Lord GOD! For now I have seen the angel of the LORD face to face.” …36 Then Gideon said to God, “If You will deliver Israel through me, as You have spoken, 37 behold, I will put a fleece of wool on the threshing floor. If there is dew on the fleece only, and it is dry on all the ground, then I will know that You will deliver Israel through me, as You have spoken.” …39 Then Gideon said to God, “Do not let Your anger burn against me that I may speak once more; please let me make a test once more with the fleece, let it now be dry only on the fleece, and let there be dew on all the ground.” • People (Israel) Judg 10:10 Then the sons of Israel cried out to the LORD, saying, “We have sinned against You, for indeed, we have forsaken our God and served the Baals.” …15 The sons of Israel said to the LORD, “We have sinned, do to us whatever seems good to You; only please deliver us this day.” • Professional soldier (Jephthah) Judg 11:30 Jephthah made a vow to the LORD and said, “If You will indeed give the sons of Ammon into my hand, 31 then it shall be that whatever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me when I return in peace from the sons of Ammon, it shall be the LORD’S, and I will offer it up as a burnt offering.” • Parent (Manoah) Judg 13:8 Then Manoah entreated the LORD and said, “O Lord, please let the man of God whom You have sent come to us again that he may teach us what to do for the boy who is to be born.” • Prisoner (Samson) Judg 16:28 Then Samson called to the LORD and said, “O Lord GOD, please remember me and please strengthen me just this time, O God, that I may at once be avenged of the Philistines for my two eyes.” …30a And Samson said, “Let me die with the Philistines!” • Pagans (sailors) Jonah 1:14 Then they cried to the LORD, “O LORD, please do not let us die for taking this man’s life. Do not hold us accountable for killing an innocent man, for you, O LORD, have done as you pleased.” 240 Prayer is for everyone, which is what Paul reiterates to the readers of his epistles. Eph 6:18 [P]ray…on all occasions with all kinds of prayers…. and always keep on praying….

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Phil 4:6b [I]n everything, by prayer and petition, present your requests to God Col 4:2a Devote yourselves to prayer 1 Thess 5:17 [P]ray continually 241 Deborah is the only religious professional in the book and, as we would expect, authors the only ritualized prayer in the book. 242 Samson’s cry is an example of artless prayer God answers. Judg 15:18 Because he was very thirsty, he cried out to the LORD, “You have given your servant this great victory. Must I now die of thirst and fall into the hands of the uncircumcised?” 19 Then God opened up the hollow place in Lehi, and water came out of it. When Samson drank, his strength returned and he revived. So the spring was called En Hakkore, and it is still there in Lehi. 243 Greenberg (1983:47-48) says: What are the religious implications of the fact that in principle anyone can pray and be heard by God? Perhaps the most obvious implication is to mark off biblical prayer decisively from the rigid formulas of magic and incantation…. When, as we have seen, the lawmaker [Moses] prescribes that the reparation-sacrifice [= sin offering] must be preceded by confession, but omits fixing its wording [Num 5:7; Lev 5:5-6], he implies that effective prayer is not a matter of a particular verbal formula. In order to appreciate the significance and singularity of this omission, one needs to be familiar with, say, Babylonian exorcism rituals, whose offerings are accompanied by verbally fixed incantational prayers, or the Roman requirement that prayer be punctiliously performed, since a single mistake would invalidate it. Taken together with the abundant evidence for extemporized popular praying, we conclude that the lawmaker only reflects popular religion in holding the essence of prayer to be its message content, not its wording; the patterns we have discerned merely facilitated extemporization, they did not dictate verbal content. Like interhuman speech, the effectiveness of prayer was not primarily conditioned by wording, but on the total configuration of interpersonal factors. Among these, the moral status of the speaker in the estimate of the one addressed, and his sincerity, play a crucial role. 244 The same advisory holds true for worship (see Manuel 1999 “Erroneous Assumptions and Essential Attitudes about Worship”). 245 The book’s popularity spawned an extensive line of merchandise, including key chains, mugs, backpacks, scented candles, mouse pads, and jewelry. It also garnered the endorsements of such evangelical notables as James Dobson and Bill Gothard. 246 Not the least of these is the assumption that God wants all His people to be healthy and wealthy all the time. 247 It would also result in a condition opposite to what the prayer of Jabez is supposed to accomplish. See n. 177 in Manuel 2009 Understanding What God Has Said). Even with didactic passages, it is necessary to derive “The Right Teaching from the Right Text” (see the Excursus in Manuel 2008 Praying through the Bible). 248 See n. 158 in Manuel 2009 Understanding What God Has Said. 249 See the treatment of criticism in the “Introduction” to Manuel 2002 Biblically Correct. 250 The author of Chronicles recounts it of Jabez but does not recommend it to others. 251 The two verses in this chapter are the only reference to Jabez in the Bible.

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1 Chr 4:9 Jabez was more honorable than his brothers. His mother had named him Jabez, saying, “I gave birth to him in pain.” 10 Jabez cried out to the God of Israel, “Oh, that you would bless me and enlarge my territory! Let your hand be with me, and keep me from harm so that I will be free from pain.” And God granted his request. This occurs in the Chronicler’s lineage of Judah but without identifying Jabez’s parents. 252 God’s servants are not always prosperous, and their poverty is not a sign of His displeasure. Mark 12:43 …Jesus said, “I tell you the truth, this poor widow has put more into the treasury than all the others. 44 They all gave out of their wealth; but she, out of her poverty, put in everything—all she had to live on.” 1 Cor 4:10a We are fools for Christ…. 11 …we go hungry and thirsty, we are in rags, …we are homeless. Phil 4:12b I have learned the secret of being content in any and every situation, whether well fed or hungry, whether living in plenty or in want. 13 I can do everything through him who gives me strength. Why not make the saint who prays for moderate means the model for Christians today? Prov 30:7 “Two things I ask of you, O LORD; do not refuse me before I die: 8 Keep falsehood and lies far from me; give me neither poverty nor riches, but give me only my daily bread. 9 Otherwise, I may have too much and disown you and say, ‘Who is the LORD?’ Or I may become poor and steal, and so dishonor the name of my God. This was, after all, part of Jesus’ model prayer for his disciples. Matt 6:11 Give us today our daily bread. 253 This mechanical approach is similar to the pagan practice Jesus condemns. Matt 6:7 And when you pray, do not keep on babbling like pagans, for they think they will be heard because of their many words. 254 See the Excursus in Manuel 2005 Praying through the Bible. 255 The specific protocol that normalizing Jabez’s petition may contradict is not praying with the wrong motivation (i.e., for personal gratification). Jms 4:3 When you ask, you do not receive, because you ask with wrong motives, that you may spend what you get on your pleasures. 256 For an alternate map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). 257 The Ammonites have been a thorn in Israel’s side for many years. Judg 10:8b For eighteen years they oppressed all the Israelites on the east side of the Jordan in Gilead, the land of the Amorites. 9 The Ammonites also crossed the Jordan to fight against Judah, Benjamin and the house of Ephraim; and Israel was in great distress. 258 For a supplementary map, see #5 (Main Roads and Cities of Ancient Palestine) in Miller (1986). 259 The character of Jephhthah’s men was similar to that of Abimelech’s men. [NAS] Judg 9:4b Abimelech hired worthless [MyIqyér] and reckless fellows, and they followed him. [NAS] Judg 11:3b …worthless [MyIqyér] fellows gathered themselves about Jephthah, and they went out with him. 260 Jephthah defeated the Amorites in battle. Num 21:23 But Sihon would not let Israel pass through his territory…. he fought with Israel. 24 Israel, however, put him to the sword and took over his land from the Arnon to the Jabbok, but only as far as the Ammonites, because their border was fortified.

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261

For a supplementary map, see #78 (The War of Jephtah) in Aharoni (1977). Mizpah was the staging area for an earlier battle and the site of Jephthah’s commissioning. Judg 10:17 When the Ammonites were called to arms and camped in Gilead, the Israelites assembled and camped at Mizpah. Judg 11:11 So Jephthah went with the elders of Gilead, and the people made him head and commander over them. And he repeated all his words before the LORD in Mizpah. 263 See also Appendix E: A List of Oaths in the OT. 264 Both forms of binding speech appear together in two verses. Num 30:2a When a man makes a vow [√rdn] to the LORD or takes an oath [√obv] to obligate himself…. Ps 132:2 He swore an oath [√obv] to the LORD and made a vow [[√rdn] to the Mighty One of Jacob: 265 Even in non-legal matters, keeping one’s oath is commendable. Ps 15:1a LORD, who may dwell in your sanctuary? …4b [He] who keeps his oath even when it hurts, 266 Perjury is a serious crime, because it falsely invokes the Lord. Exod 20:7 You shall not misuse the name of the LORD your God, for the LORD will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name…. 16 You shall not give false testimony against your neighbor. 267 Ruth invokes a curse (PyIsOy hOk◊w yIl hÎwh◊y hRcSoÅy) in her pledge to Naomi. Ruth 1:17b May the LORD deal with me, be it ever so severely, if anything but death separates you and me. 268 While vows are optional to make, once made, they become obligatory to fulfill. Num 30:2 When a man makes a vow to the LORD or takes an oath to obligate himself by a pledge, he must not break his word but must do everything he said. Deut 23:21 If you make a vow to the LORD your God, do not be slow to pay it, for the LORD your God will certainly demand it of you and you will be guilty of sin. 22 But if you refrain from making a vow, you will not be guilty. 23 Whatever your lips utter you must be sure to do, because you made your vow freely to the LORD your God with your own mouth. Prov 20:25 It is a trap for a man to dedicate something rashly and only later to consider his vows. Eccl 5:4 When you make a vow to God, do not delay in fulfilling it. He has no pleasure in fools; fulfill your vow. 5 It is better not to vow than to make a vow and not fulfill it. Exceptions are possible but rare and concern a female vow, which may be countermanded by her male authority. • A father for his daughter Num 30:3 “When a young woman still living in her father’s house makes a vow to the LORD or obligates herself by a pledge…. 5 But if her father forbids her when he hears about it, none of her vows or the pledges by which she obligated herself will stand; the LORD will release her because her father has forbidden her. • A groom for his bride Num 30:6 “If she marries after she makes a vow or after her lips utter a rash promise by which she obligates herself…. 8 But if her husband forbids her when he hears about it, he nullifies the vow that obligates her or the rash promise by which she obligates herself, and the LORD will release her. 262

