ACADEMIA ROMÂNĂ FILIALA CLUJ-NAPOCA

ROMANIAN ACADEMY CLUJ-NAPOCA BRANCH

ANUARUL INSTITUTULUI DE ISTORIE „GEORGE BARIŢIU” DIN CLUJ-NAPOCA

YEARBOOK OF “GEORGE BARIŢIU” INSTITUTE OF HISTORY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA

LIII SERIES HISTORICA 2014

EDITURA ACADEMIEI ROMÂNE THE PUBLISHING HOUSE OF THE ROMANIAN ACADEMY

COMITETUL DE REDACŢIE CEZARE ALZATI (prof., Universitatea din Milano) DENNIS DELETANT (prof., Universitatea din Londra) ANNELI UTE GABANYI (Berlin) ANDRÉ LIEBICH (prof., Universitatea din Geneva) IRINA LIVEZEANU (prof., Universitatea din Pittsburgh) PAUL E. MICHELSON (prof., Universitatea din Huntington) CAMIL MUREŞANU (Academia Română) JOACHIM VON PUTTKAMER (prof., Universitatea din Jena) STEFAN SIENERTH (prof., Universitatea din München) MORDEHAI TAMARKIN (prof., Universitatea din Tel Aviv) RAPHAEL VAGO (prof., Universitatea din Tel Aviv) KRISTA ZACH (München)

COLEGIUL DE REDACŢIE Acad. CAMIL MUREŞANU NICOLAE EDROIU (prof., Universitatea „Babeş-Bolyai”, Cluj-Napoca, director, membru corespondent al Academiei Române, redactor responsabil) LUCIAN NASTASĂ (prof. Monet, Universitatea „1 Decembrie 1918” Alba Iulia, secretar ştiinţific de redacţie) SUSANA ANDEA (cercetător ştiinţific I, Institutul de Istorie „G. Bariţiu”, Cluj) MIHAI DINU GHEORGHIU (prof., Universitatea „Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi) BOGDAN MURGESCU (prof., Universitatea din Bucureşti) HARALD HEPPNER (prof., Universitatea din Graz, Austria) KONRAD GÜNDISCH (prof., Universitatea din Oldenburg, Germania) VICTOR KARADY (prof., Universitatea Central Europeană, Budapesta, Ungaria) MANFRED REHBINDER (prof., Universitatea din Geneva, Elveţia) ZOLTÁN SZÁSZ (Academia Maghiară de Ştiinţe, Institutul de Istorie din Budapesta) NATALIA TIKHONOV (prof., Universitatea din Geneva, Elveţia) Print ISSN 1584-4390 online ISSN 2344-2093 ISSN-L 1584-4390 © Editura Academiei Române, 2014. EDITURA ACADEMIEI ROMÂNE Calea 13 Septembrie nr. 13, Sector 5 050711, Bucureşti, România Tel. +40-21-318 81 06, +40-21-318 81 46 Fax +40-21-318 24 44 e-mail: [email protected] web: www.ear.ro REDACŢIA: INSTITUTUL DE ISTORIE „GEORGE BARIŢIU” str. Kogălniceanu nr. 12-14, 400084, Cluj-Napoca, România, Tel. +40-264-59 83 43 e-mail: [email protected] www.history-cluj.ro

Cei care uită trecutul sunt condamnaţi să îl repete (George Santayana, 1863-1952)

„Anuarul Institutului de Istorie «George Bariţiu» din Cluj-Napoca” al Academiei Române este succesorul „Anuarului Institutului de Istorie Naţională din Cluj”, care apare începând cu anul 1921, fiind cel mai vechi periodic de istorie din România. Era publicaţia primului institut de istorie din ţară, creat în anul 1920, consecinţă a Marii Uniri din 1918. Privită în perspectivă cronologică, evoluţia „Anuarului” poate fi împărţită în patru etape importante:  1921-1945  1946-1957  1958-1989  1990-2013. Cu o longevitate de peste nouă decenii, „Anuarul” Institutului de Istorie din Cluj este primul periodic românesc de specialitate din Transilvania, creat din necesitatea diseminării rezultatelor cercetărilor nou-înfiinţatului Institut de Istorie Naţională din anul 1920. Apărea în atmosfera de optimism şi efervescenţă culturală de după Unirea din 1918. Asemeni institutului, publicaţia acestuia va fi periodicul prin intermediul căruia s-au finalizat rezultatele ştiinţifice ale membrilor Institutului şi totodată s-a dorit o şcoală de iniţiere şi consacrare ştiinţifică pentru tinerii istorici, fapt consemnat de înseşi întemeietorii lui. Potrivit viziunii profesorului Ioan Lupaş, primul director al Institutului de Istorie ce fiinţa pe lângă Universitatea Daciei Superioare, scopul era ca „tinerii care se vor pregăti şi vor lucra aici să poată aduce prin studii şi cercetări originale şi meritorii, partea lor de contribuţie la progresul istoriografiei naţionale”. Încă de la început, ritmicitatea apariţiei a fost stabilită la un an şi respectată pe cât posibil cu putinţă, graţie exigenţei redactorilor şefi: academicienii profesori Ioan Lupaş, Alexandru Lapedatu, Constantin Daicoviciu, Ştefan Pascu, ca şi conţinutul, de multe ori publicat în limbi de circulaţie internaţională sau însoţit întotdeauna de rezumate în limbi străine.

