Basic Issues on Null Arguments in Japanese 阿部潤 東北学院大学 2013年12月14日 慶應言語学コロキアム 1. How Are Null Arguments Identified in Japanese? - Abe (2009): there are three ways of identification: i) Variables bound by null topics; cf. Huang (1982, 1984) ii) Bound pronouns iii) By way of NP Ellipsis a la Oku (1998) and Kim (1999) (i) Discourse-based anaphora: ほら [e] 来た。

(1) a. b.

誰がメアリに会ったの?

(2) a.

ジョンはとても [e] 愛しているよ。

b. ジョンはあなたが [e] 会ったと言った。

(ii) Intra-sentential anaphora: ジョン 1 は [e]1 今日の午後来ると言った。

(3) a. b.

ジョン 1 は [e]1 お金を持っているかいないかは問題ではないと言った。

(iii) anaphora involving sloppy identity: ジョンが自分を批判したら、メアリも[e] 批判した。

(4)

2. The Need of Bound Pronouns (5) a.

一人の女子学生がたいていの先生を尊敬している。

b. 一人の男子学生も [e] 尊敬している。 (6) a.

たいていの先生が [e] 今日の午後来ると言った。

b. たいていの先生がたいていの先生が今日の午後来ると言った。 (7) a.

何人かの先生が [e] お金を持っていないことはさほど問題ではないと 言った。

b. 何人かの先生が何人かの先生がお金を持っていないことはさほど問題 ではないと言った。

1

(8) a.

ジョンは自分の娘を嫌っているが、ビルは [e] 好いている。

b. ジョンとメアリはお互いの娘を嫌っているが、ビルとスーザンは [e] 好 いている。 (9) a.

ジョンは自分の娘に先生が [e] 成績が良いと思っていると言った。

b. ジョンとビルはお互いの娘に先生達が [e] 成績が良いと思っていると 言った。 - Abe (2009): (10)

Ellipsis cannot hold when the antecedent c-commands the elliptic site.

2

A Movement Theory of Pro-Drop in Japanese 阿部潤 東北学院大学 https://sites.google.com/site/jabeling27/recent-works 2013年12月 14日 慶應言語学コロキアム 1.

Introduction

i) Intra-sentential anaphora is best captured by a movement theory. ii) There are two types of chains for establishing such anaphora, depending upon the distance of null arguments and their antecedents: A and A’-chains 2.

Locality of Empty Pronouns in Japanese

2.1.

Locality of Empty Pronouns

- 3rd person pronouns in Finnish and Hebrew require linguistic antecedents: (1)

Finnish a. *(Han) puhuu

englantia.

he/she speak-3sg English b. *(He) puhuvat englantia. they speak-3pl English (2)

(Holmberg 2005, p. 539)

Hebrew a. *?axal banana ate-3sg banana b. *yoxal

banana

will-eat-3sg banana

(Borer 1989, p. 94)

- When these pronouns appear in embedded clauses, they must take their antecedents in the next higher clauses: (3)

Finnish a. Pekka1 vaittaa [etta han1,2/pro1,*2 puhuu englantia hyvin]. claims that he

speaks English

well

b. Anu1 sanoi Jarille2 [etta han1,2/pro1,2,*3 otta kitaran mukaan]. said

that he

takes guitar along

‘Anu told Jari to bring along his guitar.’ 3

(Holmberg 2005, p. 539)

(4)

Hebrew a.

Talila1 ?amra le-Itamar2 [she pro2 yavo]. said

to-

that

will-come-m.sg

‘Talila told Itamar to come.’ b.

Talila1 ?amra le-Itamar2 [she pro1 tavo]. said

to-

that

will-come-f.sg

‘Talila told Itamar that she will come.’ c.

Talila1 ?amra le-Itamar2 [she hem3/*pro3 yavo?u]. said

to-

that they

will-come-m.pl

‘Talila told Itamar that they will come.’ (5)

(Borer 1989, p. 93)

A(naphoric)-pro obeys the Specified Subject Condition (SSC).

(6) a.

ジョンは[pro 頭が悪いと]思っている/言っている。

b. ジョンは[メアリが[pro 頭が悪いと]言っていると]思っている。 (7) a.

誰もが[pro 頭が悪いと]思っている/言っている。 ≠誰もが[彼らが頭が悪いと]思っている/言っている。

b. ジョンが誰もに[pro 頭が悪い]と言った。 ≠ジョンが誰もに[彼らが頭が悪い]と言った。  Pro is forced to be interpreted as a variable bound by a universal quantifier. 誰もが[メアリが[pro 頭が悪いと]言っていると]思っている。

(8)

=誰もが[メアリが[彼らが頭が悪いと]言っていると]思っている。  This sentence has not only the bound variable reading of pro but also what may be called the referential reading of pro. (9)

誰もが[pro そのピアノを5階まで持ち上げたと]言った。 ≠誰もが[彼らがそのピアノを5階まで持ち上げたと]言った。

(10)

ジョンが誰もに[pro そのピアノを5階まで持ち上げるように]言った。 ≠ジョンが誰もに[彼らがそのピアノを5階まで持ち上げるように]言った。

(12)

誰もが[メアリが[pro そのピアノを5階まで持ち上げてくれたと]言ってい ると]思っている。

=誰もが[メアリが[彼らがそのピアノを5階まで持ち上げてくれたと]言 っていると]思っている。

4

どの子供も[その力士が pro 軽々と持ち上げてくれたと]言った。

(13) a.

=どの子供も[その力士が彼らを軽々と持ち上げてくれたと]言った。 b.

どの子供も[そのおじさんが pro 大きな車に乗せてくれたと]言った。 =どの子供も[そのおじさんが彼らを大きな車に乗せてくれたと]言った。

(14)

Pro is forced to have the bound variable reading only when it satisfies the SSC.

(15) a.

Pro in Japanese is an A-pro.

b.

A-pro functions as a variable bound by its antecedent.

#Why can null arguments in Japanese violate the SSC in some cases and at the same time have the referential reading as well as the bound variable reading? (16) a.

(Pointing to a person or persons talking to a native speaker of English) [e] 英語を話しているよ。

b.

(talking about a particular person or particular persons with the hearer) [e] バナナを買っていたよ。

- Huang’s (1982, 1984) null topic analysis: [CP [Top e1] [TP t1 英語を話しているよ]]

(17)

- Hasegawa (1984/5): (i) null topics are nothing but a special case of null operators that are located at the top of the sentences; (ii) null operators are simply empty pronouns (PRO under her analysis) moved in operator position. (18)

A-pro may undergo operator movement to Spec-CP.

(19)

[CP pro1 [TP t1 英語を話しているよ]]

(20) a.

NP1 [CP pro1 [TP NP [CP t’1 [TP t1 …]] …]] …

b. (21)

(parameterized)

NP1 [CP pro1 [TP NP t1 …]] …

A-pro takes a semantic value in exactly the same way as normal pronouns do when it becomes an operator.

(22)

Many students think that they are smart.

(23) *[TP NP1 [CP pro1 [TP t1 …]] …] 2.2. A-Pro as a Bound Variable (24)

ジョン 1 は [pro1 頭が悪いと] 思っている/言っている。

5

- Abe (1992): (25) a.

They believe they are intelligent.

b. (26) a.

They believe themselves to be intelligent. They is regarded as one entity with a belief about itself.

b.

Each of the individuals designated by they has a belief about him/herself.

c.

Each of the individuals designated by they has a belief about the whole group.

- Heim, Lasnik and May (1991) (HLM): covert distributor D: (27)

[[they]1 D]2 believe themselves2 to be intelligent

(28)

[NP1D2] ϕ -> ∃P(artition) of NP1 [(∀x2∈P) ϕ’]

(29)

A sub-plurality Q of a plurality P is a plurality each member of which is a member of P. A covering of a plurality P is a family C of subpluralities of P such that every element of P belongs to some member of C. A covering C of P is a partition of P if the members of C are pairwise disjoint. [[they]1 D]2 believe they1 are intelligent

(30)

彼ら 1 は [pro1 頭が悪いと] 思っている/言っている。

(31) a. b.

ジョンが彼ら 1 に [pro1 頭が悪いと] 言った。 彼ら 1 は [彼ら 1 が頭が悪いと] 思っている/言っている。

(32) a. b.

ジョンが彼ら 1 に [彼ら 1 が頭が悪いと] 言った。

(33)

John believes himself to be stupid.

(34)

彼ら 1 は [メアリが[pro1 頭が悪いと] 言っていると] 思っている。

(35) a. b.

彼ら 1 は [pro1 そのピアノを五階まで持ち上げたと] 思っている。 ジョンは彼ら

1

に [pro1 そのピアノを五階まで持ち上げるように] 言っ

た。 (36)

彼ら 1 は [メアリが[pro1 そのピアノを五階まで持ち上げてくれたと] 言っ ていると] 思っている。

(37) a. b. (38) a.