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• A husband for his wife Num 30:10 “If a woman living with her husband makes a vow or obligates herself by a pledge under oath… 12 But if her husband nullifies them when he hears about them, then none of the vows or pledges that came from her lips will stand. Her husband has nullified them, and the LORD will release her. 13 Her husband may confirm or nullify any vow she makes or any sworn pledge to deny herself. 269 A vow entails a commitment of some sort: • Financial Gen 28:20 Then Jacob made a vow, saying, “If God will be with me and will watch over me on this journey I am taking and will give me food to eat and clothes to wear 21 so that I return safely to my father’s house, then the LORD will be my God 22 and this stone that I have set up as a pillar will be God’s house, and of all that you give me I will give you a tenth.” Num 29:39a In addition to what you vow and your freewill offerings… • Personal Lev 27:2b If anyone makes a special vow to dedicate persons to the LORD by giving equivalent values…. 8 If anyone making the vow is too poor to pay the specified amount, he is to present the person to the priest, who will set the value for him according to what the man making the vow can afford. 270 While Paul makes his vow in Cenchrea, he must fulfill his vow in the temple. Acts 18:18c Before he sailed, he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken. Acts 21:23b There are four men with us who have made a vow. 24a Take these men, join in their purification rites and pay their expenses, so that they can have their heads shaved…. 26 The next day Paul took the men and purified himself along with them. Then he went to the temple to give notice of the date when the days of purification would end and the offering would be made for each of them. Unlike a strictly verbal vow, which need not be overly public, the Nazirite vow includes several overt signs, physical, behavioral, and victual. Num 6:2b If a man or woman wants to make a special vow, a vow of separation to the LORD as a Nazirite, 3 he must abstain from wine and other fermented drink and must not drink vinegar made from wine or from other fermented drink. He must not drink grape juice or eat grapes or raisins. 4 As long as he is a Nazirite, he must not eat anything that comes from the grapevine, not even the seeds or skins. 5 During the entire period of his vow of separation no razor may be used on his head. He must be holy until the period of his separation to the LORD is over; he must let the hair of his head grow long. 6 Throughout the period of his separation to the LORD he must not go near a dead body. 7 Even if his own father or mother or brother or sister dies, he must not make himself ceremonially unclean on account of them, because the symbol of his separation to God is on his head. 8 Throughout the period of his separation he is consecrated to the LORD…. 13 Now this is the law for the Nazirite when the period of his separation is over. He is to be brought to the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. 14 There he is to present his offerings to the LORD: a year-old male lamb without defect for a burnt offering, a year-old ewe lamb without defect for a sin offering, a ram without defect for a fellowship offering, 15 together with their grain offerings and drink offerings, and a basket of bread made without yeast—cakes made of fine flour mixed with oil, and wafers spread

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with oil…. 18 Then at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, the Nazirite must shave off the hair that he dedicated. He is to take the hair and put it in the fire that is under the sacrifice of the fellowship offering…. 21 This is the law of the Nazirite who vows his offering to the LORD in accordance with his separation, in addition to whatever else he can afford. He must fulfill the vow he has made, according to the law of the Nazirite. 271 A person may make several vows over the course of his life. Ps 22:25b before those who fear you will I fulfill my vows. Ps 116:18 I will fulfill my vows to the LORD in the presence of all his people, Jesus’ admonition is that such utterances be few, and they should certainly not be spoken with the casual and cavalier attitude that is often behind the words, “I promise.” Few situations today warrant the support of a vow, excepting when a person enters into marriage or military service, assumes public office or gives court testimony. 272 Although God cannot vow to Himself, He does swear (i.e., take an oath) by Himself. • After the almost-sacrifice of Isaac, God speaks to Abraham. Gen 22:16 …“I swear by myself, declares the LORD, that because you have done this and have not withheld your son, your only son, 17 I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, • After the Israelites accepted the spies’ unfavorable report about the land, God said to Moses, Num 14:21 Nevertheless, as surely as I live and as surely as the glory of the LORD fills the whole earth… 23 not one of them will ever see the land I promised on oath to their forefathers. No one who has treated me with contempt will ever see it. 273 Josephus, commenting on the oath concerning Benjamin in… Judg 21:18 We can’t give them our daughters as wives, since we Israelites have taken this oath: ‘Cursed be anyone who gives a wife to a Benjamite.’ says… Ant v.169 …some advised them to have no regard to what they had sworn, because the oath had not been taken advisedly and judiciously, but in a passion…. If true, Jephthah might also have left his vow unfulfilled, but he apparently did not consider such an excuse to be an option. 274 The verb axy never has an animal as the subject, which suggests that the prefixed article translates ‘whoever’ (so Peshitta, Vulgate, and some Greek mss; versus ‘whatever’), thereby lending support to the sacrifice position. 275 Angelic intervention prevented Abraham. Gen 22:10 Then he reached out his hand and took the knife to slay his son…. 12b-c “Do not do anything to him. Now I know that you fear God, because you have not withheld from me your son, your only son.” There is no such intervention for Jephthah. 276 This custom “would hardly be likely if nothing more was involved than perpetual virginity” (Cundall 1968:148). Nevertheless, the memorial service was not necessarily lamentation (so KJV, Douay, RSV, NAB, NJB). The verb hnt (v. 40) is neutral and simply means ‘to recount’ (so ASV, NAS, NIV). 277 Prohibitions against child sacrifice appear often in the OT. Lev 18:21 Do not give any of your children to be sacrificed to Molech, for you must not profane the name of your God. I am the LORD.

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Lev 20:3b …by giving his children to Molech, he has defiled my sanctuary and profaned my holy name. Deut 12:31b They even burn their sons and daughters in the fire as sacrifices to their gods. Deut 18:10a Let no one be found among you who sacrifices his son or daughter in the fire… 2 Kgs 3:27a Then he took his firstborn son, who was to succeed him as king, and offered him as a sacrifice on the city wall. 2 Kgs 16:3a He walked in the ways of the kings of Israel and even sacrificed his son in the fire…. 2 Kgs 17:31 the Avvites made Nibhaz and Tartak, and the Sepharvites burned their children in the fire as sacrifices to Adrammelech and Anammelech, the gods of Sepharvaim. 2 Kgs 23:10 He desecrated Topheth, which was in the Valley of Ben Hinnom, so no one could use it to sacrifice his son or daughter in the fire to Molech. Ezek 20:26a I let them become defiled through their gifts—the sacrifice of every firstborn Mic 6:7b Shall I offer my firstborn for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul? 278 Even that service they must redeem. Lev 27:2 …If anyone makes a special vow to dedicate persons to the LORD by giving equivalent values…. 8 If anyone making the vow is too poor to pay the specified amount, he is to present the person to the priest, who will set the value for him according to what the man making the vow can afford. 279 Examples of women who served in the sanctuary include: Exod 38:8b …the mirrors of the women who served at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. 1 Sam 2:22 …his sons…slept with the women who served at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. 280 God conscripted the tribe of Levi after the exodus. Num 3:12 I have taken the Levites from among the Israelites in place of the first male offspring of every Israelite woman. The Levites are mine, 13a for all the firstborn are mine. Cf. Exod 22:29b You must give me the firstborn of your sons. 281 Israelites find the practice of child sacrifice abhorrent, despite the practice among one of their neighbors. 1 Sam 14:24 Now the men of Israel were in distress that day, because Saul had bound the people under an oath, saying, “Cursed be any man who eats food before evening comes, before I have avenged myself on my enemies!” So none of the troops tasted food…. 27 But Jonathan had not heard that his father had bound the people with the oath, so he reached out the end of the staff that was in his hand and dipped it into the honeycomb. He raised his hand to his mouth, and his eyes brightened…. 43 Then Saul said to Jonathan, “Tell me what you have done.” So Jonathan told him, “I merely tasted a little honey with the end of my staff. And now must I die?” 44 Saul said, “May God deal with me, be it ever so severely, if you do not die, Jonathan.” 45 But the men said to Saul, “Should Jonathan die — he who has brought about this great deliverance in Israel? Never! As surely as the LORD lives, not a hair of his head will fall to the ground, for he did this today with God’s help.” So the men rescued Jonathan, and he was not put to death. 2 Kgs 3:27 [The king of Moab] took his firstborn son, who was to succeed him as king, and offered him as a sacrifice on the city wall. The fury against Israel was great; they withdrew and returned to their own land.

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Moreover, God specifically inveighs against it. Lev 18:21 Do not give any of your children to be sacrificed to Molech, for you must not profane the name of your God. I am the LORD. Lev 20:2 …Any Israelite or any alien living in Israel who gives any of his children to Molech must be put to death. The people of the community are to stone him. Deut 12:31 You must not worship the LORD your God in their way, because in worshiping their gods, they do all kinds of detestable things the LORD hates. They even burn their sons and daughters in the fire as sacrifices to their gods. 282 The relevant passage is: 1 Sam 1:11 And she made a vow, saying, “O LORD Almighty, if you will only look upon your servant’s misery and remember me, and not forget your servant but give her a son, then I will give him to the LORD for all the days of his life….” …27 I prayed for this child, and the LORD has granted me what I asked of him. 28a-b So now I give him to the LORD. For his whole life he will be given over to the LORD.” 283 Wood suggests that because Jephthah appears in the Hall of Faith (Heb 11:32), his decision must have had tacit divine approval (1975:289), but Gideon also appears in that list despite the fact that his final act had explicit divine disapproval. Judg 8:27 Gideon made the gold into an ephod, which he placed in Ophrah, his town. All Israel prostituted themselves by worshiping it there, and it became a snare to Gideon and his family. The author’s commendation must rather be for their primary exploits against Israel’s enemies (faithfulness ≠ flawlessness). Wood further states that God would surely not have permitted Jephthah to continue as judge had he sacrificed his daughter (1985:290) but, again, this argument proves weak when one considers that Gideon continued in office despite his decision regarding the ephod. We will reconsider this issue later in the study. Judg 19:24 Look, here is my virgin daughter, and his concubine. I will bring them out to you now, and you can use them and do to them whatever you wish. But to this man, don’t do such a disgraceful thing. 284 For an alternate map, see #78 (The War of Jephtah) in Aharoni (1977). 285 Speiser argues for an early doublet of shibbolet (‘flood’) with initial /t/. Gilead preserved the older pronunciation with PS /t/, whereas /t/ merged with /s`´ / in the Hebrew of Ephraim, as it did generally in cisjordanian Canaanite. He accounts for the difference in the narration by stating that the biblical writer had to represent /t/ as /s`´ /, which left /s/ for the alternative pronunciation. Marcus points out in a later article, however, that evidence for such a doublet suggests a later back-formation rather than an early form (1942:39). Rendsberg appeals to a seventh century seal as evidence of /t/ in Ammonite as support for this phoneme’s possible retention in the Transjordan. Beeston, though, notes that there is still no such attested root in PS and that the seal is open to other interpretations (1988:260). 286 Marquart argues that Ephraim preserved the older pronunciation with PS /t/, whereas /t/ merged with /s`´ / in the Hebrew of other tribes, as it did generally in Canaanite. 287 Beeston argues that PS /s`´ / merged with /s´ / in Ephraimite Hebrew. Blau goes further, arguing that PS /s`´ / and /s´ / both merged with /s/ in Ephraimite Hebrew. Faber agrees that Ephraim had no /s`´ / but argues in the opposite direction, that Ephraim preserved the earlier pronunciation with PS /s/, whereas /s/ merged with /s`´ / in the Hebrew of Gilead.