SUMAR

ISTORIA MECANISMELOR DEMOCRATICE OVIDIU IACOB, Reformele religioase ale lui Alexandru Ioan Cuza ................................ 19 VLAD POPOVICI, The Electoral Process in the Banat (1861–1918). Statistics. Evolution. Prosopography............................................................................ 31 ANGELA RUS, Consideraţii privind adoptarea primelor reglementări cu caracter electoral din România postcomunistă. 1990-1996...................................................... 45 CLAUDIU MARIAN, Contextul istorico-politic italian în anii 1992-1993....................... 65 EDUCAŢIE ŞI ELITE ANDREI FLORIN SORA, Avatarurile unei instituţii de învăţământ particular: Şcoala Superioară de Ştiinţe de Stat, 1871-1948 ........................................................ 73 IRINA NASTASĂ-MATEI, Relaţiile culturale româno-germane în perioada 1933-1944. Acordurile culturale .................................................................................. 87 VASILE PUŞCAŞ, Philip E. Mosely şi Şcoala sociologică a lui Dimitrie Gusti .............. 99 MATEI GHEBOIANU, The functioning of entry requirements to Romanian higher education. Case study: history studies (1948-1989)...................................... 111 VALENTIN MAIER, Evoluţia instituţiilor muzicale de învăţământ superior din timpul regimului comunist ......................................................................................... 129 ISTORIE ŞI ECONOMIE IOSIF MARIN BALOG, Efectele socio-economice ale mineritului în „patrulaterul aurifer” al Apusenilor în perioada 1850-1914..................................... 151 RÓBERT NAGY, Industrializare şi dezvoltare regională în Valea Jiului în perioada 1867-1918 ..................................................................................................... 171 MARIUS BORZAN, Pădurile şi păşunile comunale din Sălaj în legea de reformă agrară din 1921............................................................................................................. 181 CULTURĂ, ISTORIE ŞI IDEOLOGIE SUSANA ANDEA, Actul scris şi valoarea lui probatorie în practica judiciară din Transilvania (sec. XIII-XIV)....................................................................................... 203

„Anuarul Institutului de Istorie «George Bariţiu» din Cluj-Napoca”, tom LIII, 2014, p. 5-15

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AVRAM ANDEA, Scripte şi dieci pe domeniile Făgăraş şi Gurghiu în secolul al XVII-lea ........................................................................................................................ 217 KURT SCHARR, Fondul religionar Greco-oriental din Bucovina – bătălie culturală şi construct naţional în oglinda unei instituţii ............................................ 229 ISTORIE MILITARĂ ŞI DIPLOMAŢIE TATIANA ONILOV, Armata operativă ţaristă de intervenţie în Imperiul Austriac şi în Transilvania la 1849 ............................................................................. 245 COSMIN ŞTEFAN DOGARU, Le projet du prince étranger. L’avènement de Charles de Hohenzollern – Sigmaringen au trône de Roumanie en 1866 .............. 261 FLAVIUS SOLOMON, În căutarea unei dinastii sau a unei republici. România în proiecţiile postbelice ale Puterilor Centrale şi ale Rusiei sovietice. .................... 271 ISTORIA SERVICIILOR SECRETE VERONICA TURCUŞ, ALEXANDRU IOAN HELTIANU, Un caz inedit de spionaj românesc în Italia (1955-1957): Teodor Verche, ataşatul de presă de la Ambasada României pe lângă Quirinale .......................................................... 285 VERONICA TURCUŞ, ŞERBAN TURCUŞ, Contribuţii diplomatice la biografia lui Ion Mihai Pacepa: prima tentativă de acreditare ................................. 303 DOCUMENTAR MARGARETA ASLAN, „Kirk Vezir” în corespondențele orientaliștilor Vámbéry Ármin și Goldziher Ignácz ......................................................................... 315 CLAUDIA DĂRĂBAN, Consideraţii demografice asupra armenilor din Gherla în perioada interbelică.................................................................................................. 339 LUCIAN NASTASĂ, O comemorare disputată. Asasinarea lui Nicolae Iorga şi mediul universitar ...................................................................................................... 349 MISCELLANEA ADRIANA BOGDAN, Istoria prin aplicaţii multimedia................................................... 375 RECENZII 1. Barbu Ştefănescu, Între pâini, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Academiei Române, Centrul de Studii Transilvane, 2012, 645 p. (Andrei Faur) ......401

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2. Ana Victoria Sima, Affirming Identity. The Romanian GreekCatholic Church at the Time of the First Vatican Council, Milano, Vita e Pensiero, 2013, 442 p. (Nicolae Bocşan) .......................................404 3. Marele Război în memoria bănăţeană (1914-1919), vol. I: antologie, ediţie, studii şi note de Valeriu Leu şi Nicolae Bocşan, colaboratori: Mihaela Bedecean şi Ionela Moscovici, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitară Clujeană, 2012; vol. II: Memoriile lui Pavel Jumanca, antologie, ediţie, studii şi note de Valeriu Leu, Nicolae Bocşan, Mihaela Bedecean, colaborator: Ionela Moscovici, Cluj-Napoca, Presa Universitară Clujeană, 2013 (Ioan Cârja) .......................................406 NOTE BIBLIOGRAFICE 1. Petre Beşliu Munteanu, Hermannstädter Spital und Spitalkirche, 13.-18. Jh./Spitalul şi Biserica spitalului din Sibiu, secolele XIIIXVIII. Hermannstadt/Sibiu, ”Honterus”, 2012, 292 pag.+ilustr. (Lidia Gross).............................................................................................411 2. Franz Zimmermann, Zeitbuch. Autobiographische Aufzeichnungen eines Hermannstädter Archivars (1875-1925), ediert von Harald Zimmermann, Böhlau Verlag, Köln, Weimar, Wien, 2013, 262 p. (Schriften zur Landeskunde Siebenbürgen, Bd. 34) (Lidia Gross) ..............................................................................................412 3. Arhim.Veniamin Micle, „Bolniţa Bistriţei” Mănăstire isihastă – Secolul al XIV-lea, Sfânta Mănăstire Bistriţa, Eparhia Râmnicului, 2012, 271 p. (Pr. Gh. Naghi) ....................................................................414 4. Ana Dumitran, Hegedűs Enikő, Vasile Rus, Fecioarele înlăcrimate ale Transilvaniei. Preliminarii la o istorie ilustrată a toleranţei religioase, Alba Iulia, Editura Altip, 2011, 422 p. (Pr. Gh. Naghi).........416 5. Verena Winiwarter, Martin Knoll, Umweltgeschichte, Verlag Böhlau Köln-Weimar-Wien 2007, UTB-Reihe Nr. 2521, 368 p. (Lorand Madly) ......................................................................................................418 6. Episcop Lucian Mic, Relaţiile Bisericii Ortodoxe Române din Banat cu Biserica Ortodoxă Sârbă în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea, Presa Universitară Clujeană-Editura Episcopiei Caransebeşului, 2013, 403 p + 5 planşe. (Pr. Gh. Naghi) ................................................................. 420 7. Sergiu Soica, „Nicolae Brînzeu şi dosarul din Arhiva CNSAS. Povestea unui eroism discret”, Târgul Lăpuş, Editura Galaxia Gutenberg, 2013, 408 pagini (Claudia Daraban) ......................................423

