FEBRUARY 2007

Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists — Volume 35, Number 5

POSTMASTER — please send address changes to: Communiqué, NASP, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814

2007 NASP Annual Convention, March 28–31

NASP 2007 Convention: Offering Continuing Professional Development at Its Best By Leigh Armistead, NCSP Chair, Professional Growth Workgroup

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chool psychologists are well aware that continuing professional development (CPD) is an ethical responsibility. NASP’s Principles for Professional Ethics requires us to “continually obtain additional training and education to provide the best possible services to children, families, schools, communities, trainees, and supervisees” (2000, p.16). We also know that CPD is necessary to become, and continue to be, professionally competent. We know it helps us cope with changing roles and professional transitions. We know it’s the key to developing professional specialties and adapting to technological change. Finally, many of us are required to document CPD activities to maintain professional credentials. Helping us meet this professional obligation is one of NASP’s most important functions.

CPD Opportunities at the 2007 NASP Convention

INSIDE

EBSCO — New Resource for NASP Members ........... 4

RTI.......................... 6, 38, 43

The 2007 NASP Convention in New York will provide plenty of professional development opportunities — in fact, well over 800 different opportunities, each of which has been reviewed for its appropriateness for school psychologists. We’ll be able to choose from 60 professional growth workshops presented by well-known researchers, authors, and trainers. There will be hundreds of paper presentations on a wide range of topics including innovative programs, research, and program evaluation. Symposia will provide 80-minute sessions featuring several papers on a single topic or issue with discussants to react to the presentations. Mini-skills sessions, almost two hours long, will provide in-depth skills training. Finally, there will be ten 90-minute poster sessions, each organized around a strand. This year’s strands include promoting academic success and social/emotional development, and creating safe and positive schools. In these poster sessions, many papers will be presented simultaneously on large display boards. Presenters will be available to discuss their work with participants. With over 400 posters scheduled, there will be topics of interest for each of us.

Documenting NASP CPD Activities Documenting our CPD activities is always a concern. At the Convention, some activities, such as the professional growth workshops and this year’s PREPaRE crisis prevention and intervention workshops,

NASP 2007 Convention ......9, 10, 18, 32

Prevention and Mental Health .......2, 12, 14, 16, 20

Lyme Disease in Children .... 34

NASP Publishes Reading Resource ........... 41

The famous Brooklyn Bridge. (Photo courtesy of the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau.)

will provide attendance letters that document NASP-Approved CPD credit, as well as APA-approved Category 1 CE credit. NASP-Approved CPD is a recently developed program intended to ensure the availability of high-quality CPD developed specifically for school psychologists. NASP-approved professional development activities must: • be at a level appropriate for school psychology practitioners • be intended to enhance professional knowledge, competence, or skills • have stated instructional objectives related to one or more of the eleven school psychology practice domains • be one hour or more in duration • have presenters who are considered experts in their topics • record attendance and provide attendance documentation • conduct an evaluation of the activity • not be a business, committee or administrative meeting, or a presentation intended primarily for lay persons • provide credit only for participants who attend the entire program • be conducted in compliance with NASP Principles for Professional Ethics  continued on page 6

NASP Elections 2007: Polls Open February 1–28 By Charlie Deupree, NCSP Chair, Nominations and Elections

To Vote

The NASP elections will be held on the NASP Elections Website at https://www.escvote.com/nasp2007 starting February 1st and continuing throughout the month. Members are encouraged to log onto the website to vote early. In a survey after last year’s election, our members indicated that the online voting process was easy to use. Members also indicated that they wanted to know the candidates better. This year we have asked the officer candidates to respond to a number of questions. Their responses, included in the December CQ, are printed in our 2007 Elections booklet; and can be accessed at http://www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/elections.aspx and on the online ballot (just click on the candidate’s name). We hope this will help you decide who should be the next leaders of NASP. By now each member of record as of January 1, 2007 should have received the 2007 Elections booklet. We will again send e-mail blasts weekly starting February 1st reminding members about the election. Please exercise your right to vote in this important election. Good luck to all of the members who are interested in serving as delegates and officers of their professional organization!

As of February 1st, members of record on January 1, 2007 may participate in the 2007 elections by going to https://www.escvote. com/nasp2007 to vote. All members will be able to vote in the President-Elect and Treasurer election but only members whose NASP address is from one of the 17 states holding a Delegate election may vote in that election. Members will be asked to login with their NASP Member ID Number (6 digits unique to that member) and their PIN. The PIN is the first 4 alphabetic letters of your last name plus the first letter of your first name (maximum of 5 characters, it may have fewer characters if you have a 2 or 3-character last name). Members who have a space, hyphen, or apostrophe in their last name should eliminate that character in their PIN and choose the first four letters of the last name and initial letter in the first name for their PIN. If you plan to request a paper ballot, starting at 8:00 am Eastern time on January 22 through February 12, 2007, members may call (516) 248-6427 to request a paper ballot and one will be mailed to you. All ballots (paper or electronic) must be received by 5:00 PM Eastern time on February 28, 2007. 

PAGE 2 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

CARL J. DIMARTINO

PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE

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hen a person sneezes and other people are around, the convention that governs manners dictates that someone say “Salute” or “Bless you” to the sneezer. This usually prompts a “Thank you.” If the person offering the salutation is really manners bound, this will prompt a “You’re welcome.” If you are wondering where I am going with this opening paragraph, it all has to do with inviting each and every one of you to NYC for NASP’s 39th Annual Convention!

Friendly New Yorkers

In early December, I was in NYC to take part in one of the many preconvention planning meetings. Given that I was born and raised there, I had no qualms about driving and facing the often formidable city traffic. I happened to have my car window open, stopped at one of many traffic signals, and sneezed one of those deafening sneezes that sometimes occurs when you are alone. As the pedestrians streamed past the front of my car, someone said, “Bless you.” It surprised me for a moment but I dutifully responded, “Thank you!” And a prompt, “You’re welcome,” was returned. I offer this scenario as an example of how much NYC has changed. While growing up there, I was warned about “City People!” They were allegedly rude, crude, etc. Much to my surprise and delight, that no longer is the case. During my two-day stay, I found the city still to be a bustling place (Yes, people walk and talk very fast!), but everyone I encountered was polite and helpful. I say this to those of you who are worried about attending the Convention for fear of having to deal with the “City People!” The city and its inhabitants have come a long way from how it was years ago when I was growing up. Do take this opportunity to take part in what will probably be the largest professional development opportunity to date.

Ethical Practice And now, I will segue into another type of human convention — ethics. As a former Chair for NASP’s Ethics and Professional Practices Committee, it is a subject that I hold in very high regard. To refresh our members’ knowledge base, I arranged to have a workshop on ethics presented to all of NASP’s delegates and state leaders during every Regional Leadership Meeting held this past fall. The intent is to have states pass along this information to members in every state. I am of the opinion that ethics is the “conscience” of our profession. When one considers the “chain analogy,” an association is as ethically strong as its weakest link. It is what we do when no one is looking. The ultimate test is being able to look ourselves squarely in the eye while brushing our teeth and say,

EDITOR’S NOTE By Andrea Canter, NCSP

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friend living in the Bay Area of California e-mailed me today (December 28th), noting that she was enjoying temperatures around 60 degrees and noticed that it was a “chilly 43” in the Twin Cities. What? And I had just written that it was a “balmy 43”! I fear that the Inconvenient Truth of the matter is that global warming has already altered our upper Midwest climate to the degree that those Below Zero jokes are now outdated. Our northern ski resorts are looking for alternative attractions; our annual Winter Carnival may have to move its events to Canada; and for the first time on record (records that date back to the late 19th century), Duluth and the North Shore had a brown Christmas. While global climates seem out of whack, some things in our profession remain highly predictable. Excitement is building as the 2007 Convention in New York City approaches. Be sure to register and find a hotel room — this is the don’t-miss Convention! Not sure? See the four articles about attractions, CPD credits, and career support in this issue. Another easy prediction — school psychologists in 2007 are seeking resources and strategies for implementing RTI. Even as states and districts struggle to determine just how to establish regulations for LD, it is clear that even those retaining traditional identification criteria are seeking ways to incorporate RTI into their prevention and intervention protocols. With a growing sense of urgency for expanding skills, this issue of CQ includes two articles focused on RTI implementation — looking at factors that will lead to success or failure, and looking at examples of implementation in middle and high schools. Contributing Editor Matt Burns has solicited additional articles for spring publication — stay tuned. Supporting the mental health needs of students is another predictable concern of school psychologists. This issue brings information and resources regarding violence prevention, crisis response, interventions for anxiety disorders, bullying LGBT students, and more. Additionally, our Pediatric School Psychology column addresses the consequences of Lyme Disease. If you took the time to complete the CQ Survey posted online, many thanks. We received over 2,000 completed surveys and are in the process of summarizing the results. I know Editor-Elect John Desrochers will take your comments into account as he plans for his first year as Editor. 

“Yes, I did everything I could, within my scope of practice, to evaluate and plan an appropriate program for such and such student.” The late Harvard philosopher John Rawls wrote that, “Ethics is how we decide to behave when we decide we belong together.” I offer and implore all practitioners to employ the following decision-making model, based on Koocher and Keith-Spiegel’s (1998) work, when faced with an ethical dilemma: 1. Describe the problem situation. 2. Define the potential ethical or legal issues involved. 3. Consult ethical/legal guidelines. 4. Consult with supervisor and colleagues. 5. Evaluate the impact of the situation on all parties. 6. Generate a list of possible alternatives. 7. Consider the possible consequence of each alternative. 8. Make the decision consistent with ethical code. The old saw that “one should beg for forgiveness rather than ask permission” should never be used when one is in an ethical quandary.

NASP Programs at Work: Professional Standards (Kathy Pluymert, Program Manager) The purpose of NASP Professional Standards Program Area is to develop, disseminate, and promote professional standards as policies of NASP. Key areas of work for the Professional Standards Program include issues and policies related to credentialing, ethics, school psychological services and graduate education/training. The Professional Standards Program area is made up of a diverse set of work groups including boards, committees, and liaisons to a variety of associations related to professional standards. The National School Psychology Certification System is chaired by Sawyer Hunley; the Training, Program Approval, and Accreditation Committee by Patti Harrison. Barbara Bole Williams is chair of the National and State Credentialing Committee. Ethics and Professional Practices Committee, Kathy McNamara, Chair and Susan Jacob Cochair, works to promote NASP Principles for Professional Ethics and Guidelines for the Provision of School Psychological Services. Several liaisons serve NASP by representing our organization to groups including NCATE (Joe Prus and Patti Harrison); the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation (JCSEE) (Bill Strein); School Psychology Leadership Roundtable (SPLR) a group of representatives from school psychology stakeholder organizations (Diane Smallwood); and Fair Access Coalition on Testing (FACT), a group related to assessment practices that ensure consumer rights to access a variety of professionals for assessment (Rhonda Armistead and Susan Gorin). NASP also participates in a variety of APA-related groups including Joint Committee on Testing Practices (JCTP) (George McCloskey) and Synarchy, a group of school psychology stakeholder groups that focuses on specialty guidelines and post doctoral training issues (Diane Smallwood). I hope to see you at the Convention and I thank you for being part of NASP and our chosen profession.  President Carl J. DiMartino, PhD, NCSP, is eager to share his native New York with NASP members at the 2007 Convention!

Book Review

Bullying in American Schools Edited by D.L. Espelage & S. M. Swearer (2004, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates) Reviewed by Sandra Singer, NCSP

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ullying has always been viewed as a common, if not normal, part of growing up. Only after the wave of school violence in the 1990s have Americans realized the devastating effects of bullying and the urgent need to prevent it. In Bullying in American Schools, Espelage and Swearer present a compilation of research on bullying and school victimization through a socio-ecological framework, or the interplay between the individual, family, peer group, school community, and culture. The book is divided into five parts, beginning with a discussion of the characteristics associated with bullies and victims, along with gender differences: physical bullying by boys and the relational aggression of girls. Part II explores how peer groups influence bullying; for some a strategy to gain status, for others having friends and being popular serve as buffers from being bullied by others. Most acts of bullying occur at school, so Parts III and IV address how teachers, classroom characteristics, and school climate influence bullying behavior. Part IV also examines how the family and community may affect bullying where neither families of bullies nor victims model appropriate interpersonal behavior. The final section of this book focuses on three anti-bullying programs. These interventions are much more than a set of lessons or a series of workshops. They are comprehensive, community-wide programs involving school administrators, teachers, students, other school personnel, and parents. Given that so many children are victimized at some point during their schooling, Bullying in American Schools should be required reading for all school psychologists. With the theoretical and practical information provided in this excellent text, educators and psychologists can make quality decisions to effect significant change for students.  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Sandra Singer, PhD, NCSP, is a school psychologist for the East Brunswick, New Jersey Public Schools.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 3

NASP at Work

INDEX NASP 2007 Convention: Offering Continuing Professional Development at Its Best .......................... 1 Leigh Armistead NASP Elections 2007: Polls Open February 1–28 ......... 1 Charlie Deupree President’s Message ................................................... 2 Carl J. DiMartino

Mission

Information Services

The National Association of School Psychologists represents and supports school psychology through leadership to enhance the mental health and educational competence of all children.