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288

Emerton argues that Ephraim may have had the phoneme /s`´ / but articulated it differently, (presumably) either in this word or in this position. 289 Marcus argues that PS /s`´ / merged with /s´ / in Amorite, whereas PS /s´ / merged with /s`´ / in Canaanite. Hebrew, being a mixture of Amorite and Canaanite, sometimes preserves PS /s`´ / and other times PS /s´ /. The shibboleth incident occurred presumably while Hebrew was still essentially Amorite (i.e., lacking /s`´ /). 290 Other examples include: Matt 26:73 After a little while, those standing there went up to Peter and said, “Surely you are one of them, for your accent gives you away.” b ‘Erub 53b The Judeans were exact in their language [for example…]…. The Galileans…were not exact in their language. 291 I could not locate any art for Ibzan, Elon, or Abdon. 292 For an alternate map, see #82 (The Judges according to Their Tribes) in Aharoni (1977). 293 This assumes that the antecedent of “after him” in all three cases is not Jephthah and that their administrations were not simultaneous (cf. Wood 1975:265, 270). 294 In addition to being well-known, Samson is the object of more classical art than any other judge. 295 While the Philistines were a problem for Israel at this time, Jephthah’s concern is the eastern part of the country. Judg 10:6b They served…the gods of the Ammonites and the gods of the Philistines. And because the Israelites forsook the LORD….7b He sold them into the hands of the Philistines and the Ammonites, 296 The following map is not in the HO. For a supplementary map, see #66 (The Rise of the Sea Peoples) in Aharoni (1977). 297 Uncircumcision was both a mark of identification and a term of derision. Judg 14:3b Must you go to the uncircumcised Philistines to get a wife? Judg 15:18c Must I now die of thirst and fall into the hands of the uncircumcised? 1 Sam 14:6a …Come, let’s go over to the outpost of those uncircumcised fellows. 1 Sam 17:26c Who is this uncircumcised Philistine that he should defy the armies of the living God?” …36 Your servant has killed both the lion and the bear; this uncircumcised Philistine will be like one of them…. 1 Sam 18:25 …The king wants no other price for the bride than a hundred Philistine foreskins…. 27a-b David and his men went out and killed two hundred Philistines. He brought their foreskins…. 1 Sam 31:4a [= 1 Chr 10:4a] …run me through, or these uncircumcised fellows will come and run me through. 2 Sam 1:20b …lest the daughters of the Philistines be glad, lest the daughters of the uncircumcised rejoice. 2 Sam 3:14b Give me my wife…whom I betrothed to myself for the price of a hundred Philistine foreskins. In the story of Dinah, the Shechemites did not practice circumcision presumably because they were Hivites, a non-Semitic people, some of whom settled in Canaan (de Vaux 1961:47). Gen 34:2 When Shechem son of Hamor the Hivite, the ruler of that area, saw her, he took her and violated her. 298 To be beneficial, circumcision must be internal (moral) as well as external (physical).

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Jer 9:25 “The days are coming,” declares the LORD, “when I will punish all who are circumcised only in the flesh—26 Egypt, Judah, Edom, Ammon, Moab and all who live in the desert in distant places. For all these nations are really uncircumcised, and even the whole house of Israel is uncircumcised in heart.” Ezek 32:18a “Son of man, wail for the hordes of Egypt…. 19 Say to them… ‘Go down and be laid among the uncircumcised.’ …21b They…lie with the uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword.’ …24 Elam is there…. All…went down uncircumcised to the earth below…. 25b All of them are uncircumcised, killed by the sword. 26 Meshech and Tubal are there…. All of them are uncircumcised, killed by the sword…. 27a Do they not lie with the other uncircumcised warriors who have fallen…? 28 You too, O Pharaoh…will lie among the uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword. 29 Edom is there…. They lie with the uncircumcised, with those who go down to the pit…. 30b “…the Sidonians are there…. They lie uncircumcised with those killed by the sword…. 32b Pharaoh and all his hordes will be laid among the uncircumcised, with those killed by the sword…. Gen 17:11 You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you…. 23 On that very day Abraham took his son Ishmael and all those born in his household or bought with his money, every male in his household, and circumcised them, as God told him. 299 See the discussions in Manuel 2001 “Circumcision of the Heart” and 2009 Understanding What God Has Said. 300 The two commands and penalties for violating them appear in: • Circumcision Gen 17:10 This is my covenant with you and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised. 11 You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you. 12 For the generations to come every male among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, including those born in your household or bought with money from a foreigner—those who are not your offspring. 13 Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must be circumcised. My covenant in your flesh is to be an everlasting covenant. 14 Any uncircumcised male, who has not been circumcised in the flesh, will be cut off from his people; he has broken my covenant." • Sabbath Exod 31:12 Then the LORD said to Moses, 13 "Say to the Israelites, 'You must observe my Sabbaths. This will be a sign between me and you for the generations to come, so you may know that I am the LORD, who makes you holy. 14 "'Observe the Sabbath, because it is holy to you. Anyone who desecrates it must be put to death; whoever does any work on that day must be cut off from his people. 15 For six days, work is to be done, but the seventh day is a Sabbath of rest, holy to the LORD. Whoever does any work on the Sabbath day must be put to death. 16 The Israelites are to observe the Sabbath, celebrating it for the generations to come as a lasting covenant. 17 It will be a sign between me and the Israelites forever, for in six days the LORD made the heavens and the earth, and on the seventh day he abstained from work and rested.'" 301 Jesus recognizes this as one of the weightier commands (see Manuel 2010 “Why Did Jesus Come?” n. 17).

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John 7:23a …a child can be circumcised on the Sabbath so that the law of Moses may not be broken… Some Christians construe Paul’s comments in 1 Corinthians and Galatians as abrogating the practice. 1 Cor 7:18 Was a man already circumcised when he was called? He should not become uncircumcised. Was a man uncircumcised when he was called? He should not be circumcised. 19 Circumcision is nothing and uncircumcision is nothing. Keeping God’s commands is what counts. Gal 5:2b …if you let yourselves be circumcised, Christ will be of no value to you at all. 3 Again I declare to every man who lets himself be circumcised that he is obligated to obey the whole law. 4 You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have fallen away from grace…. 6a For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value. Gal 6:15 Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything; what counts is a new creation. In both epistles, however, Paul addresses only the misuse of circumcision as a means of gaining salvation, a distinction he makes clear in Romans. Rom 4:9b …Abraham’s faith was credited to him as righteousness…. 10b-c Was it after he was circumcised, or before? It was not after, but before! 11 And he received the sign of circumcision, a seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. So then, he is the father of all who believe but have not been circumcised, in order that righteousness might be credited to them. 12 And he is also the father of the circumcised who not only are circumcised but who also walk in the footsteps of the faith that our father Abraham had before he was circumcised. 302 A gentile male who wishes to participate in the covenant must be circumcised. Gen 17:11 You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you. Exod 12:48 An alien…who wants to celebrate the LORD’s Passover must have all the males in his household circumcised; then he may take part like one born in the land. No uncircumcised male may eat of it. 303 This was the recognition of the Jerusalem Council. Acts 15:9 He made no distinction between us and them, for he purified their hearts by faith. 304 God limited contact with gentiles in three specific areas. • Covenant Gen 17:13 Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must be circumcised. My covenant in your flesh is to be an everlasting covenant. 14 Any uncircumcised male, who has not been circumcised in the flesh, will be cut off from his people; he has broken my covenant.” Cf. Gen 34:14b …we can’t give our sister to a man who is not circumcised. That would be a disgrace to us. 15 We will give our consent to you on one condition only: that you become like us by circumcising all your males. • Passover Exod 12:48 An alien living among you who wants to celebrate the LORD’s Passover must have all the males in his household circumcised; then he may take part like one born in the land. No uncircumcised male may eat of it.