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8. Ioan Boroş, Memorialistica, Studiu introductiv, ediţie şi note de Nicolae Bocşan, Valeriu Leu, Ion Cârja, Costin Feneşan, Cristian Sabău, Presa Universitară Clujeană, 2012, 375 p. (Pr. Gh. Naghi) .........424 9. Bogdan Briscu, Moţii şi luptele lor la 1848-1849. Cu anexe (biografii, glosar, bibliografie, indici), Ediţie îngrijită şi glosar: Ela Cosma, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Argonaut, 2012, 300 p. (Ela Cosma) ........428 10. Enache Tuşa, Imaginar politic şi identităţi colective în Dobrogea, Bucureşti, Editura Institutului de Ştiinţe Politice şi Relaţii Internaţionale, 2011, 522 p. (Vlad Popovici) ...........................................429 11. Asasinările în masă din RASSM în perioada Marii Terori. Documentele desecretizate din Arhivele MAI şi SIS ale Republicii Moldova. Editori: Ion Varta, Tatiana Varta, Igor Şarov, Chişinău, Editura Cartdidact, 2010, 710 p. (Varga Levente) ....................................431 12. Igor Caşu, Igor Şarov (Editori), Republica Moldova. De la Perestroikă la Independenţă 1989-1991. Editori: Igor Caşu, Igor Şarov. Chişinău, Editura Cartdidact, 2011, 637 p. (Varga Levente) .......433 13. Dietrich Eichholtz, Deutsche Ölpolitik im Zeitalter der Weltkriege. Studien und Dokumente, unter Mitarbeit von Titus Kockel, Leipzig, Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2010, 586 p. (Ottmar Traşcă) ....................434 14. Marcela Sălăgean Introducere în istoria contemporană a României, Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca, 2013, 200p. (Mihai Croitor) .....................................................................................................436 15. Victor Neumann şi Armin Heinen (Editor), Key-Concepts of Romanian History. Alternative Approaches to Socio-Political Languages, Budapesta-New York, CEU Press, 2013 (Cristian Roiban) .................................................................................................... 437 16. Grigore Ploeşteanu, Sentimentul istoriei, Studii, articole, note, interviuri. Ediţie îngrijită de Mariana Ploeşteanu Prefaţă de Valentin Marica, Editura Veritas, Târgu- Mureş, 2011, 591 p. (Pr. Gh. Naghi) .....440 17. Zoltan Györke, Prefectura judeţului Cluj (1923-1938), Cluj-Napoca, Editura Mega, 2013, 257 p. (Bianca Felseghi) .........................................442 18. Csucuja István, Sokarcú örökség. Tanulmányok, laudációk, gyászbeszédek (Traducere în limba română: Multipla moştenire. Studii, laudaţiuni, discursuri funerare), Kolozsvár, Kriterion Könyvkiadó, 2012, 228 p. (Ludovic Báthory) ..........................................444

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19. Volker Wollmann, Patrimoniu preindustrial şi industrial în România. Vol. II, 2011, 390 p; Vol. III, 2012, 436 p.; Sibiu-Hermannstadt, Editura Honterus Verlag (Ludovic Báthory) ............................................... 446 REVISTA REVISTELOR „Archiva Moldaviae”, Iaşi, II (2010), 465 p; III (2011), 476 p.; IV (2012), 545 p. (Ottmar Traşcă) ............................................................................................................ 453 „Annales historici Presovienses”, vol. 8/2008, 9/2009, 10/2010 ISSN 1336-7528 (Radu Mârza) ............................................................................................................... 453 VIAŢA ŞTIINŢIFICĂ Manifestări ştiinţifice organizate de Institutul de Istorie „George Bariţiu” în anul 2013............................................................................................................................... 457 Activităţile Şcolii Doctorale – SCOSAAR – Filiala Cluj-Napoca. ISTORIE în anul 2013 ...................................................................................................................... 460 CENTENAR Ştefan PASCU (1914-1998) (Nicolae Edroiu) .................................................................... 467 Ileana BOZAC (1914-2000) (Lucia Pavel).......................................................................... 473

THE FUNCTIONING OF ENTRY REQUIREMENTS TO ROMANIAN HIGHER EDUCATION. CASE STUDY: HISTORY STUDIES (1948-1989) Matei Gheboianu* Abstract: In the following, we analyze the admission requirements to higher education, specialization history, in the History Faculties of the Universities of Bucharest, Cluj and Iasi. In the early 1950s, admission to higher education and especially history specialization was drastically controlled, given that this area was considered as one ideological. During this period, in most cases, the „file” of the would-be candidate was more important than his/her level of knowledge. In 1957, the Council of Ministers adopted the Decision no. 1003 of July 10, which provided an increased number of students coming from families of workers and poor peasants up to the percentage of 70-75% and. Thus, the aforementioned returns the study of the "file" in the admission exam for the candidates. Gradually, the importance of the candidate’s "file" decreased, being replaced entirely by knowledge examinations. Thus, in the mid and late 1960s degree graduates of technical secondary schools, with baccalaureate exam or its equivalent, could present to the admission exams for higher education. In the 1970s and 1980s, for the admission competition to higher education concerning extramural courses and evening courses could register candidates that "prove that are employed", besides the aforementioned conditions. Starting with the academic year 1977/78, the Education Ministry decided to replace history with a double specialization ”history – philosophy". This change was accompanied by the merger of the two faculties at the main universities of Romania (Bucharest, Cluj, Iaşi). This measure proved to be an uninspired decision, which pointed in a documentary made by the Ministry of Education in 1989. Keywords: history, admission, students, social structure, gender.