彼ら 1 は [その力士が pro1 軽々と持ち上げてくれたと] 思っている。 彼ら 1 は [そのおじさんが pro1 大きな車に乗せてくれたと] 思っている。 John and Mary proved that each of them had paid $100.

b. *John and Mary proved each of themselves to have paid $100. (39) a.

John and Mary proved that they had each filed the required papers.

b.?*John and Mary proved themselves to have each filed the required papers. 6

(40)

Antecedent

Anaphoric pronoun

1.

NP1

-

NP1

2.

NP1

-

NP1D2

3.

NP1D2

-

NP1

4.

NP1D2

-

NP2

5.

NP1D2

-

NP1D3

(singular bound variable) (HLM, p. 76))

(41) John and Mary proved that they have already paid $100. (42) a. b.

[John and Mary]1 proved that they1 have already paid $100 [John and Mary]1 proved that [they1D2] have already paid $100

c. [[John and Mary]1D2] proved that they1 have already paid $100 d.

[[John and Mary]1D2] proved that they2 have already paid $100

e. [[John and Mary]1D2] proved that [they1D3] have already paid $100 (43)

John and Mary proved themselves to have already paid $100.

(44) a.

[John and Mary]1 proved themselves1 to have already paid $100

b. *[John and Mary]1 proved [themselves1D2] to have already paid $100 c. *[[John and Mary]1D2] proved themselves1 to have already paid $100 d.

[[John and Mary]1D2] proved themselves2 to have already paid $100

e. *[[John and Mary]1D2] proved [themselves1D3] to have already paid $100 (45)

正雄と洋一 1 は[pro1 百ドルすでに支払ったと] 主張した。

(46)

正雄と洋一 1 は[彼ら 1 が百ドルすでに支払ったと] 主張した。

(47)

正雄と洋一

1

は[美幸が[pro1 百ドルすでに支払ったと] 思っていると] 主

張した。 #An apparent counterexample: (48)

誰も 1 が [pro1 一緒にそのピアノを五階まで持ち上げたと] 言った。

(49)

彼ら 1 は [pro1 一緒にそのピアノを五階まで持ち上げたと] 言った。

 These sentences can have the reading in which the partner(s) with which each person brought up that piano to the fifth floor are picked up from the discourse. (50)

issyoni ‘together’ bears an implicit argument denoting a person or people with which the activity it modifies proceeds. 7

- The unavailability of split antecedence: (51)

Finnish

*? Pekka1 kysyi vaimoltaan2, pro1+2 voivatko menna Espanjaan lomalle. asked his-wifej

can-3pl go

Spain

vacation

‘Pekka asked his wife if they can go to Spain for a vacation.’ (Vainikka and Levy 1999, p. 651) (52)

Hebrew a. *Rina1 amra le-Ran2 she-pro1+2 hiclixu said

to-

that

ba-bxina.

succeeded in-the-test

‘Rinai said to Ranj that theyi+j succeeded in the test.’ b. * Rina1 todi?a

le-Ran2 she-pro1+2 yuzmenu

will-announce to-

that

le-bikur.

will-be-invited to-a-visit

‘Rina1 will announce to Ran2 that they1+2 will be invited to a visit.’ (Borer 1989, p. 96) (53) a.?*ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [pro1+2 そのテストに合格したと] 言った。 b. ?*ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [pro1+2 そのテストに合格したか] 尋ねた。 (54) a.

ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [メアリが [pro1+2 そのテストに合格したと] 思って いると] 言った。

b. ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [メアリが [pro1+2 そのテストに合格したと] 思って いるか] 尋ねた。 2.3.

Deriving the SSC Effect from A-Movement

- A-pro is forced to have the bound variable reading only when it satisfies the SSC. This property of A-pro is best derived by a movement theory like Hornstein’s (1999, 2001), which proposes that the Obligatory Control (OC) cases of PRO in English involve A-movement. (57)

ジョン 1 は[pro1 頭が悪いと]思っている/言っている。

(58) a. b.

[TP pro [CP [TP pro … ]] …] [TP ジョンは [CP [TP pro … ]] …]

 The pro-movement does not violate any locality condition in Japanese, unlike in English, which obeys the Nominative Island Condition (NIC), hence not requiring the repair strategy by overt pronoun. 8

(59)

Nominative-genitive conversion: a. [ジョンが好きな] 本 b. [ジョンの好きな] 本

(60)

Subject-to-subject raising: cf. Uchibori (2000, 2001) ジョンが 1 最近 [t1 もっと勉強するように] なった。

(61)

Subject-to-object raising: cf. Kuno (1976) a.

ジョンが [ビルが馬鹿だと] 思っている。

b.

ジョンが [ビルを馬鹿だと] 思っている。

(62) [DP ジョンの [TP ジョンの好きな] 本] (63)

ジョンが [VP ビルを [CP [TP ビルを馬鹿だ] と] 思っている

 The SSC effect of A-pro is derived from a locality condition such as Minimize Chain Links (MCL), proposed by Chomsky and Lasnik (1993), which dictates that an element cannot move across its possible landing sites. (64)

ジョン 1 が [メアリが[pro1 頭が悪いと]言っていると]思っている。

(65)

ジョン 1 が [その力士が pro1 軽々と持ち上げてくれたと]言った。

#Is the repair strategy by overt pronoun available to Japanese?  No. There seems to be no genuine pronounced pronoun, at least no pronoun equivalent to English pronouns. Kare and kanozyo are sometimes taken as overt forms of pronouns, but they are more like demonstratives or epithets in the sense that they never function as bound variables.  The repair strategy for pro-movement in Japanese is not spelling out of pro but rather making it undergo operator movement. (66) a. b.

NP1 [CP pro1 [TP NP [CP t’1 [TP t1 …]] …]] … NP1 [CP pro1 [TP NP t1 …]] …

(67) a.

pro [CP pro [TP NP [CP pro [TP pro …]] …]] …

b.

NP [CP pro [TP NP [CP pro [TP pro …]] …]] …

(68) a.

pro [CP pro [TP NP pro …]] …

b.

NP [CP pro [TP NP pro …]] …

(NP overlaid) 9

(NP overlaid)

(69) *[TP NP1 [CP pro1 [TP t1 …]] …]  Operator movement of pro is a last resort operation that can occur only when its A-movement option is excluded by such an economy condition as the MCL. (70)

A chain forces the bound variable reading iff it is not repaired.

(71)

Many students believe that they are intelligent.

- The availability of split antecedent: (72)?*ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [pro1+2 そのテストに合格したと] 言った。 (73)

ジョン

1

はビル

2

に [メアリが [pro1+2 そのテストに合格したと] 思って

いると] 言った。 (74) a. A chain forces the bound variable reading iff it is not repaired. b.

If it is repaired, then either (i) or (ii): (i)

It can produce either the bound variable reading or the referential one.

(ii) The referential value of the tail must include that of the head. (75)

ジョンはビルに [CP pro [TP NP [CP pro [TP pro …]] …]] …

- Hornstein (1999, 2001): (76) a. *John1 told Mary2 PRO1+2 to wash themselves/each other. b.

The unfortunate expects PRO to get a medal.

(de se interpretation required)

c. Only Churchill remembers PRO giving the BST speech. (Hornstein 1999, p. 73)  Hornstein (1999): when more than one θ-position is related via A-movement, the latter “semantically forms a compound monadic predicate.” (p. 80) (77)

only Churchill λx [x remembers x giving the BST speech]

(78)

ジョン 1 は [pro1 頭がいいと] 思っている。

(79)

ジョン 1 は [メアリが [pro1 頭がいいと] 言ったと] 思っている。

 (79) can be uttered in the situation in which he does not know that it is himself that he thinks Mary said was smart. (80)

ジョンだけ 1 が [pro1 頭がいいと] 思っている。

(81)

ジョンだけ 1 が [メアリが [pro1 頭がいいと] 言ったと] 思っている。

 (80) allows only the bound variable reading of A-pro, namely the one in which only John considers himself to be smart. (81), by contrast, allows the referential reading of A-pro as well as the bound variable reading. 10

- Rosenbaum’s (1967) Minimal Distance Principle: (82)

John1 persuaded Harry2 [PRO*1,2 to leave].

(83)

誰も 1 がジョンに [pro1 頭が悪いと] 言った。

- Island effects: (84)

誰も 1 が [pro1 そのピアノを五階まで運んでいる間] 彼女のことを考えて いた。

(85)

誰も 1 が [pro1 そこで会った] 学生と結婚したがっている。

 These sentences allow the referential reading of A-pro. (86)

NP [island [CP pro [TP pro …]]] …

(87)

An island violation is exempt from the repair strategy by overt pronoun if the chain produced by the island-violating Move lacks any Case position where any member of pro can be pronounced.

(88) a.