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• Temple Ezek 44:7b …you brought foreigners uncircumcised in heart and flesh into my sanctuary, desecrating my temple…. 9b No foreigner uncircumcised in heart and flesh is to enter my sanctuary, not even the foreigners who live among the Israelites. Cf. Zech 14:21b And on that day there will no longer be a Canaanite in the house of the LORD…. Acts 21:28c …he has brought Greeks into the temple area and defiled this holy place. • Millennium Isa 52:1b O Jerusalem, the holy city. The uncircumcised and defiled will not enter you again. 305 This is how David uses it when he faces Goliath. 1 Sam 17:26c Who is this uncircumcised Philistine that he should defy the armies of the living God? …36 Your servant has killed both the lion and the bear; this uncircumcised Philistine will be like one of them, because he has defied the armies of the living God. 306 Both uses of term uncircumcised are derogatory. • Literal Isa 52:1c …O Jerusalem, the holy city. The uncircumcised and defiled will not enter you again. Jer 9:25 [NAS] I will punish all who are circumcised and yet uncircumcised Eph 2:11 …Gentiles by birth [are] called “uncircumcised” by those who call themselves “the circumcision” (that done in the body by the hands of men) • Metaphorical Lev 26:41b …when their uncircumcised hearts are humbled and they pay for their sin, Jer 9:26b …the whole house of Israel is uncircumcised in heart.” Ezek 44:7a …you brought foreigners uncircumcised in heart and flesh into my sanctuary…. 9b No foreigner uncircumcised in heart and flesh is to enter my sanctuary…. Acts 7:51a “You stiff-necked people, with uncircumcised hearts and ears! 307 Even in the early church, Jews viewed contact with gentiles as problematic. Acts 11:3 and said, “You went into the house of uncircumcised men and ate with them.” Acts 15:5 Then some of the believers who belonged to the party of the Pharisees stood up and said, “The Gentiles must be circumcised and required to obey the law of Moses.” 308 For an alternate map, see #82 (The Judges according to Their Tribes) in Aharoni (1977). 309 Even later, Nazirites were probably not common. 1 Sam 1:11 And she made a vow, saying, “…I will give him to the LORD for all the days of his life, and no razor will ever be used on his head.” Amos 2:11 I also raised up…Nazirites…. 12 But you made the Nazirites drink wine…. Acts 18:18 Paul….had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken. Acts 21:23b There are four men with us who have made a vow. 24a Take these men, join in their purification rites and pay their expenses, so that they can have their heads shaved…. 26a The next day Paul took the men and purified himself along with them. 310 These instructions continue with the procedure following inadvertent defilement. Note the description of his condition as “he sinned” and the subsequent requirement of a reparation offering, indicating that the issue is not moral but ceremonial. Note also that he does not simply resume his vow but begins it again. Num 6:9 If someone dies suddenly in his presence, thus defiling the hair he has dedicated, he must shave his head on the day of his cleansing — the seventh day. 10 Then on the eighth

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day he must bring two doves or two young pigeons to the priest at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. 11 The priest is to offer one as a sin offering and the other as a burnt offering to make atonement for him because he sinned by being in the presence of the dead body. That same day he is to consecrate his head. 12 He must dedicate himself to the LORD for the period of his separation and must bring a year-old male lamb as a guilt offering. The previous days do not count, because he became defiled during his separation. The remainder of the passage describes the resolution of the vow. Num 6:13 Now this is the law for the Nazirite when the period of his separation is over. He is to be brought to the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. 14a There he is to present his offerings to the LORD…. 16a The priest is to present them before the LORD…. 18 Then at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, the Nazirite must shave off the hair that he dedicated. He is to take the hair and put it in the fire that is under the sacrifice of the fellowship offering…. 20c After that, the Nazirite may drink wine. 21 This is the law of the Nazirite who vows his offering to the LORD in accordance with his separation, in addition to whatever else he can afford. He must fulfill the vow he has made, according to the law of the Nazirite. 311 Boling (1975: 219) suggests that not eating anything unclean (Judg 13:4) substitutes for not becoming unclean through corpse defilement (Num 6:6). 312 Other vows “are uniformly portrayed as conditional arrangements with God” (Cartledge 1989:415). • Jacob Gen 28:20 Then Jacob made a vow, saying, “If God will be with me and will watch over me on this journey I am taking and will give me food to eat and clothes to wear 21 so that I return safely to my father’s house, then the LORD will be my God 22 and this stone that I have set up as a pillar will be God’s house, and of all that you give me I will give you a tenth.” • Israel Num 21:2 Then Israel made this vow to the LORD: “If you will deliver these people into our hands, we will totally destroy their cities.” • Jephthah Judg 11:30 And Jephthah made a vow to the LORD: “If you give the Ammonites into my hands, 31 whatever comes out of the door of my house to meet me when I return in triumph from the Ammonites will be the LORD’s, and I will sacrifice it as a burnt offering.” • Hannah 1 Sam 1:11 And she made a vow, saying, “O LORD Almighty, if you will only look upon your servant’s misery and remember me, and not forget your servant but give her a son, then I will give him to the LORD for all the days of his life, and no razor will ever be used on his head.” • Absalom 2 Sam 15:8 While your servant was living at Geshur in Aram, I made this vow: ‘If the LORD takes me back to Jerusalem, I will worship the LORD in Hebron.’” • David Ps 35:17 O Lord, how long will you look on? Rescue my life from their ravages, my precious life from these lions. 18 I will give you thanks in the great assembly; among throngs of people I will praise you. It is unlikely that Nazirite vows are different.

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m Nazir 2:7a …I will be a Nazir when a son is born to me…. • Paul Acts 18:18c Before he sailed, he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken. • Bernice War 2.313 Now she dwelt then at Jerusalem, in order to perform a vow which she had made to God; for it is usual with those that had been either afflicted with a distemper, or with any other distresses to make vows; and for thirty days before they are to offer their sacrifices, to abstain from wine, and to shave the hair of their head. • Helene m Nazir 3:6d “If my son comes home from war whole and in one piece, I shall be a Nazir for seven years.” 313 This is possible for a minor if the father makes the vow. m Nazir 4:6a A man imposes a Nazirite vow upon his son, but a woman does not impose a Nazirite vow upon her son. That may not have been so in the two most famous cases in scripture. • An angel gave instructions to Samson’s mother not to his father. Judg 13:5 because you will conceive and give birth to a son. No razor may be used on his head, because the boy is to be a Nazirite, set apart to God from birth…. • Samuel’s mother made the vow not his father. 1 Sam 1:11 And she made a vow, saying, “O LORD Almighty, if you will only look upon your servant’s misery and remember me, and not forget your servant but give her a son, then I will give him to the LORD for all the days of his life, and no razor will ever be used on his head.” 314 Extra-biblical references designate the common duration of the vow. m Nazir 1:3a A Nazirite vow which is unspecified [as to length] is for a period of thirty days. m Nazir 2:9d …there is no cutting of hair in less than thirty days [from the beginning of the observance of the vow]. m Nazir 6:3a A Nazirite vow for an unspecified period of time is [to apply] for thirty days. War 2.313 …it is usual…for thirty days before they are to offer their sacrifices, to abstain from wine, and to shave the hair of their head. 315 In 4QSama 1:22, Hannah makes the additional assertion of Samuel that she will “make him a Nazirite forever, all the days [of his life].” 316 A similar mystery attends two other prominent figures. 1 Sam 2:26 And the boy Samuel continued to grow in stature and in favor with the LORD and with men. Luke 2:52 And Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and men. 317 For additional maps, see #82 (The Judges according to Their Tribes) and #79 (The Deeds of Samson) in Aharoni (1977). 318 Isaac’s parents faced a similar problem. Gen 26:34 When Esau was forty years old, he married Judith daughter of Beeri the Hittite, and also Basemath daughter of Elon the Hittite. 35 They were a source of grief to Isaac and Rebekah. 319 Despite the fact that God clearly and repeatedly prohibits intermarriage, explaining the problem with it…

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Exod 34:16 And when you choose some of their daughters as wives for your sons and those daughters prostitute themselves to their gods, they will lead your sons to do the same. Deut 7:3 Do not intermarry with them. Do not give your daughters to their sons or take their daughters for your sons, 4 for they will turn your sons away from following me to serve other gods, and the LORD’s anger will burn against you and will quickly destroy you. Josh 23:12b …if you intermarry with them and associate with them, 13 then you may be sure that the LORD your God will no longer drive out these nations before you. Instead, they will become snares and traps for you, whips on your backs and thorns in your eyes, until you perish from this good land, which the LORD your God has given you. Cf. 2 Cor 6:14a Do not be yoked together with unbelievers. …the Israelites practiced it. Judg 3:5 The Israelites lived among the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites. 6 They took their daughters in marriage and gave their own daughters to their sons, and served their gods. 1 Kgs 16:31b [Ahab] married Jezebel daughter of Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, and began to serve Baal and worship him. Ezra 9:1b The people of Israel, including the priests and the Levites, have not kept themselves separate from the neighboring peoples with their detestable practices…. 2a They have taken some of their daughters as wives for themselves and their sons, and have mingled the holy race with the peoples around them…. 10 But now, O our God, what can we say after this? For we have disregarded the commands 11a you gave through your servants the prophets…. Ezra 10:2b We have been unfaithful to our God by marrying foreign women from the peoples around us. Neh 13:26 Was it not because of marriages like these that Solomon king of Israel sinned? …he was led into sin by foreign women. 27 …you…are being unfaithful to our God by marrying foreign women?” 320 Unlike joining Islam, there is no compulsion to join Israel. Josh 2:9a …I know that the LORD has given this land to you…. Heb 11:31 By faith the prostitute Rahab, because she welcomed the spies, was not killed…. Jms 2:25a …Rahab the prostitute considered righteous for what she did when she gave lodging to the spies…. Ruth 1:16c Your people will be my people and your God my God. Ruth 2:12b May you be richly rewarded by the LORD…under whose wings you have come to take refuge.” Matt 1:5 …the father of Boaz, whose mother was Rahab, Boaz the father of Obed, whose mother was Ruth… 321 Later, her father (presumably) annuls the union and arranges another. Judg 14:20 And Samson’s wife was given to the friend who had attended him at his wedding. 322 This illustrates God’s ability to turn a bad situation for His purpose. Gen 50:20 …you meant evil against me, [but] God meant it for good in order to bring about this present result, to preserve many people alive. Rom 8:28 …God causes all things to work together for good to those who love God, to those who are called according to [His] purpose.