During the communist period, the Romanian education system has undergone a series of transformations, as a result of which it was desired to implement the ideology and the communist state vision. This paper will hereinafter analyse the structure of the admissions in the higher education system, specialization history within the profile faculties, from Bucharest, Cluj and Iaşi universities. The research for this article was conducted with the Archive of the National Education Ministry, Archive of the University of Bucharest, Archive of the National Institute of Statistics and National History Central Archives, fund of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party. In 1948, after the higher education reform, Iaşi University was restructured, and thus the History-Geography Faculty emerged, and its specializations were: Romania’s history, Old general history, Medieval general history, Modern general *

Asist. univ. dr., Universitatea din Bucureşti, Facultatea de Istorie; e-mail: [email protected] „Anuarul Institutului de Istorie «George Bariţiu» din Cluj-Napoca”, tom LIII, 2014, p. 111-128

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history and history of Art1. After only two years, the University was again restructured, and the Faculty of History was born, which was organized in two teaching departments, general history and Romanian history2. Starting with the university year 1951-1952, professors and students of Philosophy and Pedagogy-Psychology Faculties were transferred to the Faculty of History 3. From 1954, the faculty was called History-Philology, bringing together various specializations: history, philology, pedagogy, psychology, philosophy4. The following year, the faculty was called, for a short period of time, PhilologyHistory-Philosophy, thus becoming the largest faculty with Iaşi University5. After only two years the faculty underwent new transformations, and thus the Faculties of Philology and History-Philosophy that will function under this combination, with some changes of the teaching departments and sections’ profile, until the year 19896. During the same period, University of Bucharest underwent a series of changes regarding its structure, starting with the institution’s name, C. I. Parhon, until some faculties separated from it7 and a large number of professors were removed. Following the education system’s reform in 1948, the history department was reorganized which resulted in latter’s becoming attached to the Faculty of History-Geography8. In 1950, the said faculty was split into two independent faculties9, and thus the Faculty of History was born as an independent structure which would function under this form until 1977, when it was merged with the Faculty of Philosophy, and two double specializations were created: historyphilosophy and philosophy-history10. As regards the development of the institution, the Faculty of History went through several stages; in 1961-1962 this included the following teaching departments: Romanian history teaching department, history of the USSR and popular democracy countries, Antiquity universal history and archaeology teaching department, middle, modern and contemporary history teaching department, archival teaching department. In 1979, following the merger between the two faculties, two teaching departments of Romanian history and universal history appeared, and in 1989, after a decade of cuts and “shortages”, 1 Gheorghe Iacob, Alexandru Florin Platon (coord.), Istoria Universităţii din Iaşi, Iaşi, Printing House of the University “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, 2010, p. 526. 2 Ibidem, p. 527. 3 Ibidem p. 528. 4 Ibidem, p. 528. 5 Ibidem, p. 528-529. 6 Ibidem, p. 528. 7 See the case of the Faculty of Medicine. 8 Ovidiu, Bozgan, Universitatea din Bucureşti. Scurt istoric (infra: Universitatea din Bucureşti…) Bucharest, Printing House of Bucharest University, 1994, p. 112. 9 Ibidem, p. 112. 10 Ibidem, p. 132.

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there was only one teaching department, the one of Romanian history and universal history11. During the communist period, Cluj University underwent a series of transformations which were caused by the ideological and educational policy of the communist state. After the Second World War, Cluj University continued to function with its two entities, the Romanian one, receiving the name Victor Babeş and the Hungarian one. The Faculty of Letters and Philosophy, belonging to the University Victor Babeş, underwent a series of important changes, being organized in three distinct faculties: history, philology and philosophy12. The Faculty of history would include two sections: Romanian history and universal history, “to which numerous support sciences were added: archaeology, ethnography, study of Byzantium, historiography, palaeography, history of arts”13. Such faculty continued to operate with Bolyai University as well. In 1959, following the Communist Party’s policy of reinforcing its influence and the nationalist policy, measures were taken to unite the two universities into one entity. This process was presented as an action “tactfully and wisely lead by the party, to which participated both students and professors, ending with the unanimous decision of those interested to unify the two universities”14. The newly created University takes the names of the two entities, namely Babeş-Bolyai. Following this process, the organization structure of the University underwent a series of important changes. In most of the cases, the faculties with the same profile merged. In the newly created university, we find history with the Faculty of history-philosophy, which included four sections: Romanian history, universal history, philosophy and special phsycho-pedagogy15. The faculty continued to exist under this form until 1989. Starting with the university year 1977/1978, all faculties of history received the double specialization, history-philosophy16, that will function under this form until 1989. Following this decision, in any Romanian higher education institution, history was no longer taught as a sole specialization. Admission conditions During the four decades being analysed, the admission conditions went through various stages, in accordance with the communist state’s necessities of specialists in this field. In the early 1950s, the admission to the higher education 11

Ibidem, p. 132. Ştefan Pascu, Universitatea Babeş Bolyai din Cluj, Cluj, Dacia Cluj Printing, 1972, p. 35. 13 Ibidem, p. 35. 14 Ibidem, p. 38. 15 Ibidem, p. 40. 16 Measure deemed useless, please see below 12