ジョン

1

がメアリ

2

に [pro1+2 そのピアノを五階まで運んでいる間] 話

しかけていた。 b. ジョン 1 がビル 2 に [[pro1+2 そこで会った] 学生が一番きれいだと] 言 った。 (89) a.

ジョンだけ 1 が [pro1 ピアノを五階まで運んでいる間] 彼女にメールし ていた。

b. (90)

ジョンだけ 1 が [[pro1 そこで会った] 学生と結婚したがっている。

John1 heard Mary without/before/after PRO1 entering the room. (Hornstein 1999, p. 88)

(91) a. *John1 told Mary2 a story after PRO1+2 washing themselves. b.

Only Churchill left after PRO giving the speech. = only Churchill λx [x left after x giving the speech] (Hornstein 2001, p. 46-47)

(92) 誰も

1

が [pro1 そのピアノを五階まで運びながら] 彼女のことを考えてい

た。 (93)

ジョン 1 がメアリ 2 に [pro1+2 そのピアノを五階まで運びながら] 話しか けていた。

(94)

ジョンだけ 1 が [pro1 ピアノを五階まで運びながら] 彼女にメールしてい た。

11

- Pro-drop parameter: according to the present theory, there are two factors that “license” null arguments in Japanese: (95) a. b.

Insensitivity to the NIC Availability of operator movement of pro as a repair strategy

(96)

ジョン 1 は [pro1 頭が悪いと] 思っている/言っている。

(97)

ジョンは e 嫌っている。

(98)

When an A-chain C = (a1, …, an) carries more than one Case, extra Cases must be phonetically realized, where an extra Case is one that is assigned/checked in a position other than a1.

 While assignment/checking of accusative Case is mandatory, assignment/checking of nominative Case is optional. (cf. Saito 1985) (99)

Insensitivity to the NIC plus optionality of nominative Case assignment/checking

- Montalbetti (1984): (100)

Muchos estudiantes creen que pro son inteligentes.

 This Spanish sentence with the embedded null subject pro has not only the bound variable reading of pro but also has its referential reading.  In such a pro-drop language, the relevant repair strategy can be spelling-out of not only the tail of the produced A-chain, but also the morphology of the verb that agrees with it, thanks to the “rich agreement morphology” functioning to license subject-drop in terms of recoverability, following Taraldsen’s (1978) idea.  Probably, the subject-drop observed in Finnish and Hebrew belongs to the type of pro-drop that arises from having only the property of insensitivity to the NIC; cf. Ferreira (2004, 2009) and Rodrigues (2002, 2004); the subject pro in Brazilian Portuguese shows all the properties of OC. #Is there any language that has only the property given in (95b): availability of operator movement of pro as a repair strategy?  No, this type of pro-drop is non-existent. (i) The option given in (95b) is available only to topic-prominent languages. (ii) Topic-prominent languages are characterized by Li and Thompson (1976) as typically lacking “verb-agreement.” (iii) The insensitivity to the NIC is observed when the verb that enters into a Spec/head relation with a null subject exhibits only a degenerate agreement or no agreement at all. 12

 If a given language has the property (95b), then it also has the property (95a) (but not vice versa). 3.

Evidence for Operator Movement of Pro [pro 試合に勝つ]ことは難しい。

(101)

Following Lebeaux’s (1984) ideas about PRO, when pro undergoes operator movement, it either undergoes further movement to pick up its referent or functions as a generic operator. (102)

Pro can be assigned generic interpretation when it becomes an operator.

(103)

[CP pro1 [TP t1 試合に勝つこと]] は難しい ジョンは [pro メアリを説得するべきだと] 思っている。

(104) a. b.

ジョンは [[メアリが pro 説得するの] は難しいと] 思っている。

 The generic interpretation of A-pro is available regardless of the existence of a possible antecedent for it. 3.1.

Multiple Occurrences of Generic Pro

- Lebeaux (1984): (105) a.

PRO winning games requires PRO losing games.

b. (106)

The winning of games requires the losing of games.

[OP1 [PRO1 winning games requires PRO1 losing games]]

(107) a.

PRO winning the trust of the populace requires PRO having to serve in the army.

b.

PRO winning the trust of the populace requires that PRO having to serve in the army be abolished.

(108)

A generic operator is adjoined to the minimal NP, S containing γ, where γ is the minimal S containing PRO.

(109) a.

試合に勝つことは、試合に負けることを必要とする。

b.

人が試合に勝つことは、人が試合に負けることを必要とする。

c. (110) a.

どんな試合においても、勝利は敗北を必要とする。 批判することは、尊敬することを必要とする。

b. 人が批判することは、人が尊敬することを必要とする。 c.

批判は尊敬を必要とする。

13

(111)

家族を持っていないことは、出世することを容易にする。

(112)

試合に勝つことを要求することは試合に負けることを要求することを必 要とする。

 In (112), the person requesting the winning of a game must be the same as the one requesting the losing of a game, whereas the person who wins a game can be different from the one who loses a game.  In the case of generic object pro, the same person requirement is not enforced. Thus, (110a) can be interpreted as such that for any person x, y, z, x’s criticizing y requires x’s respecting z. (113)

When interpreted as generic, pro/PRO is adjoined to the minimal NP, S containing γ, where γ is the minimal S containing pro/PRO.

(114) [TP pro1 pro2 [TP t1 t2 批判する] ことは [TP t1 t2 尊敬する] ことを必要とする]  When more than one occurrence of pro/PRO is adjoined to the same operator position, they merge into one occurrence of pro/PRO. (115)

[CP pro1 [TP [CP pro2 [TP t1 t2 批判する]] ことは [CP pro3 [TP t1 t3 尊敬する]] こ とを必要とする]]

(116) *[TP NP1 [CP pro1 [TP t1 …]] …] (117)

Ppro/PRO must undergo operator movement at least as far as the Spec of the CP immediately dominating the A-domain for it.

(118)

The A-domain for α is the maximal category in which α could undergo A-movement.

(119)

[CP pro1 [t1 試合に勝つ]ことは、[t1 試合に負ける]ことを必要とする]

(120)

[CP pro1 [TP [CP pro2 [TP t1 [t2 win a game]-Acc request] fact]-Top [CP pro3 [TP t1 [t3 lose a game]-Acc request] fact]-Acc require]]

(121)

ジョンは [proarb メアリを説得するべきだと] 思っている。

(122)

proarb メアリを説得するべきだ。

(123) *proarb メアリを説得する/した。 (124)

proarb メアリを説得できる/しなければならない。

(125)

A-movement cannot take place across a clause that bears a generic supporting form (GSF).

14

(126)

[pro メアリを説得するべきであるということ] は [pro メアリに無理強 いするべきでないこと] を意味する。

(127)

[pro メアリを説得しなければならないということ] は [pro メアリに助 けになってもらわなければならないこと] を意味する。

3.2.

A Unification of Anaphoric and Generic Pro in Operator Movement

(128) Pro/PRO must undergo operator movement at least as far as the Spec of the CP immediately dominating the A-domain for it. (129) a.

ジョン

1

にとって [pro1 メアリをほめること]は [pro1 彼女をけなすこ

と]を必要とする。 b. ジョン 1 にとって [pro1 メアリをほめること] は [人が彼女をけなすこ と]を必要とする。 (130) ジョン 1 にとって [pro1 pro ほめること]は [pro1 pro けなすこと]を必要と する。 (131) a.

ジョン 1 はメアリ 2 に [[pro1/2 試合に勝ったこと]は [pro1/2 試合に負け たこと]を意味していたと] 言った。

b. ジョン 1 はメアリ 2 に [[彼が試合に勝ったこと]は [彼女が試合に負け たこと]を意味していたと] 言った。 (132) a.

ジョン 1 はメアリ 2 に [[pro1/2 ビルをけなしたこと]は [pro1/2 以前に彼 を褒めていたこと]を意味していたと] 言った。

b. ジョン 1 はメアリ 2 に [[彼がビルをけなしたこと]は [彼女が以前に彼 を褒めていたこと]を意味していたと] 言った。 (133)

先生が生徒とその母親に [[自分が pro 注意しなかったこと]は [pro pro 信頼していたこと]を意味していたと] 言った。

(134) 生徒 1 とその母親 2 が先生に [[pro1/2 先生の言うことをよく聞いたという こと]は [pro1/2 先生を信頼していたこと]を意味していたと] 言った。 (135)

誰も 1 にとって [pro1 メアリを褒めること]は [pro1 彼女をけなすこと]を 必要とする。

(136) a. [CP pro1 [TP [CP t1 … ]は [CP t1 …]を必要とする]] b.

[CP 誰も 1 [TP [CP t1 … ]は [CP t1 …]を必要とする]]

15

(137) a. b.

(138)

A chain forces the bound variable reading iff it is not repaired. If it is repaired, then either (i) or (ii): (i)

it can produce either the bound variable reading or the referential one.

(ii)

The referential value of the tail must include that of the head.