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Samson’s adamant rejection of his parents’ wishes may evince another flaw in his character and violate a biblical command. Exod 20:12 Honor your father and your mother, so that you may live long in the land the LORD your God is giving you. 323 The issue he addresses, however, is a marriage that becomes mixed not a marriage that begins mixed. 1 Cor 7:12b If any brother has a wife who is not a believer and she is willing to live with him, he must not divorce her. 13 And if a woman has a husband who is not a believer and he is willing to live with her, she must not divorce him…. 15 But if the unbeliever leaves, let him do so. A believing man or woman is not bound in such circumstances; God has called us to live in peace. 324 Wood sees 13:25 as Samson’s time of discovery (1975:309). Judg 13:25 and the Spirit of the LORD began to stir him while he was in Mahaneh Dan…. 325 Priests, who come in contact with animal carcasses in the course of their duties, have a similar prohibition. Lev 21:11 He must not enter a place where there is a dead body. He must not make himself unclean, even for his father or mother, Note also that a Nazirite’s being in the presence of his own sacrifices does not defile him. Num 6:14 There he is to present his offerings to the LORD: a year-old male lamb without defect for a burnt offering, a year-old ewe lamb without defect for a sin offering, a ram without defect for a fellowship offering, 326 They were the source of earlier military prowess. Judg 3:10a The Spirit of the LORD came upon him, so that he became Israel's judge and went to war. Judg 6:34 …the Spirit of the LORD came upon Gideon, and he blew a trumpet, summoning the Abiezrites…. Judg 11:29 Then the Spirit of the LORD came upon Jephthah. He crossed Gilead and Manasseh, passed through Mizpah of Gilead, and from there he advanced against the Ammonites. Note the similar descriptions: 1 Sam 10:6 The Spirit of the LORD will come upon you in power, and you will prophesy with them; and you will be changed into a different person. 1 Sam 11:6 When Saul heard their words, the Spirit of God came upon him in power, and he burned with anger. 1 Sam 16:13b …from that day on the Spirit of the LORD came upon David in power. Cf. Acts 1:8 But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth.” 327 For a fuller discussion of this subject, see Manuel 2004 “The Holy Spirit’s Ministry in the OT.” 328 For an alternate map, see #82 (The Judges according to Their Tribes) in Aharoni (1977). 329 This confrontation (and the one later), especially as it involved stripping the dead of their clothing, would surely have violated Samson’s vow. Judg 15:15 Finding a fresh jawbone of a donkey, he grabbed it and struck down a thousand men.

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Killing in wartime (as were Samson’s actions) does not violate the prohibition in the Decalogue and elsewhere against premeditated murder. Deut 7:24 [God] will give their kings into your hand, and you will wipe out their names from under heaven. No one will be able to stand up against you; you will destroy them. Judg 13:5c …he will begin the deliverance of Israel from the hands of the Philistines. This exception apparently does not apply to priests. 1QM 9:7b When the slain have fallen, the priests shall continue blowing from afar and shall not enter 8a into the midst of the slain so as to be defiled by their unclean blood, for they are holy. 4Q493 f1:5b [= 4QMc] Thus they shall not profane the anointing of their priestly office[ with the blood of the s]lai[n.] 330 Wood suggests that Samson regarded “the father’s action as representative of the attitude and injustice of Philistines generally toward Israelites” (1975:314). 331 She may have lost either way. Judg 14:15b Coax your husband into explaining the riddle for us, or we will burn you and your father’s household to death. Judg 15:6c So the Philistines went up and burned her and her father to death. 332 The following map is not in the HO. For a supplementary map, see #10 (The Routes in Palestine) in Aharoni (1977). 333 For supplementary maps, see #4 (Palestine During Ancient Times) and #5 (Main Roads and Cities of Ancient Palestine) in Miller (1986). 334 This is the region that provided such a tempting target for Samson. Judg 15:5b He burned up the shocks and standing grain, together with the vineyards and olive groves. 335 In other cases, the Spirit’s influence compelled judges to go to war. • Othniel Judg 3:10a The Spirit of the LORD came upon him, so that he became Israel’s judge and went to war. • Gideon Judg 6:34 Then the Spirit of the LORD came upon Gideon, and he blew a trumpet, summoning the Abiezrites to follow him. • Jephthah Judg 11:29 Then the Spirit of the LORD came upon Jephthah [and] he advanced against the Ammonites. • Samson Judg 14:19a-b Then the Spirit of the LORD came upon him in power. He went down to Ashkelon, struck down thirty of their men…. Judg 15:14a The Spirit of the LORD came upon him in power…. 15 Finding a fresh jawbone of a donkey, he grabbed it and struck down a thousand men. Cf. Judg 14:6a The Spirit of the LORD came upon him in power so that he tore the lion apart with his bare hands…. There is one possible exception. • Shamgar Judg 3:31 …Shamgar…struck down six hundred Philistines with an oxgoad. He too saved Israel.

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Even if he acted alone, though, his exploits would not equal those of Samson. Judg 14:19b He went down to Ashkelon, struck down thirty of their men…. Judg 15:8a He attacked them viciously and slaughtered many of them. Judg 15:15 Finding a fresh jawbone of a donkey, he grabbed it and struck down a thousand men. Judg 16:30c …he killed many more when he died than while he lived. 336 These were the two most decisive periods of victory for Israel. 1 Sam 7:13 So the Philistines were subdued and did not invade Israelite territory again. Throughout Samuel’s lifetime, the hand of the LORD was against the Philistines. 2 Sam 8:1a In the course of time, David defeated the Philistines and subdued them, and he took Metheg Ammah from the control of the Philistines. Nevertheless, at least one Judean king had to reestablish Israelite superiority. 2 Kgs 18:8 [Hezekiah] defeated the Philistines, as far as Gaza and its territory. 337 For an alternate map, see #80 (Judah and Philistia in the Days of Samson) in Aharoni (1977). 338 Formerly, it was an Israelite city. Judg 1:18 The men of Judah also took Gaza, Ashkelon and Ekron—each city with its territory. 339 This is where attackers usually sought entry. Judg 9:44a Abimelech and the companies with him rushed forward to a position at the entrance to the city gate. Deut 3:5a All these cities were fortified with high walls and with gates and bars…. 2 Kgs 15:16a Menahem…attacked Tiphsah and everyone in the city…because they refused to open their gates. Ps 107:16a for he breaks down gates of bronze…. Ps 147:13a for he strengthens the bars of your gates…. Isa 24:12 The city is left in ruins, its gate is battered to pieces. Isa 28:6 He will be…a source of strength to those who turn back the battle at the gate. Ezek 21:22b …he is…to set battering rams against the gates, to build a ramp and to erect siege works. Hos 11:6 Swords…will destroy the bars of their gates and put an end to their plans. Amos 1:5a I will break down the gate of Damascus…. 340 For a supplementary map, see #79 (The Deeds of Samson) in Aharoni (1977). 341 Samson’s earlier experience proved this would be no hindrance. Judg 15:13d So they bound him with two new ropes and led him up from the rock. 14 As he approached Lehi, the Philistines came toward him shouting. The Spirit of the LORD came upon him in power. The ropes on his arms became like charred flax, and the bindings dropped from his hands. 342 There are five Philistine cities and, thus, five rulers (MyInDrVs). Josh 13:3b …the territory of the five Philistine rulers in Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath and Ekron… Each one offers to pay her $5775 (see n. 199) for a total of $28,875. 343 The relevant passage is: Judg 4:18 Jael went out to meet Sisera and said to him, “Come, my lord, come right in. Don’t be afraid.” So he entered her tent, and she put a covering over him…. 21 But Jael, Heber’s

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wife, picked up a tent peg and a hammer and went quietly to him while he lay fast asleep, exhausted. She drove the peg through his temple into the ground, and he died. Judg 16:19 Having put him to sleep on her lap, she called a man to shave off the seven braids of his hair, and so began to subdue him. And his strength left him. 344 Cutting his hair marks the end of a Nazirite’s vow. Num 6:13 Now this is the law for the Nazirite when the period of his separation is over. He is to be brought to the entrance to the Tent of Meeting…. 18a Then at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, the Nazirite must shave off the hair that he dedicated. 20c After that, the Nazirite may drink wine. 345 It is typical to credit the patron deity with victory. Judg 11:24 Will you not take what your god Chemosh gives you? Likewise, whatever the LORD our God has given us, we will possess. 346 Baal is “the son of Dagon” in Baal and Yam 2.i.19; also Baal and Mot 5.vi.23-24; 6.i.6). See Manuel 2010 Toward Meaning: “Milieu—Environmental Constraints,” Appendix: Mesopotamian Pantheon. 347 In scripture, Dagon appears exclusively with the Philistines. • As a place name Josh 15:41 Gederoth, Beth Dagon, Naamah and Makkedah — sixteen towns and their villages. Josh 19:27a It then turned east toward Beth Dagon, touched Zebulun…. • As a patron-deity name 1 Chr 10:10 [≈ 1 Sam 31:10] They…hung up his head in the temple of Dagon. The two uses may join. 1 Macc 10:83 …the cavalry….entered Beth-dagon, the temple of their idol, for safety. 84 But Jonathan burned…the temple of Dagon…. The most telling reference is the confrontation between the Lord and Dagon. 1 Sam 5:2 Then they carried the ark into Dagon’s temple and set it beside Dagon. 3 When the people of Ashdod rose early the next day, there was Dagon, fallen on his face on the ground before the ark of the LORD! They took Dagon and put him back in his place. 4 But the following morning when they rose, there was Dagon, fallen on his face on the ground before the ark of the LORD! His head and hands had been broken off and were lying on the threshold; only his body remained. 5 That is why to this day neither the priests of Dagon nor any others who enter Dagon’s temple at Ashdod step on the threshold. 6 The LORD’s hand was heavy upon the people of Ashdod and its vicinity; he brought devastation upon them and afflicted them with tumors. 7 When the men of Ashdod saw what was happening, they said, “The ark of the god of Israel must not stay here with us, because his hand is heavy upon us and upon Dagon our god.” 348 Sin does not necessarily disqualify a person from service. Heb 11:32b I do not have time to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel and the prophets, 349 Roman Catholicism (and Lutheranism) recognizes two broad (and extra-biblical) categories for sin: • Venal sin must be confessed and absolved, or a person is consigned to purgatory. • Mortal sin must be confessed and absolved, or a person is consigned to perdition. Support for these categories supposedly comes from…