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and mostly in the history specialization was drastically controlled, taking into consideration that this field was an ideological one. In 1948, after passing the new education law, the new admission conditions in the higher education were promoted: “Art. 6. – In order to register with this admission exam, candidates will submit with the Secretariat of the institution in question a form accompanied by the following documents: baccalaureate diploma or graduation certificate, birth certificate, citizenship certificate, health certificate and radioscopic chart. Art. 7. – In addition to the documents listed by Art. 6, sons of workers, sons of peasants and sons of civil or private servants, will present the following support documents: Sons of workers: Factory Committee certificate, indicating the position and class of employment in the parent’s collective employment agreement (with the endorsement of the Accounting Department) or the evidence that, although he/she is a worker, he/she temporarily holds another position. Sons of peasants: certificate signed by the mayor and by the notary, showing the land surface, the property of the parent or of the tutor, as well as their other incomes or the evidence that, although peasants, the parent temporarily holds another position. The certificate will be endorsed by the respective agricultural Union. Sons of public employees, registered with unions: the evidence issued by the respective institution, including the parent or the tutor’s class of employment in the collective employment agreement or the civil servants Status and the endorsement of the factory Committee or of the union. [...] The Faculties of history and geography: Written exam: Romanian history Oral exam: Romanian history, geography of P.R.R., Romanian language and literature, Constitution of the P.R.R.”17 As one notices from the presented requirements, along the diplomas certifying the graduation of a mandatory education cycle for registering for the admission exam for higher education, the file also had to mention data regarding the social and material status of the candidates’ parents. As such, the social environment from which they stemmed was significant for being granted the possibility of attending a faculty. At the same time, one may notice that the ideology of the time focused on three social categories from which the candidates could stem: sons of peasants, workers and public servers. During this regime, sons of intellectuals or sons of former free lancers no longer had the possibility of being granted access to high education. The History-Geography Faculty had two 17 Decision No. 264.402/1948 on introducing the exam for entering the 1 st year of universities and higher institutes in the Collection of laws, decrees and decisions, October1948, pp. 964-969.

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admission exams, a written one and an oral one, from the said subjects. The exam became ideological by introducing questions from the Constitution of the PRR, and in 1950, the Faculty of History with Bucharest University mentioned two tests: written test from the History of PRR and an oral test from the History of PRR and Universal History18. An information notice, drawn up by the Minister of Education, Mr Murgulescu, provided ways of improving the students’ social structure. In addition, it provided three social categories of possible candidates, who could proceed to the higher education: “At the admission in middle technical schools and faculties, the skills and love for study of the pupils and students were taken into consideration, and the social origin was determined by the following categories: 1st category: - sons of industrial workers - sons of agricultural workers, collectivist peasants, peasants with small and medium size households - sons of enlisted men - sons of engineers and technicians - sons of public employees and pensioners - sons of cooperative craftsmen 2nd category: - sons of small uncooperative craftsmen - sons of freelancers - sons of small merchants 3rd category: - sons of kulaks - sons of merchants, industrialists and other exploiters Sons of the war criminals, traitors, spies, saboteurs, etc., were not admitted in the medium schools and in the higher education. The Faculties of Philosophy, Pedagogy, Philology, History, General Economy, Law Sciences, “Maxim Gorki” Institute, Exterior Trade Institute, Faculty of Geology, only received candidates from the first category.[...] A good class composition in the first year was also realized by the Faculty of History with “Bolyai” University where workers’ sons accounted for up to 46%, as well as with the Faculty of Chemistry where workers’ sons accounted for up to 50%”19. From the communication made by the ministry of education we may draw the conclusion that the file continued to have a main role in the candidates being 18 Archive of the Rector’s Office with Bucharest University, fund Secretariat/Rector’s Office, registry No. 56/1956, No. 75267/1950 Norms for being admitted with high education institutions for the school year 1950/1951. 19 ANIC, PCM fund , file No. 651/1953, ff. 13-21.

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admitted thus disfavouring their actual knowledge. Many candidates declared admitted failed to meet the minimal requirements in particular the existence of a baccalaureate diploma or an equivalent thereof. At the same time, there were clear indications to “improve” the social structure of the ones declared admitted, and their focus was on the ones that came from families of workers. In 1956/1957, the Faculty of History, Bucharest University, a number of 3 students had applied and had been declared admitted, who enrolled for the seats of those who had a diploma and who were declared admitted without going through scientific discussions (graduates of a 10 years schooling program)20. In the mid1950s, these conditions became a little more relaxed, but this did not last for too long, due to the ideological effects imposed by the Hungarian Revolution, in 1956. The involvement of the Hungarian students in this event caused the Romanian communist state to adopt measures through which the students’ movement, but also the students’ social structure, could be controlled. In 1957, the Decision of the Council of Ministers No. 1003 dated 10 July was passed; this decision provided the increase of the number of students coming from families of workers and poor peasants up to 70-75% and the “purification” based on political criteria of professors, considered guilty for the students’ few number from the previous year21. As a consequence, they return to the study of candidates’ personal “file” for the admission exam. Thus, they introduced the scholarships of the People’s Councils and of the factories, granted to the sons of workers and peasants with a modest financial situation. Table 1: The social category of the students declares admitted with the Faculty of History, University of Bucharest, depending on the type of the admission exam Year

195722

1959

20

The type of admission 49 enrolled in the seats of People’s Councils (total 63) In the seats of People’s Councils Admitted after the enrolment in the faculty

Sons of workers

Sons of peasants Socialist sector

31

Individual households 17

Sons of public employees

Other groups

-

14

31

11

3

5

-

20

6

5

14

1

Archive of the Ministry of Education, File No. 247. Ioana Boca, Studenţii în anii 50 in Directory of the Romanian Institute of Recent History, volume I, 2002, Iaşi, Polirom, 2003, p. 210. P. 584. 22 Data collected from the student of the 1st year of study, after the first session of exams. The data presented in the table are taken from the Archive of the Ministry of Education. 21