誰も 1 がメアリに [[pro1 試合に勝ったこと]は [pro1 試合に負けたこと] を意味していたと] 言った。

(139) a. [CP pro1 [TP [CP t1 … ]は [CP t1 …]を意味していた]と] b.

(140)

pro1 メアリに [CP pro1 [TP [CP t1 … ]は [CP t1 …]を意味していた]と]

*NP1 [CP pro1 [TP t1 …]] … 誰も 1 が[pro1 そのピアノを5階まで持ち上げたと]言った。

(141) a.

b. ジョンが誰も 1 に[pro1 そのピアノを5階まで持ち上げるように]言った。 A-movement cannot take place across a clause that bears a GSF.

(142)

誰も 1 が[pro1 そのピアノを5階まで持ち上げるべきだと]言った。

(143) a. b.

ジョンが誰も 1 に[pro1 そのピアノを5階まで持ち上げるべきだと]言っ た。

(144) a.?*ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [pro1+2 そのテストに合格したと] 言った。 b. ?*ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [pro1+2 そのテストに合格したか] 尋ねた。 ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [pro1+2 そのテストに合格すべきだと] 言った。

(145) a.

b. ジョン 1 はビル 2 に [pro1+2 そのテストに合格すべきか] 尋ねた。 3.3.

Operator Movement of Pro and the Locality with Its Antecedent

(146)

誰も 1 が [pro1 そこで会った] 学生と結婚したがっている。

(147)

NP [island [CP pro [TP pro …]]] …

- Kuno (1973): topicalization in Japanese is not constrained by island conditions: (148) a. b. (149) a. b.

その人 1 は [e1 死んだのに] 誰も悲しまなかった。 その紳士 1 は [e1 着ている] 洋服が汚れている。 ジョン 1 はメアリが [pro1 歌う] 声を非常に気に入っている。 ジョン 1 はメアリが [pro1 書いた] 本をほとんど読んでいない。

16

(150) a.??ジョン 1 は [メアリが [pro1 歌う] 声を非常に気に入っていると] 思っ ている。 b.?*ジョン 1 は [メアリが [pro1 書いた] 本を読んでいないと] 言った。 (151) a.

ジョン 1 はメアリが [pro1 批判した] 人を非常に気に入っている。

b.?*ジョン

1

は [メアリが [pro1 批判した] 人を非常に気に入っていると]

思っている。 (152) a.

ジョン 1 はメアリが [pro1 なぐった] 男を知っていた。

b.?*ジョン 1 は [メアリが [pro1 なぐった] 男を知っていたと] 言った。 - Hasegawa (1984/5): (153) a.

その犬 1 は [pro1 吠えたら] 赤ちゃんが泣き出した。

b.?*その犬 1 は赤ちゃんが[pro1 吠えたら] 泣き出した。 (154) a.

そのお菓子 1 は [proarb pro1 食べたら] おなかが痛くなる。

b.??そのお菓子 1 はジョン 2 が [pro2 pro1 食べたら] おなかが痛くなった。  (154b) does not seem so terribly bad, probably as good as the examples in (149). (155) a.

その犬 1 は赤ちゃん 2 が [pro2 pro1 見たら] 泣き出した。

b.

その論文 1 はジョン 2 が [pro2 pro1 読んだら] 頭が痛くなった。

 The unacceptability of (153b) has to do with a control effect of the matrix subject upon the subject of the adjunct clause when the latter clause is put right after the matrix subject. (156)

その犬 1 は赤ちゃん 2 が [pro2 [pro1 吠える] のを見ていたら] 泣き出した。

(157) a.

その男 1 は赤ちゃん 2 が [pro2 pro1 見たら] 泣き出した。

b.??その男 1 は [赤ちゃん 2 が [pro2 pro1 見たら] 泣き出したと] 言った。 (158) a.

その男 1 はメアリ 2 が [pro2 pro1 会ったあとで] 気分が悪くなった。

b.??その男 1 は [メアリ 2 が [pro2 pro1 会ったあとで] 気分が悪くなったと] 言った。 (159) a.

その男達 1 は子供 2 が [pro2 [pro1 騒ぐ] のを聞いたら] 泣き出した。

b.?*その男達 1 は [子供 2 が [pro2 [pro1 騒ぐ] のを聞いたら] 泣き出したと] 言った。

17

(160)

[CP pro1 [TP t1 英語を話しているよ]]

(161) a.

(talking about a particular person with the hearer who has died recently): pro1 [pro1 死んだのに] 誰も悲しまなかったよ。

b.

(talking about a particular gentleman with the hearer): pro1 [pro1 着ている] 洋服が汚れているよ。

(162) a.

(talking about a particular singer with the hearer): pro1 メアリが[pro1 歌う] 声を非常に気に入っている。

b.

(talking about a particular writer with the hearer): pro1 メアリが[pro1 書いた] 本をほとんど読んでいない。

(163) a.

(talking about a particular dog with the hearer): pro1 赤ちゃん 2 が [pro2 pro1 見たら] 泣き出した。

b.

(talking about a particular article with the hearer): pro1 ジョン 2 が [pro2 pro1 読んだら] 頭が痛くなった。

(164) a.

(talking about a particular singer with the hearer):

??pro1 [メアリが [pro1 歌う] 声を非常に気に入っていると] 思っている。 b.

(talking about a particular writer with the hearer):

?*pro1 [メアリが [pro1 書いた] 本をほとんど読んでいないと] 言った。 4.

An Extension to the NOC Cases of PRO

4.1. (165)

Lebeaux’s (1984) Theory of PRO PRO can take a “long-distance” antecedent iff it can be interpreted as generic.

# PRO is subject to binding condition A. (166)

Binding category: β is the binding category for PRO if β is the minimal NP, S dominating γ, where γ is the minimal S’ dominating PRO.

(167)

Closure: If PRO is unbound in its binding category, adjoin ei coindexed with PROi to the binding category.

(168)

Operator interpretation: An e in an A’-position, not bound by an A’-antecedent, is construed as an operator O. If Oi is coindexed with an antecedent NPi, interpret it with the reference of that NP. Otherwise, interpret it as free (i.e. arbitrary), or, in marked cases, with a pragmatically picked out referent. 18

(169) a.

John1 tried [PRO1 to leave].

b.

John persuaded Mary1 [PRO1 to leave].

c.

John1 killed someone [PRO1 to get insurance money].

(170) a. *John tried [PROarb to leave]. b. *John persuaded Mary [PROarb to leave]. c. *John killed someone [PROarb to get insurance money]. (171) a. *Bill1 said that John tried [PRO1 to leave]. b. *Bill1 said that John persuaded Mary [PRO1 to leave]. c. *Bill1 said that John killed someone [PRO1 to get insurance money]. (172)

Johni decided [PROi to behave himself/*oneself].

(173) a.

It was decided by John1 [PRO1 to behave himself/*oneself].

b. *Mary1 knew that it had been decided by John [PRO1 to behave herself]. (Manzini 1983, p. 424-427) (174)

It was decided [PROarb to shave oneself].

(175)

[PROarb to shave oneself] is difficult.

(ibid., p. 430)

(176) a.

John admitted that [it was uncalled for [PROarb to buy oneself that]].

b.

John1 admitted that [it was uncalled for [PRO1 to buy himself that]].

(177)

John said that Mary thought that [PRO to feed himself/herself/oneself] would be impossible.

4.2. (178)

Incorporating the NOC Cases of PRO into the Movement Theory Pro/PRO must undergo operator movement at least as far as the Spec of the CP immediately dominating the A-domain for it.

##Unlike A-pro, PRO can undergo operator movement as a last resort.##  While pro has its own Case-feature valued as other normal DPs do, PRO simply lacks Case-feature. (179)

An invisible argument XP cannot move across a visible argument YP, where visibility is defined in terms of presence of Case.

(180)

[C’ C [TP DP … [TP PRO1 [vP t1 … ]]]] +Case

-Case 19

(181) a.

John(PRO)1 tried [t1 to leave].

b.

John persuaded Mary(PRO)1 [t1 to leave].

c.

John(PRO)1 killed someone [t1 to get insurance money].

 The reason why a case of object control such as (181b) does not allow PRO to take subject as its antecedent is that the movement of PRO to the subject in such a configuration would violate the condition in (179). (182)

An invisible argument XP cannot move across a visible argument YP if the position occupied by YP is a possible landing site for XP-movement.

(183)

[CP PRO1 [TP it was decided [TP t1 to shave oneself1]]]

(184)

[CP PRO1 [TP [TP t1 to shave oneself1] is difficult]]

(185) a.

John admitted [CP PRO1 that [TP it was uncalled for [TP t1 to buy oneself1 that]]]

b.

John(PRO)1 admitted [CP t’1 that [TP it was uncalled for [TP t1 to buy himself1 that]]]

(186) a.

John said that Mary thought [CP PRO1 that [TP [TP t1 to feed oneself] would be impossible]]

b.