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1 John 5:16 If anyone sees his brother commit a sin that does not lead to death, he should pray and God will give him life. I refer to those whose sin does not lead to death. There is a sin that leads to death. I am not saying that he should pray about that. 17 All wrongdoing is sin, and there is sin that does not lead to death. This passage, however, speaks about unforgivable sin, in part, because the perpetrator is not inclined to repent (Manuel 2012 “Unpardonable Sin.”). 350 Ethicists often condemn suicide by appealing to other passages, yet generally without due regard for the limitations of context. Passages allegedly against suicide in the Bible include: Gen 9:5 …for your lifeblood I will surely demand an accounting. • Ethicists: Suicide is wrong because God condemns it. • God: Murder is wrong—“Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed” (v. 6). Exod 20:13 You shall not murder. • Ethicists: Suicide is wrong because it violates the sixth commandment of the Decalogue. • God: Murder (i.e., intentionally taking another’s life) is wrong and is punishable by death (cf. 21:12), an unlikely deterrent for those contemplating suicide. Job 1:21 The LORD gives and the LORD takes away. • Ethicists: Suicide is wrong because it usurps a prerogative that belongs only to God—the ending of human life. • Job: God gave me prosperity and progeny, and He has taken them both away (cf. vv. 1420). Rom 14:7-9 For none of us lives to himself alone and none of us dies to himself alone. If we live, we live to the Lord; and if we die, we die to the Lord. So, whether we live or die, we belong to the Lord. • Ethicists: Suicide is wrong because it usurps a prerogative that belongs only to God—the ending of human life. • Paul: All believers belong to God regardless of their diet (carnivorous/vegetarian) or their state (living/dead). 1 Cor 6:19-20 Do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have received from God? You are not your own; you were bought at a price. Therefore honor God with your body. • Ethicists: Suicide is wrong because it misuses divine property. • Paul: Believers must not use divine property for sexually immoral purposes. Eph 5:29 [N]o one hated his own body, but feeds and cares for it, just as Christ does the church. • Ethicists: Suicide is wrong because it is contrary to God’s intended treatment of the body. • Paul: A husband must care for his wife as he cares for himself. 351 This is the repeated penalty for voluntary manslaughter, a penalty God authorizes man to enforce. Gen 9:6a Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed…. Exod 21:12 Anyone who strikes a man and kills him shall surely be put to death. Num 35:31 …a murderer…deserves to die. He must surely be put to death. 352 Extra-biblical Jewish literature of the Second Temple Period and after is also neutral in recording incidents of suicide, although it often commends those who take their own lives rather than submit to injustice or sin. This particular kind of suicide is also called martyrdom. In Jewish

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tradition, it is the dramatic expression of MÚvAh v…w;dIq (‘sanctification of the [divine] name’) and is considered praiseworthy rather than committing idolatry, adultery, or murder. b San 74a R Johanan [d. 290] said in the name of R Simeon b Jehozadak [mid-3rd c.]…[I]f a man is commanded: “Transgress and suffer not death” he may transgress and not suffer death, excepting idolatry, incest [which includes adultery], and murder. Post-talmudic Jewish law condemns suicide but allows for certain exceptions, in addition to sanctification of the name (e.g., fear of torture). In cases of doubt as to the cause of death, the law gives the deceased the benefit of doubt by preferring to ascribe death to accident or madness (Sh Ar 201). 1. Instances of suicide in extra-biblical literature a. Razis (2 Macc 14:37-46), surrounded by Nicanor’s troops, fell on his own sword (etc.) because he feared greater suffering at the hands of his enemies. b. Jewish soldiers (War 3:387-391), surrounded by the Romans, slit each others’ throats because they despaired of becoming slaves. c. Masadaites (War 7:389-401), besieged by the Romans, slit each others’ throats because they despaired of becoming slaves. d. Jakum (Mid Ps 11:7; early 2nd c BCE; = Alcimus? cf. 1 Macc 9:55-56), having lived in disobedience to God, despaired of his guilt and “imposed upon himself the four death penalties of stoning, burning, beheading, and strangulation.” e. Jewish boys and girls (Gitt 57b), whom a pagan king had taken, threw themselves into the sea because they feared he would use them for immoral purposes. f. Jewish mother (Gitt 57b), whose seven sons a pagan king had executed for refusing to worship an idol, jumped off a roof because she either despaired of her loss or feared he would require the same of her. g. Fuller of Judah ha-Nasi (Ket 103b), whose master had just died, killed himself by jumping off the roof of his house, because he despaired of life without the rabbi. • A versional gloss states that a bat kol then announced: “That fuller is also destined to enjoy the life of the world to come.” h. Pagan executioner (Av Zar 18a), who consigned R. H. anina b. Teradion to the fire, joined him in the flames because he despaired his part in the rabbi’s death and was assured, thereby, of eternal life. • A versional gloss states that a bat kol then announced: “R. H. anina b. Teradion and the Executioner have been assigned to the world to come.” i. H. iyya b. Ashi (Kid 81b), who thought he had lusted after a prostitute (when it was in fact his wife attempting to distract him), despaired over his presumed sin and fasted until he died. 2. Counsel for suicide in extra-biblical literature a. Josephus (War 3:361-391), whose men feared that falling into Roman hands would lead to great suffering, counseled against their killing themselves, later recommended that they dispatch one another by lot and that the lone survivor fall on his own sword, and changed his mind again when just he and one other remained. b. Eleazar (War 7:320-406), besieged in Jerusalem, counseled those who remained “to die nobly and in freedom” rather than to endure the humiliation and despair of capture by the Romans.

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Samson and Judas represent the extremes in the outcome of suicide: • Samson’s fate was positive, his being commended by God. Heb 11:32b I do not have time to tell about Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, David, Samuel and the prophets, • Judas’s fate was negative, his being condemned by God. Acts 1:25b …Judas left to go where he belongs. 354 Later, the narrator attributes significant military success to Saul. 1 Sam 14:47 After Saul had assumed rule over Israel, he fought against their enemies on every side: Moab, the Ammonites, Edom, the kings of Zobah, and the Philistines. Wherever he turned, he inflicted punishment on them. 48 He fought valiantly and defeated the Amalekites, delivering Israel from the hands of those who had plundered them. Nevertheless, he was unable to defeat the Philistines completely and did, in the end, die after a battle with them. 1 Sam 14:52a All the days of Saul there was bitter war with the Philistines…. 1 Sam 31:6 So Saul and his three sons and his armor-bearer and all his men died together that same day. 355 When there was a king, his piety often influenced the people positively. Similarly, his wickedness had a detrimental influence, the chief example being Jeroboam. 1 Kgs 16:2b …[Baasha] walked in the ways of Jeroboam and caused my people Israel to sin…. 1 Kgs 21:22b [Ahab] provoked me to anger and have caused Israel to sin.’ 1 Kgs 22:52b [2 Kgs 23:15a]…Jeroboam… caused Israel to sin. 356 For an alternate map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977). 357 Syncretism continued to plague Israel long after the period of the judges. Hos 2:16 “In that day…you will call me ‘my husband’; you will no longer call me ‘my master’ [yIlVoA;b]. 358 The Levites assisted the priests. Num 3:6 Bring the tribe of Levi and present them to Aaron the priest to assist him. 359 On the phrase “be my father and priest” in 17:10, Boling (1975:257) regards “father” as a title that emphasizes the Levite’s “role as cultic diviner, responsible for ‘yes’ or ‘no’ oracular advice.” If so, then this is one of the Levite’s functions he copied from the priest. Judg 18:5 Then they said to him, “Please inquire of God to learn whether our journey will be successful.” 6 The priest answered them, “Go in peace. Your journey has the LORD’s approval.” 1 Sam 23:9 When David learned that Saul was plotting against him, he said to Abiathar the priest, “Bring the ephod.” 10a David said, “O LORD, God of Israel…. 11 Will the citizens of Keilah surrender me to him? …the LORD said, “He will.” 12 Again David asked, “Will the citizens of Keilah surrender me and my men to Saul?” And the LORD said, “They will.” 1 Sam 30:7 Then David said to Abiathar the priest, the son of Ahimelech, “Bring me the ephod.” Abiathar brought it to him, 8a and David inquired of the LORD, “Shall I pursue this raiding party?” …“Pursue them,” he answered. 360 The general rule is: Deut 12:5 …you are to seek the place the LORD your God will choose from among all your tribes to put his Name there for his dwelling. To that place you must go; 6 there bring your burnt offerings and sacrifices, your tithes and special gifts, what you have vowed to give and

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your freewill offerings, and the firstborn of your herds and flocks…. 13 Be careful not to sacrifice your burnt offerings anywhere you please. Deut 16:5 You must not sacrifice the Passover in any town the LORD your God gives you 6a except in the place he will choose as a dwelling for his Name. The few exceptions are: • Manoah offered a sacrifice at Zorah when the ark was elsewhere. Judg 13:16 The angel of the LORD replied, “Even though you detain me, I will not eat any of your food. But if you prepare a burnt offering, offer it to the LORD.” …19a Then Manoah took a young goat, together with the grain offering, and sacrificed it on a rock to the LORD. • Samuel offered a sacrifice at Mizpah when the ark was at Kiriath Jearim. 1 Sam 7:9 Then Samuel took a suckling lamb and offered it up as a whole burnt offering to the LORD. He cried out to the LORD on Israel’s behalf, and the LORD answered him. • Elijah offered a sacrifice on Mt. Carmel when the ark was in Jerusalem. 1 Kgs 18:36a At the time of sacrifice, the prophet Elijah stepped forward and prayed…. 38a Then the fire of the LORD fell and burned up the sacrifice…. 361 The biblical author mentions several sacred sites. • Ophrah Judg 6:24 So Gideon built an altar to the LORD….in Ophrah of the Abiezrites. Judg 8:27a Gideon made the gold into an ephod, which he placed in Ophrah, his town. • Mizpah (of Gad and Ruben) Judg 11:11 So Jephthah went with the elders of Gilead…. And he repeated all his words before the LORD in Mizpah. • Dan Judg 18:30 There the Danites set up for themselves the idols, and Jonathan son of Gershom, the son of Moses, and his sons were priests for the tribe of Dan until the time of the captivity of the land. 31 They continued to use the idols Micah had made, all the time the house of God was in Shiloh. • Shiloh Judg 17:5 …Micah had a shrine, and he made an ephod and some idols…. Judg 18:31b …the house of God was in Shiloh. Judg 19:18a-b …We are on our way…to a remote area in the hill country of Ephraim….to the house of the LORD. • Bethlehem Judg 17:7 A young Levite from Bethlehem in Judah, who had been living within the clan of Judah, Cf. Judg 19:1b Now a Levite who lived in…Ephraim took a concubine from Bethlehem in Judah. 1 Sam 20:6 …David earnestly asked my permission to hurry to Bethlehem, his hometown, because an annual sacrifice is being made there for his whole clan. • Mizpah (of Benjamin) Judg 20:1 …all the Israelites from Dan to Beersheba…assembled before the LORD in Mizpah…. 5b …anyone who failed to assemble before the LORD at Mizpah should certainly be put to death…. 8a …Which one of the tribes of Israel failed to assemble before the LORD at Mizpah? 362 For a supplementary map, see #68 (The Limits of Israelite Control) in Aharoni (1977).