7

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As one may notice from the table above, the number of students declared admitted on the seats granted to the People’s Councils and factories represented a significant share. In 1957, the year when this system was implemented, the number of those declared admitted accounted for 77.7%; the same share reflects the number of students coming from families of workers and peasants. In 1959, the share of those who benefited from this admission system continued to be above 50%, and in 1961, according to the education plan23, 50 seats were granted to those registered with People’s Councils and factories and 50 seats to those who applied for the faculty. After the education’s reform from 1962, this system was no longer valid. Gradually, the importance of the candidate’s “file” decreased, being totally replaced by the examination of one’s knowledge. Thus, in middle and at the end of the 60s, it was possible to participate at the admission in the higher education the “graduates” with a diploma from the middle technical schools, those with the baccalaureate exam or its equivalent, and in the extramural education working people who graduated from high school with baccalaureate diploma could apply”24. In the 1970s and the 1980s, at the admission exam for the higher education with evening time courses and low frequency, candidates who, besides the above mentioned conditions, “provide evidence that they are employed” could apply. Thus, the role of the evening courses and extramural education was to educate employees who were active in the field of work, and this process combined with the tendency of the communist state, especially in the 1980s, to reduce the number of students enrolled with daytime courses, to the detriment of those employed and the evening courses and low frequency. Another condition imposed on the departments of Philosophy, History and Legal Sciences, daytime courses and low frequency, was the following: “candidates may register for the admission exam only based on a recommendation issued by the party organization or youth organization of which they are a member of”25. Such requirement could not be compared to the candidate’s “file” in the 1950s, and it rather meant that candidates had to meet a requirement imposed by the fact that these specializations were deemed to have a high degree of ideology. Throughout the 40 years under analysis, the said faculties granted students the possibility of becoming specialized in several sub-fields, such as Ancient History, Medieval History, Modern History, Contemporary History, Archive sciences, History of Art. Along these specializations, for which students opted for during faculty, there was a period in the 1960s in which the admission exam 23

Archive of the National Education Ministry, File No. 441. “Admiterea în învăţământul superior, 1968” published by ”Revista Învăţământului superior”, Bucharest, 1968, p. 61. 25 “Admiterea în învăţământul superior, 1980” published by “Forum”, Bucharest, 1980, p. 50. 24

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8

provided seats for the specialization Romanian History and Universal History 26, while for the extramural studies, the only specialization we came across in the forms reported by the faculties with the ministry was Romanian History27. Another particularity of this period is reflected by the double specialization. History-Romanian Language, department usually encountered with the Faculty of History with Babeş Bolyai University28. Starting with the university year 1977/78, the ministry passes a resolution which eliminates “history” from the subjects, and was replaced by the double specialization “history – philosophy”. This change brought along the merger of the two Faculties, under the protection of Bucharest University29. Such measure proved to be unsubstantiated on the long term, which fact is even recorded in a documentary conducted by the Ministry of Education in 198930. Starting with the university year 1977/1978, as per the said resolution, the professional schooling in the field of history and philosophy was achieved by way of the double specialization: history-philosophy, respectively philosophyhistory. Following this process, the ministries officials have ascertained that applying such measure resulted in the following: -“slightly reduced the opportunities of students becoming educated, both in the field of history and philosophy - no graduate of the major of philosophy-history was allotted during these years a philosophy teaching department - the significance of history in the major philosophy-history is subject to the requirements of schooling the graduates to teach Romanian history and universal history, and the major history-philosophy, the significance of philosophy and the other social sciences subjects was low as compared with the duties of teaching these subjects in high schools - the possibilities of becoming specialized in matters of dialectic and historical materialism, contemporary philosophical thinking were reduced, and at the same time a number of fields traditional in our history were insufficiently studied”31 Further to this analysis and taking into account the fact that history was a subject studied from the 4th grade until the higher education, the required number of history professors could not be ensured by a double specialization. Thus, the 26

see below the table concerned with students at the daytime courses. Accounts given by departments at the beginning of the university years with the Archive of the National Education Ministry. 28 see below the table concerned with students at the daytime courses. There are other study programs in which history is the second specialization, but this paper is not concerned with these. 29 see above the profile faculties with Cluj and Iaşi Universities where such an entity existed in the 50s and 60s. 30 ANIC, CC Fund, Division Riots and propaganda, File No. 132/1989, f. 3-4. 31 Ibidem, f. 3-4. 27

9

The functioning of entry requirements to Romanian higher education …

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proposal was to separate these majors into independent fields, given the example of P.R. Bulgaria, USSR, P.R. Hungary32. The separation of these two subjects is also reinforced by the case of Western countries. Approving such measure has proved to be a failure, and one of the most important arguments put forth even by the minister himself is that no graduate of this double specialization was allotted a philosophy teaching department in the pre-university education system. This proposal along the documentary conducted by the minister also appears in a note aimed at proposing an improvement of the list of majors 33. From the point of view of the features of the schooling form, throughout this entire period we encounter daytime courses, in all these three university centres. The extramural courses encountered in the period 1957-197734, and it was later abolished and it appeared again in 1982, only at Bucharest University, with the Faculty of History-Philosophy. From the point of view of the duration of becoming specialized, the following case is applicable: until 1967 the duration was 5 years, and starting with 1968 this was lowered to 4 years, and this process was seen as a measure of becoming aligned with the European standards; this measure also had a financial feature, by reducing the expenses related to the year of study, which fact allowed the increase of the number of students. Number of students As regards the number of students, for the period concerned, we were unable to obtain the numbers for the years 1948-1955. For this period, as regards the Faculty of History with University of Bucharest, we are in possession of the number of students at the level of the entire faculty, as follows: Table 2: Number of students from the Faculty of History-Geography/History, University of Bucharest – 1948-1956