John said that Mary(PRO)1 thought [CP t’1 that [TP [TP t1 to feed herself] would be impossible]]

c.

John(PRO)1 said [CP t”1 that [TP Mary thought [CP t’1 that [TP [TP t1 to feed himself] would be impossible]]]]

(187)

A-movement cannot take place across a clause that bears a GSF.

(188)

John asked how [PRO to behave himself/oneself].

(189)

John asked how one should behave oneself.

(190) a.

John asked [CP how [CP PRO1 [TP t1 to behave himself/oneself]]]

b.

John asked [CP PRO1 [CP how [TP t1 to behave himself/oneself]]]

(191) *Mary thinks that her father asked how [PRO to behave herself]. (192) a. b.

A chain forces the bound variable reading iff it is not repaired. If it is repaired, then either (i) or (ii): (i)

it can produce either the bound variable reading or the referential one.

(ii)

The referential value of the tail must include that of the head. 20

- OC cases: (193) a.

Every boy tried [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

b.

John persuaded every boy [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

c.

Every boy did exercise every day [PRO to be able to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

(194)

Every boy tried independently of the others so as for the boys to bring up the piano to the fifth floor together.

(195) a.

(≠(193a))

John persuaded every boy independently of the others so as for the boys to bring up the piano to the fifth floor together.

b.

(≠(193b))

Every boy did exercise separately every day so as for the boys to be able to bring up the piano to the fifth floor together.

(≠(193c))

(196)

Every boy decided [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

(197)

Every boy decided independently of the others that the boys should bring up the piano together.

(≠(196))

- NOC cases: (198) a.

Every boy thought that [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor] would be impossible.

b.

Every boy thought that it would be impossible [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

(199)

Every boy thought that it would be impossible for the boys to bring up the piano together.

(200)

Every boy asked me how [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

(201)

Every boy asked me independently of the others how the boys should bring up the piano to the fifth floor together.

(202) a.

John expects PRO to win and Bill does too. (= Bill win)

b. *John1 told Mary2 PRO1+2 to wash themselves/each other. c.

The unfortunate expects PRO to get a medal.

d.

Only Churchill remembers PRO giving the BST speech.

(203) a.

John thinks that PRO getting his resume in order is crucial and Bill does too.

b.

John1 told Mary2 that PRO1+2 washing themselves/each other would be fun.

c.

The unfortunate believes that PRO getting a medal would be boring.

d.

Only Churchill remembers that PRO giving the BST speech was momentous. (Hornstein 1999, p. 73) 21

(204)

John(PRO)1 thinks [CP t’1 that [TP t1 getting his resume in order is crucial]] and Bill does [VP think that John’s getting his resume in order is crucial] too

4.3.

An Overall Picture of the Theory of Pro/PRO

(205)

Pro undergoes Move to establish an anaphoric relation.

☞ Two factors that enable pro to show up on the surface: (i) whether the application of Move to pro violates any locality condition; (ii) how a locality violation of pro-movement is remedied. - Free from the NIC: (206)

ジョン 1 は [pro1 頭が悪いと] 思っている/言っている。

(207)

John1 thinks/says that he1 is stupid.

- PRO-movement, i.e., movement from a Caseless position: (208) a.

(209)

John1 tried [PRO1 to leave].

b.

John persuaded Mary1 [PRO1 to leave].

c.

John1 killed someone [PRO1 to get insurance money].

An island violation is exempt from the repair strategy by overt pronoun if the chain produced by the island-violating Move lacks any Case position where any member of pro can be pronounced.

- The NIC violation remedied by rich agreement morphology on a verb: (210)

Muchos estudiantes creen que pro son inteligentes.

- Operator movement as an intermediate step:  This is an option alternative to the repair strategy by pronouncing the tail of the produced chain or manifesting rich morphology on a verb in such a language as Japanese.  PRO-movement can also exploit the operator-movement option, since the other options cannot be used as repair strategies for locality violations of PRO-movement due to the Caseless property of PRO. (211)

An invisible argument XP cannot move across a visible argument YP if the position occupied by YP is a possible landing site for XP-movement. 22

(212) a. b.

A chain forces the bound variable reading iff it is not repaired. If it is repaired, then either (i) or (ii): (i)

it can produce either the bound variable reading or the referential one.

(ii) The referential value of the tail must include that of the head. (213)

誰も 1 が [pro1 頭が悪いと] 思っている/言っている。

(214) a.

Every boy tried [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

b.

John persuaded every boy [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

c.

Every boy did exercise every day [PRO to be able to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

(215)

誰も 1 が [メアリが [pro1 頭が悪いと] 言っていると] 思っている。

(216) a.

Every boy thought that [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor] would be impossible.

b.

Every boy thought that it would be impossible [PRO to bring up the piano to the fifth floor].

#What makes the option of operator-movement available to a language?  Agreement-less property: if pro enters an Agree relation with a functional head like T, then this somehow prevents it from undergoing operator movement. (217) a. *Someone who John expected t would be successful though believing that e is incompetent. b.*?Someone who John expected t would be successful though believing e is incompetent.

(Chomsky 1982, p. 53)

(218) a. *Mary is hard for me [to believe that t kissed John]. b.*?Mary is hard for me [to believe t kissed John]. (219)

(Cinque 1990, p. 105-6)

Pro must undergo operator movement at least as far as the Spec of the CP immediately dominating the A-domain for it.

(220)

The A-domain for α is the maximal category in which α could undergo A-movement.

(221)

Pro/PRO can take a “long-distance” antecedent iff it can be interpreted as generic. 23

#Can PRO function as a null topic? - Bresnan (1982): “‘PRO’ does have the capacity to refer independently to specific extrasentential referents.” (p. 328) (222) a.

Mary was happy and excited. To have involved herself in the group was a risky action. But it was proving that she could change her life.

b.

Tom felt sheepish. Pinching those elephants was foolish. He shouldn’t have done it.

c.

She sighed and looked around the empty room. It was unclear what to do with herself now that Molly was gone.

(223)

I think that killing himself was a terrible mistake.

(224) a.

John is easy to please.

b.

a man to talk to

c.

I bought a book to read.

(225)

Which article did you file without reading?

(226) a.

Whether to carry Case

b. (227) a. b.

How to be licensed John(pro)1 is easy [CP t’1 [TP PRO to please t1]] a man(pro)1 [CP t’1 [TP PRO to talk to t1]]

c. I bought a book(pro)1 [CP t’1 [TP PRO to read t1]] (228)

An invisible argument XP cannot move across a visible argument YP if the position occupied by YP is a possible landing site for XP-movement.

☞ ProOP needs to be licensed in an operator position; and (i) it must initiate a predicate structure that is subject to the rules of predication, a la Williams (1980). (ii) the resulting A’-chain must be able to undergo chain composition with the chain of the real gap, a la Chomsky (1986) and Browning (1987). 5. 5.1.

A Movement Theory of Reflexives Lexical Ambiguity of Zibun: Pure Anaphor or Logophor

- Abe (1997): as a pure anaphor, zibun obeys the requirements given in (229) and as a logophor it obeys the requirement given in (230): (229) a. b.

the c-command requirement the Specified Subject Condition (SSC) 24

(230)

It requires its antecedent to take a point of view from which a given sentence is uttered.

☞ This requirement derives the awareness condition on zibun observed by Kuno (1972, 1973): (231)

ジョン 1 は [彼/*自分 1 を殺した] その男と前に会ったことがあった。

☞ Such an awareness condition is not observed when zibun is locally bound: (232)

メアリ 1 はジョンに自分 1 の家で殺された。

 Zibun shows such a logophoric property as the awareness condition only in the context in which it cannot be a pure anaphor due to the SSC. - The de se reading of zibun: (233) みゆき 1 は自分 1 の父親を愛している。 (234) a. b.

みゆき 1 は [自分 1 の父親が最高だと] 思っている。 みゆき 1 は [陽一が自分 1 の父親を嫌っていると] 思っている。

- The statue reading of zibun: (235)

メアリ 1 が自分 1 をなでていた。

(236) a. ジョン 1 は [pro1 [自分 1 が部屋の真ん中に立っているの]を見て] 笑った。 b. ジョン 1 は [pro1 [メアリが自分 1 をなでているの]を見て] 笑った。 (?*statue reading)  The statue reading is available only to pure anaphors; logophors by their nature need to act, along with their antecedents, as holders of points of view from which given sentences are uttered. - The c-command requirement on zibun: (237) a.

ジョン 1 は自分 1 の妻を愛している。

b. *自分 1 の妻がジョン 1 を愛している。 (238)

[[よし子が自分 1 を憎んでいる] こと]がみち子 1 を絶望へ追いやった。

 (238) can be taken as an assertion made by Mitiko’s point of view, one expressing her ‘internal feeling’ to use Kuno’s (1973) terminology. 5.2. (239)

A Movement Theory of Zibun The pure anaphor zibun is involved in A-movement while the logophor zibun is involved in A’-movement. 25

(240) *ジョン 1 は e1 嫌っている。 (241)

When an A-chain C = (a1, …, an) carries more than one Case, extra Cases must be phonetically realized, where an extra Case is one that is assigned/checked in a position other than a1.