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363

Most of their victories were short-lived. • Samson Judg 15:20 Samson led Israel for twenty years in the days of the Philistines. Judg 16:30c …he killed many more when he died than while he lived. • Samuel 1 Sam 7:13 So the Philistines were subdued and did not invade Israelite territory again. Throughout Samuel’s lifetime, the hand of the LORD was against the Philistines. • Saul 1 Sam 14:23 So the LORD rescued Israel that day, and the battle moved on beyond Beth Aven. 1 Sam 17:52a Then the men of Israel and Judah…pursued the Philistines to the entrance of Gath and to the gates of Ekron. 1 Sam 31:7 …the Israelites…abandoned their towns and fled. And the Philistines came and occupied them. • David 2 Sam 5:25 So David…struck down the Philistines all the way from Gibeon to Gezer. 364 The statement in v. 3, that the Danites “recognized the voice of the young Levite,” means either that they know him (an unlikely possibility, given his origin from Judah) or that they notice a difference in his speech (i.e., a southern versus a northern accent). Judg 12:6a “…say ‘Shibboleth.’” If he said, “Sibboleth,” because he could not pronounce the word correctly…. The Danites, by their questioning—“Who brought you here? What are you doing in this place? Why are you here?”—recognize that he is not native to the area. 365 Evidently, they are committed to this venture. The book of Joshua, although primarily a record of earlier events, includes an editorial note about this later migration. Josh 19:47 (But the Danites had difficulty taking possession of their territory, so they went up and attacked Leshem, took it, put it to the sword and occupied it. They settled in Leshem and named it Dan after their forefather.) 366 This military failure, though, compounds in a potential moral failure, as the Danites attack people the narrator describes sympathetically. Judg 18:7 So the five men left and came to Laish, where they saw that the people were living in safety, like the Sidonians, unsuspecting and secure. And since their land lacked nothing, they were prosperous. Also, they lived a long way from the Sidonians and had no relationship with anyone else…. 10 “When you get there, you will find an unsuspecting people and a spacious land that God has put into your hands, a land that lacks nothing whatever.” …27 Then they…went on to Laish, against a peaceful and unsuspecting people. They attacked them with the sword and burned down their city. 28a There was no one to rescue them because they lived a long way from Sidon and had no relationship with anyone else. 367 For a discussion of other priorities in worship, see Manuel 1999 “Erroneous Assumptions and Essential Attitudes about Worship.” 368 The people’s attempt to justify their use of an idol does not excuse this violation. Exod 32:8 They have been quick to turn away from what I commanded them and have made themselves an idol cast in the shape of a calf. They have bowed down to it and sacrificed to it

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and have said, ‘These are your gods [or: This is your god], O Israel, who brought you up out of Egypt.’ 369 God’s placement of the temple there gives that city even greater significance. 1 Kgs 9:3b I have consecrated this temple…by putting my Name there forever. 370 See especially his related and otherwise conflicting remark in… 1 Cor 7:19 Circumcision is nothing and uncircumcision is nothing. Keeping God’s commands is what counts. 371 Although some of Israel’s apostasy was pure idolatry, there were attempts to combine worship of the true God with worship of false gods. Exod 32:4 He took what they handed him and made it into an idol cast in the shape of a calf, fashioning it with a tool. Then they said, “These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of Egypt.” 1 Kgs 12:28b He said to the people… “Here are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of Egypt.” Hos 2:16 “In that day,” declares the LORD… “you will no longer call me ‘my master.’” 372 What begins as syncretistic or heterodox may, overtime, become orthodox. See “Old Artifacts with New Associations” in Manuel 2002 Biblically Correct. 373 A similar phrase occurs in Egyptian literature and with the same “ethical overtones, indicating that an effective monarch…improve[d] the moral quality of the nation’s life as well as its political coherence” (Greenspahn 1982:129-130; contra Dumbrell 1983). [T]he land of Egypt had been overthrown with every man being his own standard of right since they had no leader for many years…. 374 God allows His people to exercise their preference about where to sacrifice in the wilderness, but it is a temporary provision. Deut 12:8 You are not to do as we do here today, everyone as he sees fit, 9 since you have not yet reached the resting place and the inheritance the LORD your God is giving you…. 11a Then to the place the LORD your God will choose as a dwelling for his Name—there you are to bring everything I command you…. He is clear, however, about the proper object of their worship. Exod 22:20 Whoever sacrifices to any god other than the LORD must be destroyed. Lev 17:7a They must no longer offer any of their sacrifices to the goat idols to whom they prostitute themselves. Num 25:1 While Israel was staying in Shittim, the men began to indulge in sexual immorality with Moabite women, 2 who invited them to the sacrifices to their gods. The people ate and bowed down before these gods. 3 So Israel joined in worshiping the Baal of Peor. And the LORD’s anger burned against them. Deut 32:17 They sacrificed to demons, which are not God—gods they had not known, gods that recently appeared, gods your fathers did not fear. The NIV captures the problem of applying personal opinion more broadly. Prov 12:15 The way of a fool seems right to him, but a wise man listens to advice. Prov 21:2 All a man’s ways seem right to him, but the LORD weighs the heart. The elevation of personal preference is evident later in poor Sabbath observance. Isa 58:13b …honor it by not going your own way [ÔKyRk∂r√;d twøcSoEm] and not doing as you please [ÔKVxVpRj awøxV;mIm]… 375 This is what God and Moses enjoin.

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Exod 15:26 …listen carefully to the voice of the LORD your God and do what is right in his eyes…. Deut 6:18a Do what is right and good in the LORD’s sight, so that it may go well with you…. Deut 12:25 Do not eat it…because you will be doing what is right in the eyes of the LORD. Deut 12:28 …obey all these regulations…because you will be doing what is…right in the eyes of the LORD…. Deut 13:18 …obey the LORD your God, keeping all his commands…and doing what is right in his eyes. Deut 21:9b …purge…the guilt of …innocent blood, since you have done what is right in the eyes of the LORD. Indeed, a common phrase marking a king’s positive performance (16x) is “He did what was right in the eyes of the LORD” (hÎwh◊y y´nyEoV;b rDvÎ¥yAh cAoÅ¥yÅw; 1 Kgs 15:11a; 22:43b; 2 Kgs 12:2a; 14:3a; 15:3a, 34a; 18:3a; 22:2a; 2 Chr 14:2a; 20:32b; 24:2a; 25:2a; 26:4a; 27:2a; 29:2a; 34:2a). Similarly, a phrase marking a king’s negative performance (2x) is: “He did not do what is right in the eyes of the LORD” (hÎwh◊y y´nyEoV;b rDvÎ¥yAh hDcDo_aøl; 2 Kgs 16:2b; 2 Chr 28:1b). 376 The disconnect requires effort to overcome. Isa 55:8 For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways,” declares the LORD. 9 As the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts. 377 Abraham and Jacob had concubines, as did Gideon and David. Gen 25:6 …he gave gifts to the sons of his concubines and sent them away from his son Isaac…. Gen 35:22a While Israel was living…Reuben went in and slept with his father’s concubine Bilhah…. Judg 8:31 His concubine, who lived in Shechem, also bore him a son, whom he named Abimelech. 2 Sam 5:13 …David took more concubines and wives…and more sons and daughters were born to him. 378 The regulations are probably intended to limit abuse. Exod 21:7 If a man sells his daughter as a servant, she is not to go free as menservants do. 8 If she does not please the master who has selected her for himself, he must let her be redeemed. He has no right to sell her to foreigners, because he has broken faith with her. 9 If he selects her for his son, he must grant her the rights of a daughter. 10 If he marries another woman, he must not deprive the first one of her food, clothing and marital rights. 11 If he does not provide her with these three things, she is to go free, without any payment of money. Lev 19:20 If a man sleeps with a woman who is a slave girl promised to another man but who has not been ransomed or given her freedom, there must be due punishment. Yet they are not to be put to death, because she had not been freed. Deut 21:10 When you go to war against your enemies and the LORD your God delivers them into your hands and you take captives, 11 if you notice among the captives a beautiful woman and are attracted to her, you may take her as your wife. 12 Bring her into your home and have her shave her head, trim her nails13 and put aside the clothes she was wearing when captured. After she has lived in your house and mourned her father and mother for a full