• NASP launched its new NASP website on October 30, 2006. Making use of an improved taxonomy for search and cataloguing purposes, the redesigned and reorganized website makes NASP resources more accessible. • NASP signed a contract with EBSCO Information Services to provide a set of online databases to NASP members by subscription. The databases, which offer full-text articles from hundreds of journals of interest to school psychologists, include Academic Search Premier, MEDLINE®, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, Professional Development Collection, SocINDEX, and ERIC. A free trial period began February 1 and will continue through March 14. Subscriptions will be available beginning March 15 at a special introductory rate of $34 for nearly a year and half of access. See the full-page ad in this issue of Communiqué on page 11 and article on page 4. • NASP conducted an online survey of Communiqué readers to gather input on the direction CQ should take in the coming years; all members with active e-mail addresses were contacted, and more than 2,000 members completed surveys. • NASP published the first issue of its e-journal, School Psychology Forum, with a focus on Response to Intervention (see www.nasponline.org/publications/spf/ index.aspx). • NASP worked with designers to create a new NASP Announce, which continues to be sent on a regular basis to more than 18,000 NASP members. Its companion newsletter, Student NASP Announce, continues to be sent to all student members of NASP. • NASP posted salary information on school psychologists from the 2004–05 NASP Membership Survey on the NASP website at www.nasponline.org/about_sp/ salaryinfo.aspx. Further analyses of the survey, with more information on salaries of school psychologists, will be presented by lead investigator Michael Curtis at the NASP Convention in New York City.

Editor’s Note .............................................................. 2 Andrea Canter

Professional Development

Bullying of Sexually Diverse Children and Adolescents .......................................... 28 Laura Crothers

Advocacy • NASP partnered with George Washington University (GWU) to plan the NASP/GWU Public Policy Institute set for July 15–20, 2007. (See page 18.) • NASP assisted in the development of No Child Left Behind reauthorization principles for the National Alliance of Pupil Services Organizations, the Consortium for Citizens with Disabilities, and for the Joint Organizational Statement on No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act. • NASP met with the members of the Education Committees of both the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate and the House and Senate staff of the Mental Health Caucus on the Elementary and Secondary School Counseling Program, IDEA regulations, Medicaid reimbursement and NCLB reauthorization, and other topics. NASP also attended the Society for Research in Child Development briefing on the impact of the Gulf Coast Disaster. • NASP began using the newly acquired Westlaw NETSCAN Legislative Tracking Tool to review states’ legislation and forward information about legislation impacting the practice of school psychology to each potentially impacted state. • NASP contributed to the development of PowerPoint presentations (beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels) on RTI and resources for dissemination to the public by the IDEA Partnership. NASP also created a fact sheet on the role of the school psychologist in RTI, which was included in New Roles in Response to Intervention, a collaborative project with the International Reading Association and 11 other organizations (see www.nasponline.org/advocacy/rtifactsheets.aspx). • NASP expanded the research section of its Advocacy/ Public Policy webpage to support members’ advocacy efforts (see www.nasponline.org/advocacy/research. aspx); more resources, links, and a research citations page were added. • NASP completed a three-plus-year project through the U. S. Department of Education’s Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools to help develop prevention programs and training for school personnel. One of the most valuable outcomes of the collaborative work with two other partners is a series of online course (see http:// www.ed.gov/admins/lead/safety/training/index.html). • Scott Poland, Chair of NASP’s National Emergency Assistance Team (NEAT), has just been named the Prevention Chair for the American Association of Suicidology. Scott, a previous NASP President, had the theme of Risk Prevention for All Children during his term and emphasized the prevention role for school psychologists. • NASP managed media inquiries and coordinated interviews with member experts, including responses to the school shootings in Colorado, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania. Key media outlets included Associated Press, LA Times, Houston Chronicle, USA Today, Newark Star Ledger, Christian Science Monitor, Hartford Courant, Education Week, People Magazine, Slate. com, Fox News, ABC News, National Public Radio, and the Casey Center for Journalism. NASP President Carl DiMartino wrote an op-ed on school violence prevention, which was published in the Harrisburg PatriotNews, and NASP Crisis Interest Group Chair Cathy Paine had an op-ed on school safety published in Education Week.

• NASP completed reviews of 1,122 proposals, with an acceptance rate ranging from 72–86% depending on proposal type; confirmed 62 workshops, the keynote speaker James Garbarino of Loyola University of Chicago, eight featured sessions, two presidential strands, and convention sponsors for the NASP 2007 Convention in New York City. • NASP received proposals for the 2012 Convention from hotels and Convention and Visitors’ Bureaus in Philadelphia, Atlanta, Washington DC, and Nashville.

Professional Standards • NASP processed 604 initial NCSP applications, of which 485 were approved and 118 are pending; processed 1,500 NCSP renewals; and processed 214 Special Renewal Opportunity (SRO) renewals. NASP exceeded its 2006 goal of 10,000 active NCSPs at the end of November, when the number reached 10,285. • NASP conducted 44 school psychology training program reviews in the fall review cycle (a new record), of which 37 were approved on a full or conditional basis (five of these were programs that had never been approved before).

Membership • NASP continues its membership renewal and recruitment campaign to increase membership to 30,000 by NASP’s 40th Anniversary in 2009. By mid December 2006, membership reached 23,038 (1,784 ahead of last year at this time), with 3,186 of these being new mem continued on page 4

Bullying in American Schools [Book Review] ................. 2 Sandra Singer EBSCO Databases Now Available to NASP Members ..... 4 Chris Willis Learning Disability: Where’s the Satisfaction?.............. 6 Tom Fagan Spotlight on Multicultural Affairs ................................ 8 Terry Bontrager Start Spreading the News: New York Neighborhoods..... 9 Merryl Bushansky & Patricia Manning IDEA in Practice ........................................................10 Mary Beth Klotz Career Planning Sessions Offer Great Insights at 2007 Convention ....................10 Pete Reynolds School Psychologists and Violence Prevention ........... 12 Cherisse Walker NASP Website Login Note.......................................... 12 Family-Focused Treatment of Children’s Anxiety Disorders ......................................14 Sarah G. Reck Healing the Soul Wound: Counseling With American Indians and Other Native Peoples [Book Review] ........15 Paul Dauphinais Evaluation of Intervention Programs for Children’s Anxiety Disorders ......................................16 Sarah G. Reck The 2007 NASP Public Policy Institute: July 15–20, 2007 ......................................................18 Stacy K. Skalski Career Expo and Interview Services Combine Popular and New Features ...........................18 Pete Reynolds Crisis Management Research Summaries ................... 20 Stephen E. Brock Handbook of School Violence [Book Review] ............... 20 Georgette Yetter NASP Online ............................................................. 22 Bill Pfohl

Lessons Learned From Recent Hurricanes: Efforts Related to Schools and Students .................... 32 Frank Zenere See Jane Hit: Why Girls Are Growing More Violent and What We Can Do About It [Book Review] .............. 32 Terry Molony & Maureen Henwood NASP Student Connections ....................................... 33 Lauren Fisher & Anna M. Peña Lyme Disease: Etiology, Neuropsychological Sequelae, and Educational Impact ............................. 34 R. A. Hamlen & D. S. Kliman RTI Will Fail, Unless … ............................................. 38 Matthew K. Burns NASP’s Newest Publication Addresses Reading ...........41 Off Task ................................................................... 42 Pam Beeman Response to Intervention at the Secondary Level: Two Districts’ Models of Implementation ................... 43 Holly Windram, Barb Scierka, & Ben Silberglitt Loose Ends ............................................................... 45 Leslie Talbott Employment Notices ................................................. 46 Violence Prevention: A Mental Health Issue: Tips for Parents and Educators ............................Insert Cherisse L. Walker Supporting Student Success: Remedying the Shortage of School Psychologists ..........................Insert Safe and Affirmative Schools for Sexual Minority Youth ...........................................Insert Erica Weiler

PAGE 4 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

NASP brings a library of evidence-based publications to your fingertips!

EBSCO Databases Now Available to NASP Members By Chris Willis, NCSP NASP Executive Council

Everyday Reasons to Use EBSCO

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ast year I conducted two evaluations that presented unusual challenges. The first was a five-year-old boy with a condition called agenesis of the corpus callosum. The second was a 15-year-old who had been suffering from Lyme disease since age nine. At the time, I knew little about these two conditions, but I knew from my usual battery of tests that there was something affecting the learning and development of both boys. I wanted a greater depth of understanding to supplement my evaluations, complete my reports, and assist in developing appropriate intervention plans. Fortunately, I had access to several online databases from EBSCO Information Services, which has the world’s largest collections of full-text, peer-reviewed journals. I entered key words (“Partial agenesis corpus callosum” for the first case and “Lyme disease” for the second), and quickly found six articles on the corpus callosum, including one from the European Journal of Pediatrics. My next search turned up three very useful articles on Lyme disease, including one from Applied Neuropsychology. EBSCO instantly delivered the full text of these articles directly to the laptop that I carry from school to school. Beginning in February 2007, all current NASP members will have access to the EBSCO databases. All members can try out this new member benefit at no cost during a Free Trial Period that runs February 1 through March 14. There are six comprehensive databases included in the collection assembled by EBSCO specifically for NASP members: • Academic Search Premier™ • MEDLINE® • Psychology & Behavioral Sciences Collection™ • ERIC (Educational Resource Information Center) • Professional Development Collection™ • SocINDEX™ Each database provides full-text titles from literally thousands of peer-reviewed journals, affording NASP members a scientific legitimacy not found in many of the commonly used search engines. Following this Free Trial Period, NASP members will have the opportunity to subscribe to this valuable, new NASP member benefit at a special introductory fee of $34. Additionally, this first-year subscription will run through September 30, 2008, giving you as much as a year and half of access for one low price.

Communiqué

Communiqué (ISSN 0164775X) is published eight times a year (September, October, November, December, February, March, May, June) by the National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814. Annual membership dues are $160 for Regular Membership, $50 for Student Membership, which includes $45 for an annual subscription to Communiqué. This is inseparable from the dues per the United States Post Office. Periodical postage paid at Bethesda, Maryland and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: send address change to Communiqué, NASP, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814. NASP holds copyright on all material published in Communiqué unless otherwise noted. See Reprint Information below. All NASP state affiliates may reprint material in print publications without additional permission, provided that Communiqué is cited as the original source. The opinions and products, including advertising and job announcments, appearing in the Communiqué do not necessarily indicate official sanction, promotion, or endorsement on the part of the Communiqué or the National Association of School Psychologists. Articles, announcements, and letters should be submitted to the Editor.