(242)

ジョン 1 は自分 1 を嫌っている。

(243)

ジョン 1 は [pro1 頭が悪いと] 思っている/言っている。

(244)

ジョン 1 は [自分 1 が頭が悪いと] 思っている/言っている。

(245)

ZibunA may be inserted into the tail position of the A-chain produced by pro-movement.

 Given this characterization of zibunA, we can derive the SSC effect of zibunA from the MCL. (246)

ジョン 1 は[メアリが自分 1 を嫌っていると]思っている。

(247)

メアリ 1 はジョンに自分 1 の家で殺された。

(248)

みゆき 1 は [自分 1 の父親が最高だと] 思っている。

 Under the present movement theory, the c-command requirement on zibunA will be attributed to that on the movement involved. (249)

ZibunL may be inserted into the tail position of the A’-chain produced by pro-movement.

(250) a.

__ [CP pro1 [TP メアリが pro1 嫌っている]と] 思っている (operator movment of pro)

b.

pro1 [CP pro1 [TP メアリが pro1 嫌っている]と] 思っている (A-movement of pro)

c.

ジョン 1 は [CP pro1 [TP メアリが自分 1 を嫌っている]と] 思っている (overlay of John-wa in the top of the chain and of zibunL-o in its tail)

☞ The CP whose Spec pro moves to corresponds to the domain whose proposition is expressed from the point of view taken by the antecedent of zibunL. (251)

[[よし子が自分 1 を憎んでいる] こと]がみち子 1 を絶望へ追いやった。

(252)

The link produced by sideward movement cannot constitute part of an operator-variable chain.

(253)

[[よし子が自分 1 を憎んでいる] こと]が誰も 1 を絶望へ追いやった。

 I suggest, following Torrego’s (2002) idea, that experiencer phrases can undergo covert movement to the Spec of a head called P in which the referents of these phrases serve as point-of-view holders. 26

(254) a. [DP[CP pro1 [TP よし子が pro1 憎んでいる]] こと]が pro 絶望へ追いやった (operator movement of pro) b. [PP pro1 [DP[CP pro1 [TP よし子が pro1 憎んでいる]] こと]が pro1 絶望へ… (ATB-movement of pro) c. [PP pro1 [DP[CP pro1 [TP よし子が自分 1 を憎んでいる]] こと]がみち子 1 を絶 望へ …

(overlay of zibunL and Mitiko)

- Island insensitivity: (255)

ジョン 1 は [自分 1 が教えている] 学生と結婚したがっているよ。

 Abe (1997) agrees with Kuroda (1973) in his observation, contrary to Kuno’s (1972), that the referent of zibun does not have to be aware of the fact that the student that he wants to marry is among the students that he is teaching. (256) a. pro1 [pro1 教えている] 学生と結婚したがっているよ(A-movement of pro) b. ジョン 1 は [自分 1 が教えている] 学生と結婚したがっているよ (overlay of John-wa onto the top copy of pro and of zibun-ga onto its bottom copy)  Pro-movement is island-insensitive when the tail position of the resulting chain is overlaid by zibun. (257)

誰も 1 が [pro1 そこで会った] 学生と結婚したがっている。

(258)

NP [island [CP pro [TP pro …]]] …

 The insertion of zibun serves as a repaire strategy for island violations, just like the repair strategy by overt pronoun. (259) a.??ジョン 1 は [メアリが [pro1 歌う] 声を非常に気に入っていると] 思っ ている。 b.?*ジョン 1 は [メアリが [pro1 書いた] 本を読んでいないと] 言った。 (260) a.

ジョン 1 は [メアリが [自分 1 が歌う] 声を非常に気に入っていると] 思っている。

b. ジョン 1 は [メアリが [自分 1 が書いた] 本を読んでいないと] 言った。

27

(261) a. __ [CP pro1 [TP メアリが [pro1 歌う] 声を非常に気に入っている]と] … (operator movement of pro) b. pro1 [CP pro1 [TP メアリが [pro1 歌う] 声を非常に気に入っている]と] … (A-movement of pro) c. ジョン 1 は [CP pro1 [TP メアリが [自分 1 が歌う] 声を非常に気に入って いる]と] … (overlay of John-wa onto the top copy of pro and of zibun-ga onto its bottom copy)

5.3.

Multiple Occurrences of Zibun 太郎は [花子が自分の部屋で自分の仕事をしていたと] 言った。

(262)

(Howard and Niyekawa-Howard 1976, p. 230)  The two occurrences of zibun refer to the same person, either Taroo or Hanako. (263) a.

太郎は [CP [TP pro1 [pro1 部屋]で[pro1 仕事]をしていた]と] 言った (ATB-movement of pro)

b.

太郎は [CP [TP 花子 1 が [自分 1 の部屋]で[自分 1 の仕事]をしていた] … (overlay of Hanako-ga onto the top copy of pro and of zibunA-no onto its two bottom copies)

(264) a.

__ [CP pro1 [TP 花子が [pro1 部屋]で [pro1 仕事]をしていた]と] 言った (ATB-movement of pro into the embedded Spec-CP)

b.

pro1 [CP pro1 [TP 花子が [pro1 部屋]で [pro1 仕事]をしていた]と] 言った (A-movement of pro to the matrix subject position)

c.

太郎 1 は [CP pro1 [TP 花子が [自分 1 の部屋]で [自分 1 の仕事]を… (overlay of Taroo-wa onto the top copy of pro and of zibunL-no onto its two bottom copies)

(265) *[CP pro1/2 [TP pro2/1 [pro1 部屋]で [pro2 仕事]をしていたと] - The prohibition against a mixed insertion of zibunA and zibunL: (266)

ZibunA cannot be inserted in the point-of-view domain of zibunL.

(267)

太郎は [自分の部屋で花子が自分の仕事をしていたと] 言った。

 Unlike (262), this sentence has the reading on which the first occurrence of zibun refers to Taroo whereas the second refers to Hanako.

28

(268) a.

[CP [TP [pro1 部屋]で [TP pro2 [pro2 仕事]をしていた]]と] (A-movement of pro2 to the embedded subject position)

b.

[CP [TP [pro1 部屋]で [TP 花子 2 が [自分 2 の仕事]をしていた]]と] (overlay of Hanako-ga onto the top copy of pro2 and of zibunA-no onto its bottom copy)

c.

pro1 [CP[TP [pro1 部屋]で[TP 花子 2 が[自分 2 の仕事]をしていた]]と]]言った (A-movement of pro1 to the matrix subject position)

d.

太郎 1 は [CP [TP [自分 1 の部屋]で[TP 花子 2 が[自分 2 の仕事]を… (overlay of Taroo-wa onto the top copy of pro1 and of zibunA-no onto its bottom copy)

(269)

ジョン 1 は [[自分 1 が好きな] 友達]2 が自分 1,2 の同僚をいじめたと] 聞い た。

(270) a.

[CP [TP pro2 [pro2 同僚]をいじめた]と] (A-movement of pro2 to the embedded subject position)

b.

[CP [TP [pro1 好きな友達]が [自分 2 の同僚]をいじめた]と] (overlay of [pro1 sukina tomodati]-ga onto the top copy of pro2 and of zibunA-no onto its bottom copy)

c.

pro1 [CP [TP [pro1 好きな友達]が [自分 2 の同僚]をいじめた]と] 聞いた (A-movement of pro1 to the matrix subject position)

d.

ジョン 1 は [CP [TP [自分 1 の好きな友達]が [自分 2 の同僚]をいじめた]… (overlay of John-wa onto the top copy of pro1 and of zibunA-no onto its bottom copy)

(271) *その記者 1 はオバマ 2 から [自分 1 の同僚が自分 2 の副大統領を賞賛して いると] 聞いた。 (272) a.

[CP pro2 [TP [pro1 同僚]が [pro2 副大統領]を賞賛している]と] (A’-movement of pro2)

b.

pro1 pro2 から [CP pro2 [TP [pro1 同僚]が [pro2 副大統領]を… (A-movement of pro1 and pro2)

c. * pro1 pro2 から [CP pro2 [TP [自分 1 の同僚]が [自分 2 の副大統領]を… (insertion of zibunA-no into the bottom copy of pro1 and of zibunL-no into the bottom copy of pro2) 29

(273) a.