Major35 Historygeography History

48/49

49/50

50/51

51/52

52/53

53/54

54/55

55/56 56/57

927

395

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

396

571

527

655

615

684

609

As one may notice from the table above, there is a growing trend as regards the number of students, starting with 1950, and this trend is maintained in 1955,

32

Ibidem, f. 3-4. ANIC, CC Fund, Division Riots and propaganda, File No. 131, f. 10. 34 The numbers were taken from the files of the Ministry of Education and there is possibility that prior to 1957 there were students enrolled in such form. 35 Ovidiu Bozgan, Universitatea din Bucureşti..., p. 113. 33

10

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and in the following period one notices an overall decrease, not only for the subject at hand. Tables containing students admitted in the 1st year, daytime courses36 Chart 1: Number of students admitted in the 1st year of study, majors of history 1957-1976, Faculty of History, Bucharest University 120

History Bucharest

100

80

60

40

20

0 History Bucharest

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 64

69

96

106

109

108

60

59

80

78

83

83

81

68

73

53

47

55

60

51

Source: Archive of the Ministry of National Education and Archive of the National Statistics Institute

The chart above indicates that the decrease of the number of students continued until 1958, and in 1959 the number of seats allotted to the history major increased. This trend is specific to the entire system, and was supported for several years. In the early 60s there was a decrease in the number of seats, i.e. 68-80 until 1971. In the following period we notice a decrease in the number of admitted students, and thus the highest number is not higher than 60 admitted students. The significant decrease of seats in the 70s as compared with the period 1959-1962 may be explained by the fact that in the mentioned period there was a need of history teachers in the system, and gradually a stock of qualified personnel was achieved and the decision was taken 36

This was conducted based on the information found in the annual reports of the departments of high education institutions put into discussion, available with the Archive of the Ministry of National Education and the Archive of the National Statistics Institute.

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The functioning of entry requirements to Romanian higher education …

121

to reduce their number. Furthermore, the stock of required personnel also improved due to the high number of students admitted in the law frequency education system, as one may conclude from the information below. Chart 2: Number of students admitted in the 1st year of study in the History and Philosophy Faculties with Cluj and Iasi Universities in the period 1957-1976

Cluj

Iasi

160 140 120 100 80

60 40 20 0

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

Cluj

37

27

74

90 129 143 134 115

94

104

96

130

52

53 126 137 139

99

85

85

Iasi

25

15

40

106 132

82

62

63

64

48

40

59

57

61

81

64

67

99

108

81

Source: Archive of the Ministry of National Education and Archive of the National Statistics Institute

The chart above presents the status of students admitted in the 1st year of study with the Faculty of History – Philosophy, Cluj and Iaşi Universities. Except for 1957-1959 and 1969-1970, where the numbers are only concerned with the students admitted to the major of history. As one may note, the number of students admitted in the first year of study with Cluj University as compared to Iaşi University is higher throughout the entire period under analysis, with an average number of 20-30 seats. Moreover, if we are to take into account the numbers a weighted average of 50% were allocated to the major history, and we may notice that the seats of the two faculties in Cluj and Iasi were below the number of seats allocate to the faculty in Bucharest. In addition, the previously presented increasing and decreasing trends for the Bucharest Faculty of History are also valid for the other faculties, however with a smaller decrease of seats as concerns Cluj faculty.

12

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Chart 3: Number of students admitted in the 1st year of study in the History and Philosophy Faculties with Bucharest, Cluj and Iasi Universities in the period 1977-1989

Bucharest

Cluj

Iasi

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Bucharest 115

108

108

102

106

65

69

76

75

76

76

75

101

Cluj

53

51

50

51

50

45

45

50

50

52

50

50

50

Iasi

53

50

51

51

51

45

46

50

50

50

50

50

50

Source: Archive of the Ministry of National Education and Archive of the National Statistics Institute

For the period 1977-1989 we may conduct a comparison between the numbers of students enrolled with the Faculty of History-Philosophy with the three universities. As it may be noticed and browsing through the schooling plans37, for the 1980s, the number allotted for the major of history did not exceed at national level 80-90 seats. In the case of the Bucharest Faculty of 37

Archive of the Ministry of National Education.

13

The functioning of entry requirements to Romanian higher education …

123

History and Philosophy we notice a significant decrease in the seats allotted to the 1st year of study as of 1982, and in the following years the numbers would remain unchanged. As concerns Cluj, we notice an even more serious decrease in particular the number of admitted students was half, even a third of the numbers presented for the previous years. The analysis of the number of students found in the previous charts comprises several sections. A first section is dedicated to the development of the number of students in the period 1956-1989. As it may noticed, the decrease of the number of admitted students in the middle 1950s was maintained until 1958, and in 1959 the increase was a significant one. This increase did not only regard history, but it represented an increase in the entire education system, trend announced ever since 195838. This increase stabilized in the early 1960s when it reached an average of 150 students enrolled in the 1 st year with daytime courses. At the same time, during this period, as compared against the number of students provided in the annual plan, passed by Decision of the Council of Ministers, there is a positive difference, as usually passed by decision of the ministry. The middle 1970s brought a new change in the number of students, which recorded a decrease in the major history, reaching an average of 100 seats annually allocated. The early 1980s, along with the change of the major (historyphilosophy), also triggered a decrease in the number of students. These years may be described as years in which the entire system underwent a decrease, and this decision was taken in consideration of the fact that expenditures in the entire Romanian economy decreased. If until that moment, there were some additional seats had been approved, this was no longer possible and there were even cases in which the number was adjusted in the negative. Another section of this analysis consists of the level of competition with the admission exam for the major history. Although we do not hold sufficient data for conducting an in depth analysis, we may say that there is a high competition, estimated at a number of 4-5 persons per seat. As regards the representation of sexes among the students admitted with the Faculty of History, University of Bucharest, we notice a higher average of male students in the 1950s, starting with the 1960s the average became more balanced, and in the late 1960s over 50% of the admitted students were female, as may be concluded from the chart. The high average of male students in the 1950s may also be explained by the fact that boys had higher access to education than girls. The change in this average led to the number of admitted girls to increase. At the same time, the fact that once graduating faculty one became a teacher drew more girls, as compared to industrial fields where the male average was the majority. 38

Învăţământul superior, Archive of the Ministry of Education, File No. 231.