Editor Andrea Canter 4438 Pillsbury Ave. Minneapolis, MN 55419 612/823–1410 FAX 612/825–0523 [email protected]

Editor-Elect John Desrochers [email protected]

Associate Editors Tom Cushman [email protected] Steven Landau [email protected]

Contributing Editors Pam Beeman, CA Terry Bontrager, MA Steve Brock, CA Matt Burns, MN Katherine C. Cowan, MD Toni Crespi, CT Susan Gorin, MD Mary Beth Klotz, MD Paul McCabe, NY Linda Meloy, IA Anna Peña (MD) Bill Pfohl, KY Ed Schlossman, CA Steven Shaw, QC Stacy Skalaski, MD Leslie Talbott, GA

Reviewers NASP Website

Gena Barnhill, MO http://www.nasponline.org Phil Bowser, OR

Deadline for receipt of material by the Editor Volume 35 #1 September............................ July 31, 2006 #2 October ........................... August 24, 2006 #3 November ..................September 25, 2006 #4 December...................... October 30, 2006 #5 February .....................December 18, 2006 #6 March .............................January 29, 2007 #7 May ....................................March 16, 2007 #8 June ..................................... April 30, 2007

Merryl Bushansky, NY Mary Chittoran, MO Carlo Cucarro, NY Peg Dawson, NH Stefan Dombrowski, NJ Ron Dumont, NJ Barbara Fischetti, CT Robyn Hess, CO Laurice Joseph, OH Paula Laidig, MN Matthew Lau, MN Cammy Lehr, MN Betty Lenehan, NH Beth Levy, NY Richard Lieberman, CA Rebecca Mandal, LA Rebecca Martinez, IN James McDougal, NY Amanda Nickerson, NY Leslie Paige, KS Nancy Peterson, IL Cathy Paine, OR Martha Rosen, MN Mark Roth, ME Roberta Slavin, NY Mary Tomblin, TX Arcella Trimble, GA Diane Wilen, FL

Graphic Design Jay Folie Conner & Company [email protected]

NASP Executive Director Susan Gorin – NASP 4340 East West Hwy, #402 Bethesda, MD 20814 301/657–0270 FAX 301/657–0275 [email protected]

Reprint Information Chris Goode – NASP 4340 East West Hwy, #402 Bethesda, MD 20814 301/657–0270 [email protected]

Ad/Employment Notices Margo Fuerst – NASP 4340 East West Hwy, #402 Bethesda, MD 20814 301/657–0270 [email protected]

While the utility of research in the two cases above may seem a bit esoteric, the vast resources of the EBSCO databases have a much broader appeal. For school psychologists practicing in rural districts, or anyone not in the vicinity of a university library, the databases can provide a necessary link to stay current and up-to-date. For practitioners faced with the need for culturally competent assessment and/or consultation, the databases can provide a wealth of information across a broad spectrum of sociological research. When recommending an intervention (such as in RTI), the databases can be invaluable in providing the requisite empirical support for the intervention. If your administrator asks you to provide an in-service training on a rising issue in the district such as bullying or suicide, a search of the databases can be very fruitful. Imagine the possibilities! Of course, if you need to do a literature review for coursework or a conference presentation, accessing the databases directly from your computer is very convenient. Many students come to depend on the EBSCO databases as a resource in graduate school, a resource that is sorely missed once they begin their practice in the schools.

EBSCO Database Descriptions Academic Search Premier is designed specifically for academic institutions; it is the world’s largest scholarly, multi-disciplinary full text database. This scholarly database is an enormous collection of the most valuable peer-reviewed full text journals, offering critical information from many sources unique to this database. This database contains full text for nearly 4,650 serials, including more than 3,600 peer-reviewed publications. PDF back files to 1975 or further are available for well over one hundred journals. MEDLINE® with Full Text provides authoritative medical information on medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, preclinical sciences, and much more. Based on the index created by the National Library of Medicine, MEDLINE® with Full Text has the capability to search abstracts from over 4,800 current biomedical journals. MEDLINE® with Full Text contains 975 Full Text titles. Psychology & Behavioral Sciences Collection covers topics such as emotional and behavioral characteristics, psychiatry and psychology, mental processes, anthropology, and observational and experimental methods. This database is updated daily via EB continued on page 5



NASP at Work… continued from page 3

bers. NASP developed a membership campaign message for recruitment and renewal materials, and launched a membership telephone marketing campaign in September. By mid December, 239 members had renewed upon being contacted by telephone and an additional 572 indicated that they would renew upon receipt of an invoice. • NASP exchanged membership lists with 37 state school psychology associations, making possible a special recruitment effort aimed at state association members who are not NASP members.

Presentations, Collaborations, and Meetings • NASP made presentations to the American Federation of Teachers, Council for Learning Disabilities, George Mason University, George Washington University’s Public Policy Institute, Indiana Association of School Psychologists, Montgomery County (MD) Public Schools, NASP/AHI Summer Conference, and the New Mexico Association of School Psychologists. • NASP participated in collaborative efforts with the IDEA Partnership, Friends of School Health Coalition/US House of Representatives, International Reading Association, Just the Facts Coalition, Mental Health Liaison Group, National Alliance of Pupil Services Organizations, National Association of State Directors of Special Education, National Coalition on Personnel Shortages in Special Education and Related Services, National Consortium for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services, National Coordinating Committee on School Health and Safety, and the National Disability Rights Network. • NASP attended conferences and meetings of the White House-initiated Conference on School Safety, Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law; Center for School Mental Health Analysis and Action; Committee for Education Funding; IDEA Partnership/ Office of Special Education Programs; Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network; National Center for Education Statistics; National Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention; and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

Convention Dates • • • • •

2007 — New York City (March 27–31) 2008 — New Orleans (February 5–10) 2009 — Boston (February 24–28) 2010 — Chicago (March 2–6) 2011 — San Francisco (February 22–26)

Quick Facts From the 2004–05 NASP Membership Survey* • Mean years of experience in school psychology of NASP members: 15 years • Mean age of NASP members: 46 years • Percentage of NASP members who are 40 years of age or younger: 33%  * Curtis, Lopez, Batsche, and Smith, 2006

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 5 

EBSCO Databases… continued from page 4

SCO host. It provides nearly 575 full text publications, including nearly 550 peerreviewed titles. The Educational Resource Information Center (ERIC) provides access to education literature and resources. The database provides access to information from journals included in the Current Index of Journals in Education and Resources in Education Index. ERIC provides full text of more than 2,200 digests along with references for additional information and citations and abstracts from over 1,000 educational and education-related journals. Professional Development Collection™ is designed for professional educators. This is the most comprehensive and most valuable collection of full text education journals in the world. In addition to full text, indexing and abstracts are provided for more than 700 journals. This database provides a highly specialized collection of nearly 550 high quality education journals, including more than 350 peer-reviewed titles. SocINDEX™ with Full Text offers comprehensive coverage of sociology, encompassing all sub-disciplines and closely related areas of study. These include demography, ethnic and racial studies, gender studies, marriage and family, rural and urban sociology, social development, social psychology, social structure, social work, socio-cultural anthropology, substance abuse and other addictions, violence and many other areass. SocINDEX™ with Full Text contains full text for 344 “core” coverage journals dating back to 1895, and 129 “priority” coverage journals. This database also includes full text for more than 700 books and monographs, and full text for 6,800 conference papers.

Free Trial Period for NASP Members February 1–March 14, 2007

Searching Is Easy Searching the databases is not complicated at all. The user enters a key word and has the option to further specify the search to selected fields (e.g., title, author, subject, etc.). Limiting it to full-text articles and peer-reviewed journals further refines the search. To demonstrate the breadth of the database, I entered several key words (e.g., “reading instruction”), limiting the response to full-text articles in peer-reviewed journals. Table 1 shows the series of key words entered, the search field chosen (if any), the number of full-text articles found, and a sampling of the many journals with articles related to the key word. For example, searching the key words (only in titles), “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder” generated over 2,400 articles in journals such as Neuropsychology and the Journal of Child Neurology, among many others. Searches can be further refined to specific sources or specific authors.

Table 1. Sample Searches Key words (search field) “Reading Instruction”

Number of Hits 535

School Library Journal, Journal of Educational Research, Exceptional Children, Journal of Special Education, Australian Journal of Language & Literacy, Learning Disability Quarterly, Reading Teacher, Teaching Exceptional Children, School Psychology Review, Psychology in the Schools, and more.

2428

Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, Southern Medical Journal, Canadian Medical Association Journal, Neuropsychology, Journal of Child Neurology, School Psychology Review, Education & Treatment of Children, The Journal of School Nursing, Journal of Abnormal Psychology and more.

(Search Field: “Title”)

“Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder” (Search Field: “Title”)

“Response to Intervention”

Sampling of Journal Sources

220

(No search field specified)

Journal of Learning Disabilities, Education & Treatment of Children, Language Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, Reading Today, Teaching Exceptional Children, Remedial & Special Education, Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, School Psychology Review, Learning Disability Quarterly and more.

Low NASP Member Subscription Rates Following the special introductory rate that runs through May 31, the EBSCO databases are available to you as a NASP member at a subscription rate of $49 per year — about the cost of one café latte per month ($4). (APA charges their members $99 per year for limited access to their database, which does not include full-text articles.) The subscription period for those who sign up between June 1 and August 31, 2007 will extend through September 2008. Regular subscriptions made after September 1, 2007 will be $49 for one year (lasting until the end of the month in which the original subscription was made). If you subscribe on September 9, 2007 your subscription renewal will be due October 1, 2008. NASP members will be able to subscribe through a link on the NASP homepage. EBSCO representatives will be at the NASP Convention in New York to demonstrate how to get the most out of the database. What key words would you like to search? 

"REAK4HROUGHTHE,ANGUAGE"ARRIER 4HENONVERBALASSESSMENT THATBESTPROMOTESEQUITY CULTURALFAIRNESS SOCIALJUSTICE ANDBIASREDUCTION



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PAGE 6 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

Viewpoint

Learning Disability: Where’s the Satisfaction? By Tom Fagan, NCSP, Historian, NASP and Division 16 (APA)

N

ote. “Viewpoints” are editorial and reflect the opinions of the writer only, and not a policy or position of NASP or the Communiqué.

With the decision in the late 1960s to add learning disability as a special education category, we struggled to determine its definition. We were bombarded with theories of learning disabilities related to language, perception, and motor skills and administered a variety of tests to sort this out, with only modest satisfaction. Remember the Doman-Delacato exercises, the ITPA, the Frostig test, WISC pattern analyses? Then in 1974 came P. L. 94-142 defining LD in several areas of deficiency, connecting them to basic psychological processes, and to the exclusion of other disability areas. As many commented, LD seemed to be what was left over after other areas were ruled out, perhaps a diagnosis by elimination. Incorporating a “significant discrepancy” concept into LD eligibility required that we make judgments about what areas were to be discrepant and how discrepant they needed to be. Discrepancies were made between normative assessments of general intellectual ability and broad areas of academic achievement. The notion of significant discrepancy fit well with the existing assessment skills of school psychologists even though many were skeptical of the discrepancy model and were aware that it was a less-than-perfect solution. Soon, comparative methods of discrepancy were debated, leading many to embrace a discrepancy with regression approach. The regression approach was a more sophisticated method, but too complicated for some to apply and explain to parents and educators who were accustomed to simpler explanations. Eligibility methods that emphasized evidence of deficits in psychological processing in addition to discrepancy seemed not to clear up the confusion. In retrospect I think the law itself influenced the rearranging, reanalyzing, and renaming of areas in some of our tests. Despite concerns for identification, the field of LD had broad categorical acceptance and it soon became the largest disability area, consuming nearly half the special education population and much of the assessment time for school psychologists and special education teams. The alarming rate of growth in LD led to funding caps in some places, stricter definitions in others, and, not surprisingly, a recognition that something in the process of defining, assessing, and intervening with LD had gone seriously astray. Perhaps the most daunting criticism was that too many children identified as LD were often more like children with remedial needs, not special education, who had been stuck in a “wait to fail” rut until sufficient discrepancy was reached. With the rapid growth of special education and LD, school systems became bisected into regular and special education sectors and the in-between remedial services of earlier times were diminished. Providing remedial services became difficult unless the child “qualified” for special education determined largely by a process of normative testing. Resource rooms were in abundance, but the services were usually restricted to “eligible” children. Those less enthusiastic about normative and standardized tests resurrected historic concerns about such measures and pursued direct approaches to the assessment of behavior and achievement. Although the newer assessment methods (e.g., curriculum-based) seemed better at identifying academic deficits connected to direct interventions, they lacked the scientific credibility that accrued to the traditional normative tests. They also provided a different type of comparison than that provided by nationally normed measures. Over several years systems of curriculum-based assessment were developed and connected to systems of early intervention that in combination garnered greater scientific credibility. Terms like treatment validity and treatment integrity were attached to the new systems and used as major criticisms of traditional normative tests. Not surprisingly, the systems began to be applied to larger populations of children across entire districts, and some states (e.g., Iowa) embraced the “problem-solving” model statewide. Dissatisfaction with the significant discrepancy model (SDM) became widespread and many considered alternative solutions that perhaps would be offered by the problem-solving and curriculum-based approaches. Recognizing that among the failures of the SDM was its inefficiency in distinguishing between children who were “truly LD” and those



Professional Development… continued from page 1

CPD for NCSP Renewal NASP CPD standards recommend that all school psychologists complete at least 75 hours of professional development activities every three years. However, this is required of Nationally Certified School Psychologists (NCSPs) for renewal of their credential. Beginning in 2010, NCSPs will also have to earn a portion of their 75 hours in NASP- or APA-approved CPD activities. Three hours will be required in ethics and/or professional practice issues. NASP-Approved CPD earned at the New York Convention can be used to meet these requirements for NCSP renewals in 2010.