[CP pro1, pro2 [TP [pro1 同僚]が [pro2 副大統領]を賞賛している]と] ... (A’-movement of pro1 and pro2)

b.

pro1 pro2 から[CP pro1, pro2 [TP [pro1 同僚]が [pro2 副大統領]を… (A-movement of pro1 and pro2)

c.* pro1 pro2 から[CP pro1, pro2 [TP [自分 1 の同僚]が [自分 2 の副大統領]を… (insertion of zibunL-no into the bottom copy of pro1 as well as into the bottom copy of pro2)  At the stage of (273a) the intermediate step of operator movement of pro1 will not be superfluous, since it will furnish insertion of zibunL instead of zibunA, thereby changing the semantic role of its referent into a point-of-view holder.  The derivation given in (273) will be ruled out by the natural condition that forces a unique point of view in a given domain; call it Unique Point-of-View Condition. (274) *オバマ 1 はその記者 2 から [自分 1 の同僚が自分 2 の副大統領を賞賛して いると] 聞いた。 (275)

ジョンは[ビルが自分の弟に[自分が天才だと]言ったと]思っている。 (Zushi 2001, p. 335)

 This sentence is OK with the reading where the first zibun refers to John and the second one refers to Bill, though Zushi (2001) claims that the opposite reading is also possible. (276)

[CP pro1 [TP pro2 [pro2 弟]に [CP pro1 [TP pro1 天才だ]と] 言った]と]

 In this representation, zibunA cannot be inserted in the tail position of the resulting A-chain of pro2 without violating (266) if at the same time zibunL is inserted into the tail position of the resulting A’-chain of pro1. (277)

[CP pro1 [TP pro2 [pro1 弟]に [CP [TP pro2 天才だ]と] 言った]と]

 This derivation would lead to a violation of (266). 30

(278)

[CP pro1 [TP pro2 [pro1 弟]に [CP pro2 [TP pro2 天才だ]と] 言った]と]

 In this representation, the tail positions of the two resulting chains are both overlaid by zibunL.  These two occurrences of zibunL take different point-of-view domains: one overlaid onto the tail position of pro1 takes the whole CP as its point-of-view domain whereas the other takes the embedded CP as its point-of-view domain. (279) a.

メアリは [ビルが彼女の弟に [自分の娘が浮気していると] 言ったと] 聞いて驚いた。

b.

メアリは [ビルが自分の弟に [自分の娘が浮気していると] 言ったと] 聞いて驚いた。

 (279b) differs from (279a) in that Bill must be aware that the woman that had an affair was in fact his daughter. (280) a.

メアリは [ビルが彼女の弟に [自 分 が裸で立っていると] 言ったと] 聞いて驚いた。

b.

メアリは [ビルが自 分 の弟に [自 分 が裸で立っていると] 言ったと] 聞いて驚いた。

5.4. (281)

(?*statue reading)

Multiple Occurrences of Generic Zibun 自分が勝つことが重要である。

(282) a.

自分が友達を助けることが重要である。

b.

友達が自分を助けることが重要である。

(283) a.

(no generic reading of zibun)

proarb 友達を助けることが重要である。

b. 友達が proarb 助けることが重要である。 (284)

Pro can be assigned generic interpretation when it becomes an operator.

(285)

ZibunA may be inserted into the tail position of the A’-chain headed by a generic operator.

(286)

ZibunA may be inserted into the tail position T of the A’-chain headed by a generic operator only if there is no possible A-chain available that could be produced from T.

(287)

[CP pro1 [TP 友達が pro1 助ける]]

31

(288)

友達が自分を助けてくれることが重要である。

(289)

Either zibunA or zibunL may be inserted into the tail position of the A’-chain headed by a generic operator.

(290) a.

John1 tried [PRO1 to leave].

b.

John persuaded Mary1 [PRO1 to leave].

c.

John1 killed someone [PRO1 to get insurance money].

(291) a. *John tried [PROarb to leave]. b. *John persuaded Mary [PROarb to leave]. c. *John killed someone [PROarb to get insurance money]. (292)

An invisible argument XP cannot move across a visible argument YP if the position occupied by YP is a possible landing site for XP-movement.

- Covaluation of multiple occurrences of zibun in generic readings: (293)

自分が試合に勝つことは、自分が試合に負けることを必要とする。

(294)

pro 試合に勝つことは、pro 試合に負けることを必要とする。

(295)

When more than one instance of pro occupies the Spec of the same CP, they are merged into one.

(296)

[CP pro [TP [pro 試合に勝つこと]は [pro 試合に負けること]を必要とする]]

(297)

[pro [pro 試合に勝つこと]を要求すること]は [pro [pro 試合に負けること] を要求すること]を必要とする。

 The subject of winning can be different from that of losing. (298)

Pro must undergo operator movement at least as far as the Spec of the CP immediately dominating the A-domain for it.

(299)

The A-domain for α is the maximal category in which α could undergo A-movement.

(300)

[CP1 pro1 [TP1 [[CP2 pro2 [TP2 pro1 [pro2 試合に勝つこと]を要求する]]こと] …

[[CP3 pro3 [TP3 pro1 [pro3 試合に負けること]を要求する]] こと]を必要とする]]

32

(301)

[pro [自分が試合に勝つこと]を要求すること]は [pro [自分が試合に負け ること]を要求すること]を必要とする。

 The two occurrences of zibun must be the same. At the same time, they must take the same value as the upper pro’s.  In (300), insertion of zibunA into the tail positions of the A’-chains produced by operator movement of pro2 and pro3 is prohibited by condition (286). (302)

[CP1 pro1 [TP1 [[CP2 [TP2 pro1 [pro2 試合に勝つこと]を要求する]] こと]は

[[CP3 [TP3 pro1 [pro3 試合に負けること]を要求する]] こと]を必要とする]]

(303)

[pro [pro 試合に勝つこと]を要求すること]は [pro [pro 試合に負けること] を要求するの]と同じくらい重要である。

 The two subjects of requesting can refer to different persons. (304)

[CP1 pro1 [TP1 [[CP2 [TP2 pro1 [pro2 試合に勝つこと]を要求する]] こと]は [PP pro3 [[CP3 [TP3 pro3 [pro4 試合に負けること]を要求する]] の]と] …

(305)

[pro [自分が試合に勝つこと]を要求すること]は [pro [自分が試合に負け ること]を要求するの]と同じくらい重要である。

 The two occurrences of zibun can be different. (306)

[自分が勝つこと]が [友達が自分を救う] ことを可能にする。

 This example is interpreted in such a way that the first occurrence of zibun functions as generic and the second occurrence of zibun refers to tomodati. (307)

[自分が勝つこと]が [友達が自分を救ってくれる] ことを可能にする。

(308)

[CP1 pro1 [TP1 [pro1 勝つこと]が [CP2 pro2 [TP2 友達が pro2 救ってくれる…

(309)

[pro 勝つこと]が [友達が pro 救ってくれる] ことを可能にする。

 This sentence can be interpreted as such that for any person x, y, that x will win makes it possible for y’s friend to save y.  On the other hand, (307) does not allow such a reading but rather demands that the two occurrences of generic zibun covary in their semantic values. 33

(310)

[pro 勝つこと]が [友達が自分を救ってくれる] ことを可能にする。

 When zibunL is inserted into the A’-chain of pro2 in (308), the pro2 in Spec-CP uniquely functions as the marker of the point-of-view domain for the referent of zibunL, so that it needs to be anchored to an independent generic operator, the pro1 in the matrix Spec-CP in the present case. References Abe, Jun (1992). ‘The Nature of Anaphors and Distributivity’, ms., University of Connecticut, Storrs. Abe, Jun (1997). ‘The Locality of Zibun and Logophoricity’, Report for Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research. Chiba: Kanda University of International Studies, 595-626. Abe, Jun (2009). ‘Identification of Null Arguments in Japanese’, in H. Hoshi (ed), The Dynamics of the Language Faculty: Perspectives from Linguistics and Cognitive Neuroscience. Tokyo: Kuroshio Publishers, 135-162. Borer, Hagit (1989). ‘Anaphoric AGR’, in O. Jaeggli and K.J. Safir (eds), The Null Subject Parameter. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 69-109. Browning, Margaret (1987). Null Operator Constructions, Doctoral dissertation, MIT. Chomsky, Noam (1982). Some Concepts and Consequences of the Theory of Government and Binding. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Chomsky, Noam (1986). Barriers. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Chomsky, Noam and Howard Lasnik (1993). ‘The Theory of Principles and Parameters’, in J. Jacobs, A. von Stechow, W. Sternefeld, and T. Vennemann (eds), Syntax: An International Handbook of Contemporary Research. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 506-69. Cinque, Guglielmo (1990). Types of A’ Dependencies. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Ferreira, Marcelo (2004). ‘Hyperraising and Null Subjects in Brazilian Portuguese’, in MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 47: Collected Papers on Romance Syntax, 57-85. Ferreira, Marcelo (2009). ‘Null Subjects and Finite Control in Brazilian Portuguese’, in J. Nunes (ed), Minimalist Essays on Brazilian Portuguese Syntax. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 17-49. Hasegawa, Nobuko (1984/5). ‘On the So-Called ‘Zero Pronouns’ in Japanese’, The Linguistic Review 4, 289-341. 34