14

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Chart 4: Comparison of the distribution of sexes of students admitted in the 1st year with the Faculty of History, University of Bucharest

Total

Studente

120 100 80 60 40 20

Total

1987

1984

1981

1978

1975

1972

1969

1966

1963

1960

1957

0

111111111111111111111111111111111 999999999999999999999999999999999 555666666666677777777778888888888 789012345678901234567890123456789 646996101010605980788383816873534755605111101010106569767576767510

Studente 393249414848372337454649363345233122282157595854653239465251464648

Source: Archive of the Ministry of National Education and Archive of the National Statistics Institute

The chart below presents the distribution of the number of students with the major history (history-philosophy for the period 1982-1989) at extramural courses with Bucharest University 39. As one may notice, this form of courses was a real success in the 1960s, and in the 70s the number of students admitted for this major decreased, and in the period 1978-1981 no seats were put up for the admission exam. This form of schooling was again introduced in 1982, in the context of the number of students in Romanian higher education enrol led with daytime courses decreased constantly. In exchange, the extramural and evening courses became more important. As regards the share of sexes of the admitted students, we may notice that male students outnumbered female 39 The presented data start with 1962. For the previous period, we were unable to obtain such data. In addition, no records were found for 1965.

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125

students. Thus, we may claim that the extramural courses attracted a larger number of students, as compared to daytime courses, where female students were more numerous. Chart 5: Comparison of the total number and the distribution of sexes of the students admitted with the extramural study program with the Faculty of History, University of Bucharest

Total FF

Studente

160 140 120 100 80 60 40

20 0

19191919191919191919191919191919191919191919191919191919 62636465666768697071727374757677787980818283848586878889

Total FF 586556

101015885845364054555014 0 0 0 1 2527272625252525

Studente 161811

4454733826181114141918 9 0 0 0 1 1113131310 8 5 6

Source: Archive of the Ministry of National Education and Archive of the National Statistics Institute

The evolution of the number of students in the higher education of extramural with Cluj and Iaşi Universities faced a significant increase in the 1960s, the number of students admitted to this type of schooling exceeded the number of students at daytime courses. The 1970s brought along a decrease in this number, until such schooling was eliminated in 1976;

16

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126 40

Table 3 : Number of students admitted in the 1st year of study at extramural courses in the History and Philosophy Faculties with Cluj and Iasi Universities in the period 1961-1977 Extramural Courses Cluj-Napoca Total

Iaşi F

1961

Total

F

3

2

1962

22

5

35

8

1963

30

7

32

10

1964

30

3

32

10

1966

86

41

85

30

1967

82

34

85

20

1968

85

23

105

35

1969

66

17

70

17

1970

37

23

48

15

1971

31

14

34

15

1972

112

30

107

38

1975

94

25

71

26

1976

113

31

70

22

1977

2

0

1965

41

1973 1974

2

Social structure We will hereinafter review the social representation and the origins of the students admitted in the 1st year of study with the major history, daytime courses. In order to meet this target, we have chosen to conduct a case study with Bucharest University. The period chosen has taken into account the numbers we held at the time this study was conducted.

40 This was conducted based on the information found in the annual reports of the departments of the high education institutions in question with the Archives of the Ministry of National Education. 41 For 1973 we have found a number of 165 students admitted to the two universities and in 1974 a number of 213 students. Archive of the National Statistics Institute.

17

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127

Table 4: Social Structure and the origins of the students admitted in the 1 st year of study with the Faculty of History, University of Bucharest – daytime courses

5743 42

12

15

17

8

19

24

10

-

10

33

21

63

23

37

26

64

36

23

19

Other

Eng. and Tech.

17

51

60

Coop. skilled workers

Intellectuals Public employees Public employees42

Socialist Sector

31

59

Individual Households

Sons of peasants

Teachers

Social group Sons of workers

Rural

Origins

Urban

F

Gender

M

Year

4

1 7

27

6

66

36

8

1

7444

22

4

-

20

2

1

2

1

34

-

-

-

31

-

1

1

-

1

-

6

One may notice from the table above that the social distribution of the admitted students had a different development, depending on the temporary reported period. In the 1950s, taking into account the resolution that stipulated the possibility of registering with the People’s Councils and factory councils, the number of sons of peasants and workers is the largest share from the social structure. At the same time, in the same period the special forms reported by departments, the category intellectuals does not exist, but was assimilated to the category of servants. Gradually the share of these categories was evened out. At the same time, between the category of sons of workers and sons of peasants, irrespective of the type of chosen schooling, there is a significant difference in favour of the first category. As concerns the distribution of the origin, the majority of the admitted students came from cities. The admission requirements for the major history during the communist period have underwent a series of changes depending on the regulatory changes imposed by the communist state rule. If at the beginning of the communist regime, a significant role in the registration and admission was played by the candidate’s file, gradually, starting with the 1960s things followed a regular path, in which the 42 For 1974 the group Intellectuals public employees – is divided into 2 subgroups: 1. Engineers and Technicians 2. Persons majors of didactics, medical and sanitary, legal etc. 43 A number of 15 students come from other social structures. 44 There is no data for the years 1967-1973.

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selection of candidates was made based on the admission exam, testing the candidate’s knowledge. As concerns the number of students that attended this major, one may notice from the previously presented charts that there were various periods of increase and decrease, many of them in line with the trends of the education system during the communist period. The decreases imposed by the regime in the 1980s have not left this major unaffected.