Self-Documentation At the present time, attendance documentation is not provided for any convention activities other than workshops. However, documentation of participation in activities such as papers, seminars, mini-skills sessions as well as poster presentations is straightforward. An Activity Documentation Form will be provided with registration materials for self-documentation; it does not require a signature. NASP CPD guidelines permit selfdocumentation of any activity for which we can answer “yes” to the following questions: • Did the activity enhance or upgrade my professional skills or add to my knowledge base? • Was the activity relevant to the professional practice of school psychology?

who were remedial cases, the CBM approach offered a model of LD identification based on intervention. Over time, children could be processed through a sieve of interventions based on their response to them. The model fit well with the long-standing clamor of the school psychology leadership for more time to be spent with interventions and less with assessment. The school psychology leadership, coupled with the positions of several national groups of educators and special educators, succeeded in getting a Response to Intervention (RTI) approach in the most recent IDEA regulations. We now have two major approaches to LD eligibility and intervention. The SDM starting with assessment (discrepancy) but not necessarily leading to specific interventions and RTI that starts with intervention and might lead to LD assessment (Tier 3 or 4). We have “wait to fail” in the SDM approach and “wait to respond” in the RTI approach. So where is the satisfaction? Now, approaching the 40th anniversary as an official special education category, LD continues to be elusive and confusing. Although we have alternative methods for identification, we still have no more specific a definition of what learning disability is. Perhaps the length of a disability’s definition signals how little we truly understand it. Certainly for LD, with a lengthy definition, the relationship seems inverse. In the struggle for more direct approaches we appear to have pitted the SDM and RTI models against each other, failing to recognize the complementary relationship of their respective strengths. (Of course some believe the two models can be compatible — see Psychology in the Schools, Vol. 43, Nos. 7 & 8, 2006, and NASP’s online journal, School Psychology Forum: Research In Practice Vol. 1, No.1, 2006.) The strength of the RTI model is its rapid involvement in specific, direct assessment and interventions. However, in the absence of a greater normative perspective (provided by SDM), one has to ask how a child failing to respond at Tier 1 or Tier 2 in one school district would have fared in another district, in another state, in another curriculum? In addition, what has become of the notion of LD as a “disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes …” as underpinning the achievement problems we seek to assess and improve? Have we gained significant ground in defining and assessing those processes and their relationship to academic achievement? Does it really matter, and does anyone really care? I hope so. Are we heading toward a national system of education with a coast-to-coast curriculum that could lend RTI to greater national consistency? I doubt it. Are we heading for continued (maybe greater) inconsistency in identifying children with LD? Probably, because there will be many district-level models for the implementation of LD services with or without RTI. Will the RTI approach take us “back to the future” to a time of more seamless services for children having early academic problems? I hope so. It’s time to reestablish services that are more remedial and less a conduit to special education. It’s time to remember Beery’s long-ago (1972) plea to regularize special education and specialize regular education. With an opportunity for role expansion, RTI offers a challenge to the field of school psychology. Almost from the origins of school psychological services there have been pleas for less time spent in assessment and more time with interventions. RTI is an opportunity for directing our services toward alternative assessments, more interventions, and recognizing the complementary contributions of curriculum-based and normative assessments. Will we embrace the opportunity to demonstrate the importance of the intervention aspects of RTI? Or will RTI for the practitioner be renamed “Resistance to Innovation?” Few are satisfied with the significant discrepancy approach and RTI at least offers an alternative. Is RTI a solution to LD identification and intervention? I doubt it. But it seems as good as what we’ve had and it deserves a fair trial. In the past 30 years, we have lived in a world of regulatory acronyms: FERPA, LRE, IEP, NCLBA, IDEA. We have survived their challenges and will respond successfully to the challenge of RTI. Every school psychologist has the background to adapt and master RTI with a modicum of continuing professional development. Maybe in the process we will find greater comfort with the identification of learning disabilities and achieve a more satisfactory understanding of its definition. I’ll probably be retired by then.  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Tom Fagan, PhD, NCSP, has served NASP twice as President and serves both NASP and APA Division 16 as Historian. He’s on the faculty of the Department of Psychology at the University of Memphis. • Did the activity fit into my personal plan for continuing professional development? • Did the activity go beyond the ordinary aspects of my employment? The Activity Documentation Form is accepted by the NCSP Board for any type of professional development activity except university courses (for which a transcript is required).

A Sustained Commitment to CPD The 2007 New York Convention will provide many of us with a superb opportunity for networking and professional development. Of course, for optimal benefit, professional development should be a sustained long-term effort. For example, for any given topic, combining a convention workshop on that topic with a planned program of self-study including other convention presentations, journal articles and on-going discussions with a peer support group will be more likely to result in enhanced practices than any one of these individual activities alone. We should remember that continuing professional development, if it is to be successful, must be a process rather than an event (Guskey, 1991). 

References Guskey, T. R. (1991). Enhancing the effectiveness of professional development programs. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 2, 239–47. National Association of School Psychologists (2000). Principles for professional ethics. Bethesda, MD: Author.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 7

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PearsonAssessments.com 800.627.7271 AGS assessments are now part of Pearson Assessments. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All Rights Reserved. AAD 1117 08/06

PAGE 8 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

SPOTLIGHT ON MULTICULTUR AL AFFAIRS By Terry Bontrager, NCSP, Contributing Editor

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n this issue, the multicultural spotlight is on Carlos Guerrero, a Spanish bilingual school psychologist in the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD). In April, the Multicultural Affairs Committee named Carlos as the Cochair for its Latino Workgroup. CQ: In his chapter in Best Practices IV, Samuel Ortiz cites J.W. Leigh (1998) in stating that cultural competence “reflects a knowledge base of, or direct experience with, the values, attitudes, beliefs, and customs of a particular culture that can be used as both guide and context for collecting and evaluating any and all assessment data” (p. 1324). How does that describe you as a multicultural school psychologist? Carlos: It describes what I strive to excel in and the school psychologist that I would like to become. I think the words “guide” and “context” are extremely important aspects of the statement and ideas that I keep in mind when working with students from culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds. Instead of a knowledge base and understanding of cultural backgrounds being applied in a “cookie cutter” fashion to all students with similar characteristics, that information supports me in the evaluation process by providing insight into or giving meaning to the information that I come across. Similarly, having experience, awareness, and understanding of diverse cultures heightens my ability to ask the right questions or hone instincts of data collection in ways beyond my own past or cultural upbringing. In addition, when a student’s culture is different from the dominant culture, I consider the interaction of the two and how that interplay affects the expression of certain characteristics and abilities. CQ: What training or other preparation did you have for your work as a school psychologist? Carlos: I received my formal training at California State University at Long Beach under the direction of Dr. Kristin Powers and Dr. Kristi Hagans-Murrillo. Both have created a program that is research-based and progressive. It dedicates a large portion of assessment training to a thorough understanding of second language acquisition and multicultural evaluation. During my graduate studies, I worked as a research assistant for a study on the overrepresentation of African-American students with the ED eligibility and internal program evaluation for LAUSD on special education programs. Before and during my graduate training, I taught in a predominantly Latino school district in the general education, bilingual education, and special education settings. In addition, I was self-employed during this time working individually with students with autism on academics and life-skills. CQ: What training or other preparation did you have for your work as a multicultural school psychologist? Carlos: I studied Sociology at Berkeley as an undergraduate and was able to walk through an urban laboratory everyday. My time and studies there gave me an understanding of the institutions that we are all exposed to and their influence on us. More importantly, this foundation helped me focus on the context of a given situation and search beyond the obvious for deeper explanations to the way things are. Always looking at things through their cultural contexts gives more credence and relevance to my end analysis. Trying to veer away from academics to ensure that school psychology was really where my heart was, I worked for almost three years as a claims representative for Social Security. Without realizing it at the time, this proved invaluable for my future as a multicultural psychologist because interacting effectively and compassionately with a wide cross-section of society is paramount to our work as school psychologists. My job at the time was to make comprehensible a complex, bureaucratic, government entity that families had to navigate during a time of great transition. The disability and retirement claims I helped people process were confusing and steeped in laws and regulations. They required clear communication between both parties. Many people were scared of the process or suspicious of dealing with the government. I came to recognize that and address those feelings up front so that more effective communication could take place. I relished the challenge of connecting in some way with all claimants so that, at the very least, they were heard and provided with the information that they needed. Even now I constantly utilize those public relations, listening, and communication skills when working with families from diverse backgrounds. CQ: What strategies have you found to be successful in reaching individuals from diverse backgrounds? Carlos: I work in two elementary schools in South Los Angles that primarily serve African-American and Latino students. As such, when I begin interactions, I try not to have any assumptions about the individuals or families that I interact with so that preconceived notions or hearsay do not taint my interactions. At the same time, I understand that I must be aware of where I am and whom I am working with. I use my experiences of working with students and families from diverse backgrounds to guide the assessment process. I do not apply this information as a blanket profile, but use my experience and knowledge base for awareness of important issues and to inform how I interpret data. As part of the respect I establish with families, I try to see the school entity and myself through their eyes and proceed accordingly. The low SES communities that I work

in regard public institutions with weakened levels of trust. Once I acknowledge and accept that, like it or not, I am part of a government and a bureaucracy, I do not take initial impressions or misunderstandings personally. Instead, I focus on what I can control. I do my best to initiate interactions with students and parents that emphasize clear communication of the process and reciprocity of ideas/input. My intention is to do what I can for the benefit of the child. Receptively, I focus on listening to students and parents and hearing their primary concerns. When doing so, I try to mirror the body language or tone of my informants to create a sense of connection that aids conversation and the exchange of ideas. Overall, I work to foster mutual understanding so that everyone involved works together during the process for the best outcome possible. CQ: What results do those strategies give you? Carlos: I’ve been fortune to have positive interactions. I get a lot of appreciation from parents for my efforts to try and help their children. They thank me for listening and for understanding how difficult it can be in some families to help their children when English is a second language or when supporting a family takes up so much time and effort. I am encouraged by the honesty and willingness to share that I sometimes see in parents when they must discuss difficult information with me. Sometimes just a smile or a relaxed look after an IEP meeting encourages me to always put people first. Similarly, smiles from the students I work with and other small forms of appreciation motivate me to continue learning from my experiences and improve. CQ: Please describe an experience where you believe that being a multicultural school psychologist helped you make a difference in the life of a learner. Carlos: I remember a student named Alan who I worked with some time ago. He had quite a reputation as a behavior problem. Many in the school had essentially given up on him. He was not allowed to play at recess or enjoy other extracurricular activities. His family was from a Middle Eastern country and was known at the school for a lack of involvement. During my first meeting with his mother, she nearly broke down in tears with frustration at his reading and behavioral difficulties. Shortly afterwards, she apologized profusely for doing so. Not only did I thank her for caring so much about Alan to do something she normally would not do in her culture, but I showed her that it was culturally appropriate in the school setting — and within her rights as a parent — to advocate publicly for the welfare of her son. I used the incident as a breakthrough moment to discuss the challenges of acculturation and how it is often difficult to reconcile differences in culture between home and school. The knowledge gained from our conversation about Alan’s culture and home life helped provide a framework for working with him. With social skill support, I advocated a fresh start for him at the school and began some positive behavior support. Our conversation also helped his mother learn more about the world Alan entered everyday and the ways that she could support his progress. With improvement in his behavior and self-esteem, we were better able to address his reading difficulties. CQ: Who is your hero, your role model, or the person whom you admire most? How does emulating that person affect your practice as a multicultural school psychologist? Carlos: One of my professors at Cal State Long Beach, Dr. Judy McBride, has become a mentor and role model in the field. Her work in the Milwaukee Public Schools and in Long Beach Unified with CLD students highlights a sensitivity and understanding of the communities that these students live in. Her work is also an example of a belief that all students are in fact “kids” and want to please the caring adults around them and succeed. Dr. McBride embodies a long list of intangible attributes that highly influence my practice. She has instilled a sense of positive pragmatism that inspires me to always think of what I can do or hope for when working with CLD students, especially those from environments that present innumerable challenges. Every time that I can be a caring, adult male figure in a child’s life at school, I’m hoping to create a circle of care. Every time I create bonds with parents and teachers as an ally and advocate, I’m helping to create a system of support. I’m encouraged to believe proactive interactions with students, parents, and teachers can bring about real change in schools in low SES areas with students of diverse backgrounds. I also practice a belief learned that even when I do not succeed or when things do not work as I had hoped, I continue to learn and expand my knowledge base with every interaction. Finally, in emulating her creativity, I try and think outside the box and come up with ideas and solutions that utilize strengths or existing resources to make the best of whatever situation I am faced with. CQ: Burnout is a problem that all educators face. What do you do to renew your spirit and energies? Carlos: I feel that finding outlets and passions is paramount to remaining an invigorated and effective professional. I put a premium on staying active by playing soccer every other weekend with friends and going to the gym during the week. The former is fun, helps me keep in touch with good people, and gives me the exhaustion needed to truly relax. The latter is my stress release — I do not have to talk to anyone, and I get to listen to all the CDs that I do not play nearly enough. As a music lover, I still try to see live music when I can around town with friends. This gives us a way to stay connected as well as support art and creative people. I truly believe that the happier and more at peace I am away from work, the more energy and enthusiasm I bring to my schools.  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Carlos Guerrero invites NASP members interested in volunteering in the Latino Workgroup to e-mail him at carlos. [email protected]. The group will collaborate to develop NASP resources in the area of culturally competent practices. If you have a suggestion for a subject for Spotlight on Multicultural Affairs, please contact Terry Bontrager at [email protected]