Heim, Irene, Howard Lasnik and Robert May (1991). ‘Reciprocity and Plurality’, Linguistic Inquiry 22, 63-101. Holmberg, Anders (2005). ‘Is There a Little Pro? Evidence from Finnish’, Linguistic Inquiry 36, 533-564. Hornstein, Norbert (1999). ‘Movement and Control’, Linguistic Inquiry 30, 69-96. Hornstein, Norbert (2001). Move!: A Minimalist Approach to Construal. Oxford: Blackwell. Huang, C.-T. James (1982). Logical Relations in Chinese and the Theory of Grammar. Doctoral dissertation, MIT. Huang, C.-T. James (1984). ‘On the Distribution and Reference of Empty Pronouns’, Linguistic Inquiry 15, 531-574. Kim, Soowon (1999). ‘Sloppy/Strict Identity, Empty Objects, and NP Ellipsis’, Journal of East Asian Linguistics 8, 255-284. Kuno, Susumu (1972). ‘Pronominalization, Reflexivization, and Direct Discourse’, Linguistic Inquiry 3, 161-195. Kuno, Susumu (1973). The Structure of the Japanese Language. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Kuno, Susumu (1976). ‘Subject Raising’, in M. Shibatani (ed), Syntax and Semantics 5: Japanese Generative Grammar. New York: Academic Press, 17-49. Kuroda, S.-Y. (1973). ‘On Kuno’s Direct Discourse Analysis of the Japanese Reflexive Zibun’, Papers in Japanese Linguistics 2, 136-147. Lebeaux, David (1984). ‘Anaphoric Binding and the Definition of PRO’, in C. Jones and P. Sells (eds), Proceedings of North Eastern Linguistic Society 14. Amherst, Mass.: GLSA, University of Massachusetts. Li, Charles N. and Sandra A. Thompson (1976). ‘Subject and Topic: A New Typology of Language’, in C.N. Li (ed), Subject and Topic. New York: Academic Press, 457-489. Manzini, Maria Rita (1983). ‘On Control and Control Theory’, Linguistic Inquiry 14, 421-446. Montalbetti, Mario M. (1984). After Binding: On the Interpretation of Pronouns. Doctoral dissertation, MIT. Oku, Satoshi (1998). A Theory of Selection and Reconstruction in the Minimalist Perspective. Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut. 35

Rodrigues, Cilene (2002). ‘Morphology and Null Subjects in Brazilian Portuguese’, in D. Lightfoot (ed), Syntactic Effects of Morphological Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 160-178. Rodrigues, Cilene (2004). Impoverished Morphology and A-Movement out of Case Domains. Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland. Rosenbaum, Peter (1967). The Grammar of English Predicate Complement Constructions. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Saito, Mamoru (1985). Some Asymmetries in Japanese and Their Theoretical Implications. Doctoral dissertation, MIT. Taraldsen, K. Tarald (1978). ‘On the NIC, Vacuous Application and the That-Trace Filter’, ms., MIT. Uchibori, Asako (2000). The Syntax of Subjunctive Complements: Evidence from Japanese. Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut. Uchibori, Asako (2001). ‘Raising out of CP and C-T Relations’, in M.C. Cuervo, D. Harbour, K. Hiraiwa, and S. Ishihara (eds), Proceedings of Formal Approaches to Japanese Linguistics 3, MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 41, 145-162. Vainikka, Anne and Yonata Levy (1999) ‘Empty Subjects in Finnish and Hebrew’, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 17, 613-671. Williams, Edwin (1980). ‘Predication’, Linguistic Inquiry 11, 203-238. Zushi, Mihoko (2001). Long-Distance Dependencies. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.

36

Locality of pro_日本語.pdf

Page 1 of 36. 1. Basic Issues on Null Arguments in Japanese. 阿部潤. 東北学院大学. 2013å¹´12月14日. 慶應言語学コロキアム. 1. How Are Null Arguments ...

400KB Sizes 0 Downloads 40 Views

Recommend Documents

EXPLOITING LOCALITY
Jan 18, 2001 - memory. As our second solution, we exploit a simple, yet powerful principle ... vide the Web servers, network bandwidth, and content.

The Data Locality of Work Stealing - Carnegie Mellon School of ...
work stealing algorithm that improves the data locality of multi- threaded ...... reuse the thread data structures, typically those from the previous step. When a ...

The Data Locality of Work Stealing - Carnegie Mellon School of ...
running time of nested-parallel computations using work stealing. ...... There are then two differences between the locality-guided ..... Pipelining with fu- tures.

The Data Locality of Work Stealing - Carnegie Mellon School of ...
Department of Computer Sciences. University of Texas at Austin .... race-free computation that can be represented with a series-parallel dag [33]. ... In the second class, data-locality hints supplied by the programmer are used in thread ...

Wh-Movement, Licensing and the Locality of Feature ...
the checking domain relevant for the licensing of wh-features is actually ... checking domains for wh-elements in these languages have different values,.

The Data Locality of Work Stealing - Semantic Scholar
Jan 22, 2002 - School of Computer Science ... Department of Computer Sciences ..... We also require that the dags have a single node with in-degree x , the ...

Locality of pro_日本語.pdf
There was a problem previewing this document. Retrying... Download. Connect more apps... Try one of the apps below to open or edit this item. Locality of pro_ ...

Locality-Based Aggregate Computation in ... - Semantic Scholar
The height of each tree is small, so that the aggregates of the tree nodes can ...... “Smart gossip: An adaptive gossip-based broadcasting service for sensor.

Regularized Locality Preserving Learning of Pre-Image ...
Abstract. In this paper, we address the pre-image problem in ... component space produced by KPCA. ... Reproducing Kernel Hilbert Space (RKHS) associated.

LOCALITY REGULARIZED SPARSE SUBSPACE ...
Kim, Jung Hee Lee, Sung Tae Kim, Sang Won Seo,. Robert W. Cox, Duk L. Na, Sun I. Kim, and Ziad S. Saad, “Defining functional {SMA} and pre-sma subre-.

Language Constructs for Data Locality - Chapel
Apr 28, 2014 - lower levels for greater degrees of control ..... codenames in advertising, promotion or marketing and any use of Cray Inc. internal codenames is ...

Language Constructs for Data Locality - Semantic Scholar
Apr 28, 2014 - Licensed as BSD software. ○ Portable design and .... specify parallel traversal of a domain's indices/array's elements. ○ typically written to ...

The Data Locality of Work Stealing - Semantic Scholar
Jan 22, 2002 - School of Computer Science. Carnegie ... Department of Computer Sciences. University of .... Locality-guided work stealing does significantly better than standard work ...... University of California at Berkeley, November 1989.

From Locality to Continent: A Comment on the ...
401$499$5491, fax: 401$863$1970. The research ... an experimental laboratory, in which full free$riding is a strictly dominant strategy, they contribute to a public ... schedules and classification results are found in on$line Appendix A. Result 1 ..

Locality Principle Revisited: A Probability-Based ...
levels of memory hierarchy, to optimize the cache architecture to effectively leverage the locality, and to examine the effect of data prefetching mechanisms. A GPU-based parallel algorithm is also presented to accelerate the locality computation for

Automated Locality Optimization Based on the ... - Semantic Scholar
applications string operations take 2 of the top 10 spots. ... 1, where the memcpy source is read again .... A web search showed 10 times more matches for optimize memcpy than for ..... other monitoring processes, such as debuggers or sandboxes. ...

Exploiting Locality in Quantum Computation for Quantum Chemistry
Nov 25, 2014 - where rA is the vector from a point A that defines the center of ...... approach, which we will call Hamiltonian averaging, and bound its costs in .... exponential decline in the quality of trial wave functions, as measured by overlap 

Locality-Oxford-Studies-In-Comparative-Syntax.pdf
Whoops! There was a problem loading more pages. Retrying... Whoops! There was a problem previewing this document. Retrying... Download. Connect more apps... Try one of the apps below to open or edit this item. Locality-Oxford-Studies-In-Comparative-S

Locality-Sensitive Hashing Scheme Based on Dynamic ...
4.1 Theory of Virtual Rehashing ..... Color The Color dataset contains 68,040 32-dimensional data objects, which are the color histograms of images in the.

Pedro Nuno de Souza Moura LSHSIM: A Locality ...
Sep 21, 2017 - September 2017. PUC-Rio - Certificação Digital Nº 1321844/CA ..... 1.1, honoring the well data and input distributions. In each realization, col-.

Hadoop Data Locality Change for Virtualization Environment ... - GitHub
This network topology is designed and work well for hadoop cluster running on physical server ... 1. Physical network is still hierarchical: rack switch, data center switch, etc. 2. Rack-awareness is still .... service (BlockManager). With clusterMap

Efficient Content Location Using Interest-Based Locality ...
Section VIII, and related work in Section IX. II. ... First, shortcuts are modular in that they can work with ..... participate in a Web content file-sharing system.