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month, then you may go to her and be her husband and she shall be your wife. 14 If you are not pleased with her, let her go wherever she wishes. You must not sell her or treat her as a slave, since you have dishonored her. 379 Perhaps they would have been safer in Jebus. Judg 19:11 When they were near Jebus and the day was almost gone, the servant said to his master, “Come, let’s stop at this city of the Jebusites and spend the night.” 12 His master replied, “No. We won’t go into an alien city, whose people are not Israelites. We will go on to Gibeah.” Even pagans are expected to behave better. In Aqhat 17.i.29, the ideal son is one who will “drive away those who turn against [his] father” or “who abuse his guests” (Gibson 1978:104). 380 In 19:25a, the NIV reads “But the men would not listen to him,” implying that they were not satisfied with the substitution when, in fact, they had accepted it and pressed their demands no further. Perhaps they were too exhausted after finishing with the concubine. 381 Saul uses a similar tact to mobilize others in support of a battle against the Ammonites, albeit with two significant differences. 1 Sam 11:7 He took a pair of oxen, cut them into pieces, and sent the pieces by messengers throughout Israel, proclaiming, “This is what will be done to the oxen of anyone who does not follow Saul and Samuel.” Then the terror of the LORD fell on the people, and they turned out as one man. • His method employs an animal not a person. • His motive is to instill fear not outrage in the recipients. Another example of division is less similar. 1 Kgs 11:30 …Ahijah took hold of the new cloak he was wearing and tore it into twelve pieces. 31 Then he said to Jeroboam, “Take ten pieces for yourself, for this is what the LORD, the God of Israel, says: ‘See, I am going to tear the kingdom out of Solomon’s hand and give you ten tribes. 32 But for the sake of my servant David and the city of Jerusalem, which I have chosen out of all the tribes of Israel, he will have one tribe. 382 For an alternate map, see #81 (The Story of the Concubine in Gibeah) in Aharoni (1977). 383 Rape is as serious a crime as premeditated murder. Deut 22:25 …if…a man happens to meet a girl pledged to be married and rapes her, only the man who has done this shall die. 26a-b Do nothing to the girl; she has committed no sin deserving death. This case is like that of someone who attacks and murders his neighbor, 27 for…there was no one to rescue her. 384 Because the culprits are known, they bear responsibility for their crime. The heifer remedy is only for cases in which the guilty party is unknown. Deut 21:1 If a man is found slain, lying in a field in the land the LORD your God is giving you to possess, and it is not known who killed him…. 3a Then the elders of the town nearest the body shall take a heifer… 385 The Israelites may be applying the punishment for apostasy to this situation. Deut 13:12 If you hear it said about one of the towns the LORD your God is giving you to live in 13 that wicked men have arisen among you and have led the people of their town astray, saying, “Let us go and worship other gods” (gods you have not known)… 15 you must certainly put to the sword all who live in that town. Destroy it completely, both its people and its livestock.

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Poor strategy (frontal assaults) may account for their two initial defeats. Alternatively, God may be demonstrating only partial support for the Israelite troops, despite their consultation with Him. He may be indicating that the guilt in this matter does not lie exclusively with Benjamin. Perhaps God would have answered differently had their initial question been “Shall we go?” instead of “Who should go first?” (v. 18). Moreover, what the Benjamites lack in quantity they make up for in quality: 700 left-handed marksmen (v. 16). 1 Chr 12:2 they were armed with bows and were able to shoot arrows or to sling stones righthanded or left-handed; they were kinsmen of Saul from the tribe of Benjamin: 386 The Giliadites were related to Israel but were not part of an Israelite tribe. The Gileadites were descended from Manasseh, the grandson of Rachel, and thus there was a blood-tie with the descendants of Benjamin, Rachel’s son. In subsequent history there was a very close link between the tribe of Benjamin and the men of Jabesh-gilead. When the latter were threatened by the Ammonites, they turned for succour to Saul the Benjamite (1 Sa. 11:1ff.); and it was the men of Jabesh-gilead who removed the bodies of Saul and his sons from their ignominious position on the wall of Beth-shan (1 Sa. 31:1113; cf. 2 Sa. 2:4-7). But this close link may have been the result of this incident, i.e., the extensive intermarriage between the Benjamites and the maidens of Jabesh-gilead, rather than the cause of the non-intervention of the men of Jabesh-gilead against the inhabitants of Gibeah. (Cundall 1968:209) 387 The ark appears only here in the book. Judg 20:26a Then the Israelites, all the people, went up to Bethel, and there they sat weeping before the LORD. 27b In those days the ark of the covenant of God was there, 388 This made a lasting impression on Israel. Hos 9:9a They have sunk deep into corruption, as in the days of Gibeah. Hos 10:9 Since the days of Gibeah, you have sinned…. Did not war overtake the evildoers in Gibeah? 389 While Ahaz promotes his own pagan initiatives, he also continues some well-established traditions, all of which his son must eliminate. 2 Kgs 16:4 [Ahaz] offered sacrifices and burned incense at the high places, on the hilltops and under every spreading tree. 2 Kgs 18:4 [Hezekiah] removed the high places, smashed the sacred stones and cut down the Asherah poles. He broke into pieces the bronze snake Moses had made, for up to that time the Israelites had been burning incense to it. (It was called Nehushtan.) 390 Even these external threats were no match for God’s support of a people loyal to Him. 2 Kgs 18:5 Hezekiah trusted in the LORD, the God of Israel. There was no one like him among all the kings of Judah, either before him or after him. 6 He held fast to the LORD and did not cease to follow him; he kept the commands the LORD had given Moses. And the LORD was with him; he was successful in whatever he undertook. He rebelled against the king of Assyria and did not serve him. 8 From watchtower to fortified city, he defeated the Philistines, as far as Gaza and its territory. 391 While holiness is an essential part of religious expression, it also affects other aspects of life. • Diet Lev 20:25 You must therefore make a distinction between clean and unclean animals and between unclean and clean birds. Do not defile yourselves by any animal or bird or anything that moves along the ground — those which I have set apart as unclean for you. 26 You are

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to be holy to me because I, the LORD, am holy, and I have set you apart from the nations to be my own. • Devotion Deut 7:1a When the LORD your God brings you into the land you are entering to possess and drives out before you many nations… 2b-c then you must destroy them totally. Make no treaty with them, and show them no mercy. 3a Do not intermarry with them. Do not give your daughters to their sons or take their daughters for your sons, 4 for they will turn your sons away from following me to serve other gods, and the LORD’s anger will burn against you and will quickly destroy you. 5 This is what you are to do to them: Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones, cut down their Asherah poles and burn their idols in the fire. 6 For you are a people holy to the LORD your God. The LORD your God has chosen you out of all the peoples on the face of the earth to be his people, his treasured possession. 392 An alternate translation is “When locks hung long in Israel,” perhaps referring to letting one’s hair grow as a sign (vow) of devotion to God. Num 6:5 During the entire period of his vow of separation no razor may be used on his head. He must…let the hair of his head grow long…. 18 Then at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, the Nazirite must shave off the hair that he dedicated….and put it in the fire that is under the sacrifice of the fellowship offering. Acts 18:18b Before he sailed, he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken. Acts 21:24a …join in their purification rites and pay their expenses, so that they can have their heads shaved. Here, the reason is to invoke divine aid in the cause of holy war. 393 Seir is the mountain range of Edom, through which Israel traveled on its way to Canaan. Deut 1:2 (It takes eleven days to go from Horeb to Kadesh Barnea by the Mount Seir road.) …44 The Amorites who lived in those hills came out against you; they chased you…from Seir all the way to Hormah. Deut 33:2a …The LORD came from Sinai and dawned over them from Seir; he shone forth from Mount Paran. Josh 11:17a from Mount Halak, which rises toward Seir…. Josh 12:7 These are the kings of the land that Joshua and the Israelites conquered on the west side of the Jordan, from Baal Gad in the Valley of Lebanon to Mount Halak, which rises toward Seir… 394 There is only one other reference to this judge. Judg 3:31 …Shamgar…struck down six hundred Philistines with an oxgoad. He too saved Israel. 395 The meaning is that major roads “were deserted” because they were under Canaanite control and, thus, unsafe (or too expensive) for Israelites to travel. 396 The title is probably an honorific referring to her role as a divine spokesman. Judg 4:4 Deborah, a prophetess…was leading Israel at that time. 5 She held court under the Palm of Deborah…and the Israelites came to her to have their disputes decided. “Father” had a similar sense. Judg 17:10a Then Micah said to him, “Live with me and be my father and priest….” Judg 18:19b Come with us, and be our father and priest.

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397

This is a difficult line. If Israel (the most likely referent) is doing the choosing, then it may be an allusion to the apostasy that caused the people’s dilemma. Judg 4:1 After Ehud died, the Israelites once again did evil in the eyes of the LORD. Cf. Judg 2:12b They followed and worshiped various gods of the peoples around them…. 17a …they…prostituted themselves to other gods and worshiped them. Alternately, it may refer to the mustering of Israelite troops just before the battle, with “gods” having the specialized meaning of “leaders” (i.e., God’s representatives). Exod 22:8a …the owner of the house must appear before the judges [MyIhølTaDh]…. 9b-c …both parties are to bring their cases before the judges [MyIhølTaDh]. The one whom the judges [MyIhølTaDh] declare guilty must pay…. Ps 82:1 God presides in the great assembly; he gives judgment among the “gods”: …6 “I said, ‘You are “gods”; you are all sons of the Most High.’ Cf. John 10:34 … “Is it not written in your Law, ‘I have said you are gods’? Ps 138:1b …before the “gods” I will sing your praise. 398 This is either because Israel lacked arms or did not want to display them to a potential enemy. 1 Sam 13:22 So on the day of the battle not a soldier with Saul and Jonathan had a sword or spear in his hand; only Saul and his son Jonathan had them. 2 Kgs 20:13a Hezekiah received the messengers and showed them…his armory…. 399 This is an area in the hill country of Ephraim, presumably where some Amalekite tribesmen had also settled. Judg 12:15 Then Abdon…was buried at Pirathon in Ephraim, in the hill country of the Amalekites. Num 14:45 …the Amalekites and Canaanites who lived in that hill country came down and attacked them…. 400 The phrase may represent an actual battle cry, especially given the Benjamites’ reputation as formidable warriors. Hos 5:8b Raise the battle cry in Beth Aven; lead on, O Benjamin. Judg 3:15a …he gave them a deliverer—Ehud, a left-handed man, the son of Gera the Benjamite. Judg 20:15a At once the Benjamites mobilized twenty-six thousand swordsmen from their towns…. 16 …seven hundred chosen men…were left-handed, each of whom could sling a stone at a hair and not miss. 401 Manasseh settled in this region of the Transjordan. Num 32:40 So Moses gave Gilead to the Makirites, the descendants of Manasseh, and they settled there. Josh 13:29a This is what Moses had given to the half-tribe of Manasseh…: 30 The territory extending from Mahanaim and including all of Bashan, the entire realm of Og king of Bashan…. 402 The victor celebrates by placing his feet on the neck of his vanquished foe. Josh 10:24a-b When they had brought these kings to Joshua, he summoned all the men of Israel and said to the army commanders who had come with him, “Come here and put your feet on the necks of these kings.” 403 This may have been a Canaanite city that had a treaty with one or more of the Israelite tribes but refused to cooperate against Hazor.

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