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 9

2007 NASP Annual Convention, March 28–31

Start Spreading the News: New York Neighborhoods ton (and that is pronounced “House-ton”in New York), home to many art galleries, as is nearby Chelsea. Two famous ethnic areas are Chinatown and Little Italy, which bump up against each other at Canal Street. The Lower East Side, once the home to waves of immigrants, is now quite the hot spot, with popular restaurants and clubs. TriBeCa (for the Triangle Below Canal) is home to Meryl Streep, Robert DeNiro, and lots of trendy restaurants. The Meat Packing District, around 13th Street, is just emerging as a hot spot with several highly rated restaurants and exciting clubs. Also in lower Manhattan is the Financial District with Wall Street and the New York Stock Exchange. The Financial District is also home to “Ground Zero” where the World Trade Center once stood.

By Merryl Bushansky & Patricia Manning, Local Arrangements Cochairs The Bronx is up and the Battery’s down. The people ride in a hole in the ground. New York, New York, it’s a wonderful town. New York may be an enormous city, but it is made up of hundreds of people-friendly neighborhoods. Most of these are in the “outer boroughs:” Flatbush, Park Slope, and Greenpoint in Brooklyn; Flushing, Jackson Heights, and Jamaica in Queens; Riverdale, Fordham, and Pelham Bay in the Bronx; Tottenville, New Dorp, and Bay Terrace on Staten Island (just to name several). Few visitors to the city, however, make the trek to the outer boroughs and most are more interested in Manhattan neighborhoods. Even that list is a formidable one! To help you sort them out, we offer our suggestions for the more popular and interesting of the lot.

Northern Manhattan

The Manhattan Grid (It’s simple; it’s an island!)

Northern Manhattan has its own charms. Harlem, a center of African American culture, is famous for the Apollo Theater, soul food restaurants, and Bill Clinton’s office. In neighboring Morningside Heights you will find Columbia University and the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. The Upper East Side is one of Manhattan’s wealthier neighborhoods. Check out the boutiques on Madison Avenue, the bars on Second Avenue, and the museums on Fifth (also known as Museum Mile). The Upper West Side, made famous by Woody Allen, is probably more hip and counts among its residents Jerry Seinfeld and Cynthia Nixon. Two of New York’s most famous food emporiums, Zabars and Fairway, can be found here.

Though the idea of negotiating Manhattan may seem a bit daunting, it really is quite an organized city. There’s uptown (The Upper East Side, The Upper West Side, Harlem), downtown (the Village, Tribeca, SoHo), and midtown. The island is divided into the East Side and the West Side by Fifth Avenue and Central Park. East of Fifth Avenue, the avenues are Madison, Park, Lexington, Third, Second, First, and (above 59th Street) York, and then you find yourself at the East River. West of Fifth Avenue, the avenues are Sixth (aka Avenue of the Americas), Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Avenues, and then there is the Hudson River. And that is it – the island is only about a mile or two wide. The streets, which run east to west, are all numbered. As you travel north, the numbers go up from the single digits in the Village to the 200’s at Manhattan’s northern tip. Remember 52nd, 53rd, and 54th Streets, because that is where the convention hotels are located.

Midtown (Convention Central) Midtown, where the Convention will be held, is the heart of the city. It includes the Theater District and Times Square. The presence of Grand Central and Penn Stations makes it the most convenient place to work for the thousands of commuters who come into Manhattan every day. For shopping there is Macy’s, the largest store in the world, and Bloomingdales, “like no other store in the world.” Three blocks from the convention hotels you will find 57th Street, the most expensive real estate in the city; at 59th you will find the most beautiful real estate in the city, Central Park. We hope that our tour through Manhattan neighborhoods has put you in Billy Joel’s “New York State of Mind.” See you there! 

Lower Manhattan Lower Manhattan actually consists of many neighborhoods, each with its own atmosphere and each a destination in its own right. The most famous of these would be Greenwich Village (known to New Yorkers as “The Village”). Once the home of Bohemian New York, it is now known for its shopping, restaurants, and great jazz, but it is still a charming residential area. Just south of the Village is SoHo for South of Hous-

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PAGE 10 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

IDEA IN PRACTICE By Mary Beth Klotz, NCSP Director of IDEA Projects and Technical Assistance

IDEA 2004 Resources New Roles in Response to Intervention: Creating Success for Schools and Children. NASP, along with 12 other national organizations, has produced a set of fact sheets on the roles of parents and professionals in RTI models. The November 2006 compendium includes a common introduction that provides the reader with the big ideas of RTI and individual organization’s fact sheets. The fact sheets were adapted from NASP’s Problem Solving and RTI: New Roles for School Psychologists, by Andrea Canter, Communique’, 34, (5), insert (February 2005). See: www.nasponline.org/advocacy/rtifactsheets.aspx The School Psychology Forum: Research in Practice online journal was recently launched by NASP. It provides NASP members with easy access to a discussion of timely, practice-focused topics regarding the delivery of school psychological services. This fi rst issue of SPF, Vol. 1, Issue 1 (November 2006) focuses on RTI. Access the fi rst issue of SPF today at: www.nasponline.org/publications/spf/index.aspx IDEA 2004 video clips. Recently, the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) hosted a webcast, “Building the Legacy: IDEA 2004,” on the Part B fi nal regulations that were released in August 2006. Video clips from the webcast are posted on OSEP’s IDEA 2004 website. The topics of the video clips include: Early Intervening Services/Response to Intervention, Changes in Initial Evaluations and Reevaluations, Procedural Safeguards, IEPs, and Private Schools. Visit http://idea.ed.gov to view the videos and to access extensive resources on the law and regulations.

IDEA 2004 News OSEP’s community based public meetings were held in the fall of 2006. The NASP GPR Committee organized leader representatives to participate at each of the public meetings that were held in Sacramento, CA; Denver, CO; Dallas, TX; Minneapolis, MN; Seattle, WA; Philadelphia, PA; and Charlotte, NC. Important information and discussion of IDEA implementation issues were addressed. Attending leaders

2007 NASP Annual Convention, March 28–31

Career Planning Sessions Offer Great Insights at 2007 Convention By Pete Reynolds, Career Service Cochair

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areer planning services are a familiar feature to job seekers and graduating students at NASP conventions, but getting the interview is just one of many critical professional transitions for every school psychologist. While you’re at the New York City Convention, find out some new ways to get ahead. This year, some of our offerings have changed in format. We will continue to offer the very popular seminar on “Getting and Keeping Your First Job.” However, our other seminars will be delivered as discussion and networking sessions, Conversations With Colleagues. Each will be coordinated by an individual experienced in the topic, who will lead the discussion and assist participants in gaining the information they need to make a successful professional transition. This year’s career planning and transition sessions will help you: • Find employment, organize a professional portfolio, and use web-based services offered to all NASP members. *SE11. Getting and Keeping Your First Job as a School Psychologist (Brian Hill, NCSP; Robert Kubick, NCSP; and Jeffrey York, NCSP). Always well-attended (remember to register in advance), this is a comprehensive warm-up for a powerful interview or personnel presentation, including tips on how to organize a professional portfolio and making best use of the NASP Online Career Service ($10 registration fee; see the Convention registration form). Wednesday, March 28, 2:00–5:00 PM. • Balance the demands of early career, professional development, and family. *SS36. Balancing Early Career and Family (Craig Albers, PhD; Ted Christ, PhD; Janay Sander, PhD.) Thursday, March 29, 12:00–1:00 PM. • Work better with your boss. *SS35. Partnering With Supervisors: Essential Skills for School Psychologists (Carol Kelly, PhD, NCSP). Tuesday, March 27, 1:00–2:00 PM. • Become a school administrator. *SS34. School Psychology Practitioner to School Administrator (Carol Kelly, PhD, NCSP). Tuesday, March 27, from 12:00–1:00 PM. • Move to academia as a trainer for school psychologists. *SS37. Transition from School Psychology Practitioner to Training Program Faculty (Leigh Armistead, PhD, NCSP; Diane Smallwood, PsyD, NCSP; Barbara Bole Williams, PhD, NCSP). Friday, March 30, 12:00–1:00 PM. • Make rational retirement decisions. *SS38. The Transition to Retirement (Alex Thomas, PhD, NCSP; Sue Hildebrandt, NCSP retired; Kristine Sieckert, EdS, NCSP). Friday, March 30, 1:00–2:00 PM.  * Conversations With Colleagues are free of charge with convention registration.

were asked to pay close attention to the topics discussed, questions asked, and any information that could be potentially important to school psychologists. NASP plans to form a discussion group to address any issues or potential future activities needed based upon the outcomes from the public meetings. OSEP funds new center for young children: National Professional Development Center on Inclusion (NPDCI). The majority of early childhood personnel are not adequately prepared to modify teaching methods and curriculum to ensure full participation of children with disabilities. The goal of the Center is to work with states to create a system of high quality, cross-agency, accessible professional development for early childhood personnel. For more information visit their website at http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~npdci

Spotlight on Special Education Research Institute of Education Sciences: National Center for Special Education Research (NCSER). IDEA 2004 established the NCSER as part of the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) within the U.S. Department of Education. IDEA requires that children with unique individual needs receive specially designed instruction. NCSER meets this promise by systematically exploring how to best design instruction to meet the needs of each child with a disability. NCSER funds comprehensive programs of research designed to improve educational outcomes and quality of life for infants, toddlers, and children with disabilities; evaluate the implementation and effectiveness of the IDEA; and examine empirically issues facing children with disabilities, their parents, school personnel, and others. NCSER funds a full range of research proposals with designs that range from experimental studies to examine new and innovative interventions; to large-scale studies that replicate well-established instructional strategies; and small, single subject, exploratory studies to determine the most effective strategies and systems for identifying and responding to children with unique needs. NCSER’s research investments fall within 10 categories such as assessment for accountability, or serious behavior disorders. A description of currently funded projects and programs may be found on the IES website. For notification on upcoming funding opportunities, please subscribe to IES Newsflash at http://ies. ed.gov/newsflash/index.aspx

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and Students With Disabilities Three more states approved for growth model assessments to measure AYP. Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings announced approval of funding for three additional state plans to implement high-quality growth model assessments which follow the principles of NCLB. Delaware is immediately approved to use the growth model for the 2006–2007 school year. Arkansas and Florida have also submitted proposals, but they must fi rst have their assessment systems approved by the Department before they can implement their models for the 2006–2007 school year. Tennessee and North Carolina received full approval to implement their growth models this past school year. The Department plans to approve no more than 10 high-quality growth models for the pilot program. A rigorous peer review process was used to ensure that the selection was fair for all participating states. The Department is gathering data to test the idea that growth models can be fair, reliable and innovative methods to measure student improvement and to hold schools accountable for results. Growth models track individual student achievement from one year to the next, giving schools credit for student improvement over time rather than on a particular day of testing. The use of growth models holds particular interest for students with disabilities. See the press release at www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2006/11/11092006a.html

Cultural Diversity NASP’s Culturally Competent Practice webpage at www.nasponline.org/resources/culturalcompetence/website.aspx includes an extensive annotated list of “websites of the month” that offer excellent resources and information for working with children and families from diverse backgrounds. A recently featured website was the Special EDge online newsletter that is funded by the California Department of Education, Special Education Division and focuses on important topics such as disproportionate representation in special education. The autumn 2006, Vol. 20, No. 1 issue included an article by NASP members Valerie Cook-Morales, Carol Robinson-Zanartu, and Tonika Duren Green entitled, “Moving from Evaluation to Assessment.” National Center for Culturally Responsive Systems (NCCRESt) released the exemplar, Proactive Culturally Responsive Discipline, in November 2006. The document notes that exclusionary approaches to discipline have historically been applied at a higher rate to students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. The exemplar presents how one urban middle school in Phoenix, Arizona incorporates positive approaches to discipline into the everyday practices of the school community. The result is a safe, positive school climate, leading to a reduction of student discipline problems that in turn prevent disproportionate representation of CLD students in special education due to social, emotional and behavioral difficulties. See: http://www.nccrest.org/publications/exemplars.html

Reading NASP members may order a copy of the Reading Rockets Toolkit for School Psychologists (binder, video, and DVD) for $45 by emailing their requests to the NASP office, attention Mary Beth Klotz, [email protected]. Visit the NASP reading webpage for news and related articles at www.nasponline.org/resources/reading/index.aspx  Some of the information in this issue provided by the following recent e-newsletters, Access Center, IDEA Partnership, Education Daily, and CEC’s Policy Update.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 11

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“EBSCO provides easy-to-use access to current research on ‘what works’ for my practice. It is an important tool that improves my work with children, parents, and educators.” —William Pfohl, School Psychologist and Trainer

NASP now offers an EBSCO online library at a low subscription rate exclusively for NASP members. EBSCO provides school psychology practitioners, trainers, and students with 24/7 access to full-text titles from literally hundreds of peer-reviewed journals. Six comprehensive databases in the NASP collection include: • • • • • •

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PAGE 12 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

COMMUNICATION MATTERS School Psychologists and Violence Prevention By Cherisse Walker, NCSP Communications Workgroup Cochair

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chool is generally thought of as a protective haven where students learn, grow, and thrive. Indeed, current studies show that schools are among the safest places for children and that school violence rates have dropped significantly over the past decade. However, the threat of violence is still a concern in schools across the nation and consistent, comprehensive prevention efforts must continue to be a priority. Violence of any kind within a school community can interrupt teaching and learning; jeopardize the safety and security of students, teachers, and others in the building; and hamper the healthy social-emotional development of students. It can take many forms, ranging from bullying and fighting to more serious armed or sexual assault, gang activity, and self-harm or attempted suicide. Whether directed at others or oneself, violent behavior often reflects a mental health problem, making it imperative that prevention efforts be integrated into the school’s mental health promotion and early intervention services. Violence prevention is an area of responsibility for which school psychologists are well equipped. Our specialized training in consultation and collaboration, assessment of individual and group needs, program research and evaluation, data-based decision-making and accountability, crisis response, and other mental health services all contribute to our ability to be invaluable change agents in terms of violence prevention in the schools. Critical to this is heightening awareness of our skills and best practice through better communication with school personnel, parents, and other stakeholders. Generally, school personnel and others know that we are highly trained professionals who have the requisite skills needed for psychoeducational assessment and other jobs related to this responsibility. However, depending on the environment in which we work, we may need to communicate the fact that school psychologists’ skills are useful beyond the realm of special education assessment. Reaching out through violence prevention provides an excellent opportunity to communicate our broader skills, whether it is beginning violence prevention activities in our schools or fine-tuning existing efforts and taking them to a new level of effectiveness. Following are some key messages and NASP resources on the topic of school violence prevention for you to use in your communications efforts. Additionally, the handout included in this issue, Violence Prevention: A Mental Health Issue, Tips for Parents and Educators, is available online in NASP Member Resources at www.nasponline.org.

Key Messages School psychologists can provide consultation and collaboration services to assist schools with forming effective school safety teams. School safety teams are a foundational component of successful school violence prevention. As school psychologists, we can use our knowledge and skills related to problem-solving to assist school safety teams develop violence prevention strategies, determine the most appropriate ways to carry out strategies and the appropriate team member for each task, and design methods to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies. School psychologists can help conduct needs assessments for intervention planning purposes. Our data-based decision making and accountability skills are very useful in gathering data about an individual school’s specific needs, whether it is determining the main sources of violence at a school or identifying program components that a school is lacking to address their violence prevention needs. Needs assessments can be done in many ways including obtaining interview and/or survey data. School psychologists have access to a variety of existing assessment tools and we have the skills to create our own assessment instruments, as needed. We can help analyze data and communicate results to school personnel and other key individuals as part of an effort to develop realistic goals and intervention plans. School psychologists can use their assessment skills to identify and address social-emotional indicators of potentially violent youth. Aggression is a behavioral characteristic often linked to violent behavior. Although not all students who commit violent acts at school consistently exhibit aggression, it is important to identify students who are at risk and address the negative emotions, thought patterns, and/or mental health issues underlying the behavior before it turns to violence. School psychologists have the skills to both conduct functional behavior assessments and teach positive behavioral coping strategies and replacement behaviors. School psychologists can use their program evaluation and research knowledge to help schools select the most effective violence prevention programs for their student populations. There are a variety of violence prevention programs on the market (e.g., Peace Builders, Second Step) that schools may purchase. However, it is very important that schools select programs that are known to be effective for their intended age group/population and possess a strong research basis. For instance, there seems to

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o our very patient Firefox, Netscape, and Mozilla users, we appreciate your patience while we were waiting for our web programmers to complete work on the login repair. If you are using a public computer: Make sure you log out before leaving the computer; simply closing the browser window will not automatically end your session. Please protect your information and log out completely! 

be more evidence on the success of programs in decreasing aggression and increasing prosocial behaviors in young children than in adolescents. This is pertinent information that school psychologists can convey in their work with schools to select programs that best meet students’ needs across the entire spectrum of the school-age population. School psychologists can facilitate the home-school collaboration needed to strengthen violence prevention in schools. School psychologists are skilled at working with both parents and educators; therefore, we are well suited to bridge the gap between the home and school environments as it relates to violence prevention. Parent involvement is highly correlated with the success of many school efforts and violence prevention is no exception. School psychologists can increase parent involvement by offering parent information and training sessions about various ways that they can assist with school violence prevention, encouraging parent participation on school safety teams, and encouraging parents to monitor any unusual or alarming behavior changes in their children and to seek professional help for their children as necessary. School psychologist can provide school-based mental health services to students. Violent offenders may suffer from the absence of an emotional support system, an inability to work through their personal difficulties, and/or a serious mental health problem. School psychologists can provide important school-based mental health services, such as identification, counseling, and referrals for students as needed. 

NASP Resources NASP has a number of resources available to assist school psychologists, schools, families, and communities with violence prevention efforts. Many of these can be assessed online at www.nasponline.org. Boland, P. Vulnerability to violence among gay, lesbian and bisexual youth. Retrieved December, 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/crisis_safety/neat_vulnerability.aspx Creating a safe school building. Retrieved December, 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/crisis_safety/neat_buildings.aspx Dwyer, K., Osher, D., & Wagner, C. (1998). Early warning, timely response: A guide to safe schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/handouts/guide.pdf Dwyer, K. & Osher, D. (2000). Safeguarding our children: An action guide. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education and Justice, American Institutes for research. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://cecp.air.org/guide/actionguide.asp Feinberg, T. (2003, September). Bullying prevention and intervention. Principal Leadership, 4 (1). Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/ principals/nassp_bullying.aspx Furlong, M. J., Felix, M. D., Sharkey, J. D., & Larson, J. (2005, September). Preventing school violence: A plan for safe and engaging schools. Principal Leadership, 6 (1), 11–15. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/ principals/Student%20Counseling%20Violence%20Prevention.pdf Jimerson, S. R., Brock, S. E., & Kowan, K. C. (2005, October). Threat assessment: An essential component of a comprehensive safe school program. Principal Leadership, 6 (2),11–15. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/ principals/nassp_threat.pdf Lazarus, J., Smith, D. C., & Furlong, M. J. (2002). Best practices in school violence prevention. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-IV, (pp. 1081–1097). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. McLoughlin, C. S., Kubick, R. J. Jr., and Lewis, M. (2002). Best practices in promoting safe schools. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-IV (pp. 1181–1194). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. NASP (2002). Position Statement on School Violence. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/pospaper_violence.aspx Poland, S., Pitcher, G., & Lazarus, P. M. (2002). Best practices in crisis prevention and management. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-IV (pp. 1057–1079). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Poland, S. (2000, March). The non-hardware side of school safety. Communiqué, 28 (6). Sassu, K. A., Elinoff, M. J., Bray, M. A., & Kehle, T. J. (2004). Bullies and victims: Information for parents. In Canter, A. et al. (Eds.), Helping children at home and at school II: Handouts for families and educators (pp. S4, 17–20). Bethesda, MD: NASP. Shapiro, J. P. (1999, March). The peacemakers program: Effective violence prevention for early adolescent youth. Communiqué, 27 (6). Skiba, R. (2004). Bullying and bullying prevention: Information for educators. In Canter, A. et al. (Eds.), Helping children at home and at school II: Handouts for families and educators (pp. S4–25–28). Bethesda, MD: NASP. Skiba, R., Ritter, S., Peterson, R., Miller, C., & Forde, S. (2002, March). Creating safe and responsive schools: Systems change issues in school violence prevention. Communiqué, 30 (6). Talking to children about violence. Retrieved December, 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/crisis_safety/Talking%20With%20Childr%20About%20Violen ce%20FINAL.pdf Taub, J. (2001). Evaluation of the Second Step violence prevention program at a rural elementary school. School Psychology Review, 31, 186–200. Retrieved, December 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/publications/spr/pdf/spr312taub.pdf Tips for school administrators for reinforcing school safety. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/crisis_safety/schoolsafety_admin.aspx © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 13

PAGE 14 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

RESEARCH REVIEWS Family-Focused Treatment of Children’s Anxiety Disorders By Sarah G. Reck

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ssociate Editor’s Note: This column is provided by the NASP Research Committee. It is intended to present readers with a very brief synopsis of selected articles that have recently appeared in leading journals in school psychology and related areas. Articles in the School Psychology Review are not included since readers of the Communiqué receive this journal. In this issue, we present a review of research on family focused interventions to address childhood anxiety disorders. A companion article evaluating the outcomes of these interventions is provided on page 16. — Steve Landau Anxiety disorders tend to run in families. This is due to both genetic predisposition (Hettema, Neale, Myers, Prescott, & Kendler, 2006) and parental maintenance of the child’s anxious behaviors (Cobham, Dadds, & Spence, 1999). Thus, anxious children often have anxious parents. Because informants often disagree, the reliable assessment of child and adolescent anxiety disorders can be challenging. Researchers recognize that these disagreements are inevitable, and even facilitate an understanding of individual perceptions of the disorder (Silverman & Ollendick, 2005). Best practice recommendations for assessment include using structured or semi-structured interviews with multiple informants (including the child), determining the presence of comorbid disorders (especially depression) with behavior rating scales, and incorporating multiple methods (Silverman & Ollendick, 2005). However, when one of the informants (e.g., the parent) is also personally experiencing an anxiety disorder, the resulting data can be misleading. Parental anxiety is a risk factor in the development of childhood anxiety (Donovan & Spence, 2000). Anxious parents tend to reinforce and maintain their child’s anxiety more than non-anxious parents by reinforcing the child’s maladaptive coping responses, thus enabling the child to experience more anxious feelings. In addition, these parents may be over-controlling, overprotective, and overly critical. Cobham, Dadds, and Spence (1998) found that when a child participant was given an anxietyprovoking task in the lab, parents of anxious children expected their children to be anxious and encouraged them to choose an avoidant response to the task, even though the anxious children themselves were no more likely than controls to opt out of this anxiety-provoking activity. When an anxiety disorder has been identified, it is important to begin treatment as soon as possible. The treatment literature is promising, and cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) has been accepted as the “gold standard” for treatment of child and adolescent anxiety disorders (Barrett, 2000). Following a manualized CBT treatment designed for children with anxiety disorders, Kendall (1994) found that over one-half of treated children no longer met diagnostic criteria for their anxiety disorder. These results have been replicated in many treatment studies (see Mitte, 2005, for a review). However, because of high familial loading, parental involvement in the treatment of children’s anxiety disorder is essential. When adding a family component to CBT, results can be more effective than CBT alone (Barrett, 2000). The family component teaches parents to recognize how their responses to the child maintain the child’s anxious experiences, and teaches alternative behaviors to both the family and the child. The role of parental anxiety must be considered in family treatment studies. The following represents an examination of parental characteristics associated with child anxiety treatment outcomes. Moore, P. S., Whaley, S. E., & Sigman, M. (2004). Interactions between mothers and children: Impacts of maternal and child anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 471–476. Because current anxiety theorists hypothesize that parental anxiety may maintain or worsen child anxiety, Moore et al. created a laboratory-based task to examine the role of parental anxiety in the experience of child anxiety. Specifically, 68 mother-child pairs, with the children between 7 and 15 years of age, served as participants. Based on diagnostic interviews, there were 29 dyads in which both mother and child were anxious, 15 dyads in which the child was anxious but the mother was not, 8 dyads in which the mother was anxious but the child was not, and 16 dyads in which neither was anxious. Each of the anxiety disorders was represented, and comorbidity with other anxiety disorders was common. Mother-child dyads were asked to complete three laboratory tasks. First, in the “ideal person” task, dyads were to “warm up” by talking about what makes an ideal person. Next, in the conflict conversation task, dyads were asked to identify an existing area of parent-child conflict, and to then solve the problem. After 5 minutes, the dyads were asked to discuss their solutions, followed by a 5-minute discussion regarding what makes the child anxious. Observation data indicated that parents of anxious children, regardless of their own anxiety disorder, showed less warmth toward their children than mothers of non-anxious children. Moreover, regardless of their own anxiety, mothers of anxious children were more overprotective than mothers of non-anxious children. However, mothers with anxiety diagnoses exaggerated negative outcomes and expressed these predictions to their children. These fi ndings suggest that regardless of their own anxiety status, mothers of children with anxiety disorders play a role in the maintenance of the child’s anxiety, and should be included in a best practices treatment design.

Wood, J. J., Piacentini, J. C., Southam-Gerow, M., Chu, B. C., & Sigman, M. (2006). Family cognitive behavioral therapy for child anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 314–321. This study compared the efficacy of child-focused and family-focused CBT based on Kendall’s (1994) Coping Cat program. Specifically, 40 children met DSM-IV criteria for Separation Anxiety Disorder, Social Phobia, or Generalized Anxiety Disorder. In this intent-to-treat design, children were assigned to either a child-focused or a family-focused treatment group. Length of treatment was dependent on individual needs, and treatments lasted 12 to 16 sessions and 60 to 80 minutes in length. This study did not assess parental characteristics; however, due to genetic estimates, it is likely that many of the parents of these anxious children were experiencing anxiety problems themselves. The family-focused treatment emphasized in vivo exposure procedures plus parent training regarding systematic responses to the child. Specifically, parents were taught to give choices to the child when he/she was indecisive, to allow the child to struggle and learn by trial and error (and to refrain from taking control of the situation), to label and accept the child’s emotional responses, and to promote new self-help skills. Finally, a family meeting was conducted at the end of each session. Although both groups exhibited improvement on outcome measures, children in the family-focused CBT intervention evinced a greater reduction in anxiety symptoms relative to those in the child-focused condition based on independent and parent ratings. However, the two treatment groups did not differ on self-rated improvement. The authors hypothesized that the efficacy of their family-based intervention depended on parent-child communication skills that facilitated parents in granting more autonomy to the child and becoming less intrusive. These components may break the cycle of behaviors that reinforce the child’s anxiety. Bögels, S. M., & Siqueland, L. (2006). Family cognitive behavioral therapy for children and adolescents with clinical anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 134–141. This study examined the efficacy of a family-cognitive behavioral treatment for children and adolescents, and was unique because most therapeutic time was spent with the entire family, and not with the anxious child alone. Seventeen families participated in the treatment. All children had a primary diagnosis of one of the anxiety disorders, and 14 had comorbid diagnoses. A natural wait list acted as a control condition. The investigators assessed parental psychopathology, parent child-rearing beliefs, and family functioning. The treatment was designed to decrease child anxiety and dysfunctional thinking, as well as parental anxiety and anxiety-enhancing parenting behaviors. The overall goal was improved family functioning. The first session, dispensed to the entire family, involved information gathering, and focused on family beliefs about what causes and maintains an anxiety disorder. Then, cognitive behavioral skills were taught to the child and parents regarding how to identify the problem and how to challenge negative beliefs. Exposure skills were also taught through modeling and in vivo experiences. In the second phase, parent-child characteristics that may block treatment progress were challenged. In the third phase, there was a focus on communication and problemsolving within a family context, centering on the child’s anxiety. The objective was to improve family communication about the child’s anxiety disorder. Although norm-referenced data were not available, results indicated that family treatment led to reduced parent and child anxiety, reduced dysfunctional beliefs, and improved family functioning. Moreover, following treatment, parents exhibited more appropriate child rearing practices, as rated by the parent. The above studies support the notion that children’s anxiety disorders must be considered from a systems perspective in general, and a family context in particular. Decades of research have identified CBT as an empirically supportable treatment for children’s anxiety disorders. However, research also suggests that integration of a family component to the CBT regimen will strengthen treatment effects experienced by the child and improve family functioning. 

References Barrett, P. M. (2000). Treatment of childhood anxiety: Developmental aspects. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 479–494. Cobham, V. E., Dadds, M. R., & Spence, S. H. (1999). Anxious children and their parents: What do they expect? Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 220–231. Donovan, C. L. & Spence, S. H. (2000). Prevention of childhood anxiety disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 509–531. Hettema, J. M., Neale, M. C., Myers, J. M., Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (2006). A population-based twin study of the relationship between neuroticism and internalizing disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 857–864. Kendall, P. C. (1994). Treating anxiety disorders in children: Results of a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 100–110. Mitte, K. (2005). Meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioral treatments for generalized anxiety disorder: A comparison with pharmacotherapy. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 785–795. Silverman, W. K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 380–411. © 2007, Naitonal Association of School Psychologists. Sarah G. Reck is an advanced PhD student in School Psychology, Department of Psychology, at Illinois State University. Her research interests involve a focus on children’s working memory deficits and executive functioning.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 15

Book Review

Healing the Soul Wound: Counseling With American Indians and Other Native Peoples By Dr. Eduardo Duran & Allen E. Ivey (2006, Teachers College Press) Reviewed by Paul Dauphinais, NCSP

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r. Duran is an engaging Native American psychologist who came out of the graduate chute fully ready to take on any problem with the newly learned and practiced behaviorist principles. His journey as a psychologist began and continues in Indian country. His books include Native American Postcolonial Psychology (1995), the Buddha in Red Face (2003), and others. Speaking like a philosopher (which is the backdrop of our profession), he is always challenging his readers or audiences. He speaks of ideas that are philosophical in nature and puzzling for many who listen, and often out of the realm of their experience. However, what he writes about is not unfamiliar. Many indigenous men and women speak of and celebrate that all-encompassing connection with all core elements: air, rock, water, spirit, and the spiritual environment. We are but part of this shared environment; we are but only one piece of a much larger puzzle. Dr. Duran explains in terms that readers, even uninformed readers, can begin to understand. Yet Dr. Duran is able to articulate, in user-friendly terms, concepts and practices of healing. “What is the soul wound?” Eduardo will explain that our shared Native American traumatic experiences have created an open, deep, and lasting wound. This generational post-traumatic stress is festering until healed. Dr. Duran speaks to all of us in his book; we need to address these traumatic historical events that, once known, can tear your heart and soul and can make you very angry; you just want to address these traumas on behalf of grandma and grandpa and all our relatives who stand behind us now. So many informed and spiritual leaders in the Native American world tell us that we must learn about and amend this horrific past. Every tribal group that I know or have read about has a history of significant deadly encounters with settlers, beginning with Columbus. Dr. Duran has written and spoken of this “soul wound” as the source of our contemporary failings; he states that he is not providing an excuse for blind selfaccusers (do-gooders) and the victim (the troubled Native American). Rather as this awareness of the cause of our hurt and the loss of our grandparents’ spiritual legacy is revealed, we become stronger in our forgiveness. Dr. Duran provides the reader with clear insights into his “working” sessions with clients. He is able to relate complex concepts that are not presented in our graduate schools. He goes beyond merely providing abstract proclamations; he provides a

theoretical base (indigenous and Jungian) for his therapeutic interventions. He gives insight into his and his client’s personal journeys and healing. As you read Healing the Soul Wound you begin to wonder whether you are able to apply these insights to your work with Native American children and families. Dr. Duran provides a “cautionary note to the operator” concerning helping others without sufficient background and experience into an unknown area that is very specialized. One must have the foundation of contemporary psychodynamic principles as well as knowledge and experience with Native American healing. The latter takes a very special training unlike any other. However, do not hesitate to read this book. It provides enlightening insights into indigenous healing in tandem with familiar psychological terms and the underlying concepts. Dr. Duran talks to us as if in supervision, providing a play-by-play of the therapist’s actions. He challenges to us to understand what his actions in response to the client will bring and to anticipate the effect of those actions. Even if you do not know any Native Americans and do not encounter us in your schools or mental health settings, you will be provided a guided tour of one Native American psychologist’s thinking, which is the result of years of contemporary clinical training and on-the-job experience with his own people (not necessarily his own tribe).  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Paul Dauphinais, PhD, NCSP, is past NASP delegate for North Dakota and heads the Native American Issues Group, a division of NASP’s Multicultural Committee. For some additional reading on this topic, see: The Last Voyage of Columbus, which documents the first deadly meetings between Native tribes and European settlers, and The Earth Shall Weep by Martin Dugard, which reports the free reign of terror delivered into the twentieth century with lasting effects today.

Bill Pfohl to Lead ISPA

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ongratulations to NASP Past President (twice) Bill Pfohl on his election as ISPA President Elect. Bill will serve two years as President Elect before taking over the leadership of the International School Psychologists Association in 2009. Bill was NASP President in 1996–97 and again in 2004–05. 

The writing is on the wall. We’re cutting out the overhead and tagging ALL proceeds from the NASP 5K Walk/Run to the Children’s Fund “I Like Me” book project.

REGISTER NOW!!! By 2/26/07: $15 After 2/26/07: $20

See the 5K Booth onsite for details.

Receive a waaaay too cool t-shirt as your memento of this 10th Anniversary, “no frills” (no timing, no medals, no refreshments) event AND support a fabulous charity.

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PAGE 16 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

E VALUATING INTERVENTION OUTCOMES Evaluation of Intervention Programs for Children’s Anxiety Disorders By Sarah G. Reck

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est-practice evaluation of children’s anxiety disorders is a multi-informant, comprehensive process that involves the use rating scales to act as screener for comorbid problems (e.g., to distinguish anxiety from depression) and to assess the locus and nature of the child’s impairment. In addition, interviews with the child, teachers, and parent(s), plus direct observations, are recommended (Silverman & Ollendick, 2005). The diagnostic system of DSM-IV (APA, 1994) is often criticized, as it is widely known that diagnoses per se do not to inform treatment decisions. However, differential diagnosis among the various disorders is an exception, as proper diagnosis can pinpoint the focus of the child’s treatment (e.g., the difference between Specific Phobia and Separation Anxiety Disorder will significantly impact the treatment decisions).

Treatment of Anxiety Disorders: Overview The research literature is replete with demonstrations regarding the evidence base of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) as treatment for children’s anxiety disorders. However, the psychologist must be cognizant of the child’s level of cognitive development before undertaking this strategy with very young children. Grave and Blissett’s (2004) review indicates that with certain modifications (i.e., creative delivery, the use of analogies), children as young as five years of age are able to benefit from CBT. However, there is limited research regarding its efficacy with the very young. At the opposite end of the developmental spectrum, Holmbeck, O’Mahar, Abad, Colder, and Updegrove (2006) reviewed the literature regarding the use of CBT with adolescents. Because of many changes that occur during this stage of development, the transitional nature of adolescence cannot be ignored. Consensus encourages consideration of biological transformations (i.e., puberty), emerging social roles and relationships, and general cognitive changes experienced by adolescents because these factors will directly influence achievement, identity, intimacy, and adjustment. Moreover, when treating adolescents alone or in a family context, it is important to take into consideration the teen’s relationships (i.e., familial, social, work-related, or romantic). It is also important to include family members in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Wood, Piacentini, Southam-Gerow, Chu, & Sigman 2006). However, if family involvement in treatment is not possible, it is essential to include parents and other family members in the initial assessment of the child’s problems as well as the evaluation of treatment outcome. One should anticipate differences among informants during these assessments, and these discrepancies clarify cross-setting differences in the referred child’s behavior and differences in perceptions and expectations among family members. As suggested by Silverman and Ollendick (2005), all sources provide interpretations that inform the diagnosis and intervention plan.

Assessing Treatment Efficacy Once an intervention has been implemented, it is important to assess treatment efficacy. One should ask: Was the intervention useful for the child and/or family? Silverman and Ollendick (2005) specifically recommend using the diagnostic recovery rates from the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Child and Parent Versions (ADIS; Silverman & Albano, 1996; Silverman, Saavedra, & Pina, 2001), the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS; Reynolds & Richmond, 1985), and the Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher Report Form (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001), provided these same instruments were used in the initial assessment. These instruments are common in both treatment and research studies, and their continued use as outcome evaluation measures will allow the field to move toward standardized methods to assess improvement. Although Silverman and Ollendick (2005) note that more research is needed on rating scales and their utility as measures of treatment efficacy, the RCMAS and the CBCL are the most commonly used instruments in CBT treatment evaluation studies. The ADIS (Silverman & Albano, 1996; Silverman, Saavedra, & Pina, 2001) is a common semi-structured interview often used in the initial assessment of anxiety disorders. There are child and parent versions, and both should be used. This interview is appropriate for children ages 6 to 18. With the ADIS, one gains the perspective of the child or parent, and the interviewer assigns severity ratings regarding the child’s or adolescent’s fear or avoidance of certain situations. Moreover, the ADIS yields moderate to high reliability coefficients for Social Phobia, Specific Phobia, Separation Anxiety Disorder, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Although there are other structured or semi-structured instruments that can be used for diagnosis, the ADIS is recommended for evaluating treatment efficacy because of its built-in diagnostic recovery rate scale. Moreover, this instrument has been used to evaluate the efficacy of CBT in most randomized clinical trials that have been completed, giving it a history of utility for outcome evaluation. The RCMAS (Reynolds & Richmond, 1985) is the most researched narrow-band selfreport anxiety scale. Because of its brevity (37 items to which the respondent answers yes or no), it is commonly used in both research and treatment assessment studies. Following treatment, it is often re-administered to determine if the child or adolescent has made improvement regarding symptoms of anxiety. The instrument yields a total anxiety score, as well as three subscales: Physiological Anxiety, Worry/Oversensitivity, and Social Concern/Concentration. As with the ADIS, the RCMAS has been used in treatment outcome studies to determine levels of improvement. Silverman and Ollendick (2005) encourage the field to continue to use these instruments to standard-

ize the process of outcome evaluation in order to facilitate communication among researchers and clinicians. The final instruments recommended by Silverman and Ollendick (2005) for outcome evaluation are the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and Teacher Report Form (TRF; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). These broadband scales yield both Externalizing and Internalizing scales. Subscales include: Withdrawn, Somatic Complaints, Anxious/Depressed, Social Problems, Thought Problems, Attention Problems, Delinquent Behavior, and Aggressive Behavior. The parent version (CBCL) contains 118 items, while the teacher version (TRF) includes 120 items. Retest reliability is high, and internal consistency within scales is considered moderate to high. Because there are parent and teacher versions of the scale, it is an ideal tool to synthesize impressions across informants. The CBCL and TRF note the child’s strengths as well as areas of weakness. The CBCL and TRF are widely used and have well-established norms. When using these for treatment outcome evaluation, “clinically significant” improvement would be noted by a T-score of less than 70 (i.e., < 2 SDs) on the broadband Internalizing scale (Silverman & Ollendick, 2005).

Additional Considerations Comorbidity and functional difficulties. Children and adolescents who experience anxiety disorders often have comorbid disorders. These may include another anxiety disorder, learning disability, Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, or Depression, among others. Even if children do not experience comorbid problems, it is likely they experience functional difficulties in academics or peer interactions. Sometimes, these additional concerns are directly addressed when designing interventions, and sometimes they are not. For example, with CBT, the child’s social skills may improve because exposure, modeling, and repeated practice are three essential components of CBT. However, academic performance is less directly targeted in CBT interventions. Thus, when designing a best-practice treatment outcome evaluation, it is essential to assess all of the areas that were concerns at referral. It may be that the benefits of CBT “trickle down” to other areas of functioning, such as academics; however, even if anxiety has improved post-treatment, but academics have not, this becomes a new area for treatment focus. Thus, outcome evaluation must target areas of impairment beyond the putative symptoms of anxiety disorder. School attendance is sometimes a problem for children and teens with anxiety disorders. If this is identified as a concern early in the assessment process, an easy way to monitor this concern is to examine the attendance records of the child before, during, and after the intervention. If symptoms of anxiety have remitted due to treatment, but school attendance has not improved, this suggests there are other factors that maintain the child’s school attendance problem. These must be addressed as well.

Summary: Best Practice In sum, a best-practice evaluation of treatment outcome for children and adolescents with anxiety disorders closely resembles a best-practice approach during initial assessment. Silverman and Ollendick (2005) recommend using a standardized set of measures to establish a research base for the community of professionals. Thus, it is important to balance the individual assessment needs of the child with a need to standardize the field. 

References Achenbach, T. M. & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families. American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Grave, J., & Blissett, J. (2004). Is cognitive behavior therapy developmentally appropriate for young children? A critical review of the evidence. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 399–420. Hinkle, J. S. (2004). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. In R. R. Erk (Ed.), Counseling treatment for children and adolescents with DSM-IV-TR disorders. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Holmbeck, G. N., O’Mahar, K., Abad, M., Colder, C., & Updegrove, A. (2006). Cognitive-behavioral therapy with adolescents: Guides from developmental psychology. In P. C. Kendall (Ed.), Child and adolescent therapy: Cognitive-Behavioral procedures (3rd Ed.) (pp. 419–464). New York: Guilford. Reynolds, C. R. & Richmond, B. O. (1985). Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale: Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services Silverman, W. K., & Albano, A. M. (1996). Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children for DSM-IV (Child and Parent Versions). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation/ Graywind. Silverman, W. K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 380–411. Silverman, W. K., Saavedra, L. M., & Pina, A. A. (2001). Test-retest reliability of anxiety symptoms and diagnoses using the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Child and Parent Versions (ADIS for DSM-IV: C/P). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 225–237. Wood, J. J., Piacentini, J. C., Southam-Gerow, M., Chu, B. C., & Sigman, M. (2006). Family cognitive behavioral therapy for child anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 314–321. © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Sarah G. Reck is an advanced PhD student in School Psychology, Department of Psychology, at Illinois State University. Her research interests involve a focus on children’s working memory deficits and executive functioning. See companion Research Reviews article on page 14.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 17

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PAGE 18 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

ADVOCACY IN ACTION The 2007 NASP Public Policy Institute: July 15–20, 2007 By Stacy K. Skalski, Director of Public Policy

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t’s time to save the date (July 15–20, 2007) for the new and improved 2007 NASP Public Policy Institute (PPI). For the first time, NASP will co-sponsor this important training opportunity with George Washington University’s (GWU) Graduate School of Education and Human Development, widely known as one of the premiere educational public policy graduate programs in the country.

History and Benefits of the NASP/GWU Partnership For many years, George Washington University has sponsored a summer federal public policy institute as part of their summer course offerings. For the last couple years the GWU PPI has had a special focus on how schools respond to children’s mental health issues. NASP staff actively contributed to the content and instruction of these institutes. In fact, last year, NASP shared in the planning of this institute and took the lead imple-

2007 NASP Annual Convention, March 28–31

Career Expo and Interview Services Combine Popular and New Features By Pete Reynolds, Career Service Cochair

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areer Services will be ready and waiting on March 29–30, 2007 at the New York Hilton hotel. Participating employers will be offering convention-goers the proven combination to get career-placement results: get-acquainted sessions, bulletin boards of employer advertising, and candidate interviews, all in a friendly setting. The good news is that these services are again free of charge to NASP members registered for the Convention. Go ahead and prepare to make your best professional presentation. Polish your resume and check the online NASP Career Service website (http://www.nasponline. org/careers/index.aspx). Also, check the website for a current list of “Employers Scheduled to Appear.” Remember, nothing beats meeting face-to-face with representatives of some of the most prominent employers nationwide. Representatives from about 40 school districts, private schools, agencies, universities, and private recruiters are expected to be on hand.

Meet and Greet at Career Expo on Thursday Putting your best foot forward means attending the Career Expo at Convention, with an informal “open floor” on Thursday, March 29, from 9:00–11:00 AM. This is your time to make introductions and decide which employers you want to learn more about through an interview. Brief inquiries and questions are welcome here! You can ask to make an interview appointment, offer to leave your professional resume with local contact information, or simply find out more about the specific advantages of working with several prospective employers.

Look for the New Employer Display Boards on Thursday and Friday You asked for more posted material about employers featured at the Career Expo and Candidate Interviews, and this year you can find it in an open walking area of the hotel. Some of your favorite employers have purchased additional display space to tell you more about their open positions and offer give-away brochures and materials, to be maintained Thursday and Friday, March 29–30. You won’t have to sign up for anything!

Attend Candidate Interviews on Thursday and Friday The tradition continues, with interviews in a business-like setting available with most employers on Thursday, March 29 from 12:00–5:00 PM and on Friday, March 30 from 9:00 AM–4:00 PM. Appointments are usually 30 minutes, but the number and schedule of interviews varies. NASP members registered for the Convention are welcome to sign up for open appointments, as posted at the entrance to the Convention Career Service. The number of candidates who want interviews often exceeds the number of time slots popular employers can be present (and appointments are first-come first served), so plan to get to the Career Expo on Thursday or otherwise make your appointments early. Open interview appointments on Thursday and Friday are posted until filled, beginning at 12:00 noon on Thursday, March 29. Some employers change their schedule according to demand, so plan to check back frequently for last-minute updates. Employers are looking for qualified candidates with diverse professional backgrounds. Some will interview for intern positions in addition to fully-compensated positions, and we will have these employers noted for you. Others may offer leadership or university teaching positions requiring an advanced degree. Check the posted appointment sheets at the entrance to the Convention Career Service for details. See you all there! 

menting one day of this training, including identifying all topics and speakers. GWU staff commented that through this partnership their students hear practical, first-hand accounts of how educational policies addressing student mental health needs impact the direct practice of school personnel. For NASP participants, the practical benefits of partnering with GWU will be great and are easy to see. GWU has state-of-the-art conference facilities and affordable housing for summer conference participants. Access to these facilities reduces the overall costs to the Association and participants. For example, using the 2006 rates (2007 rates have not yet been published), a one-night hotel stay in Washington DC would cost you about the same as a full-week stay in the rooms and apartments available at GWU! Besides the practical benefits of being able to use the facilities and housing of GWU, school psychologists will also gain access through the GWU faculty and networks to some of the most prominent scholars in educational policy and move beyond basic grassroots advocacy to a more advanced look at the factors that contribute to policy change. It is hoped that through participation in this comprehensive training, state and local leaders in school psychology will have a better understanding of the tools, strategies, vehicles, and opportunities that contribute to the design and passage of public policy.

Description of the PPI GWU faculty and students will partner with NASP leaders and staff to provide training regarding both the fundamentals of advocacy and a more advanced look at educational policies and practices impacting school-based mental health services. The PPI will be held on the campus of George Washington University in Washington, DC. Sessions will be led by GWU faculty, NASP leaders and staff, and invited experts in the area of education, leadership, public policy or government affairs. The 2007 NASP/GWU PPI will feature a new format that allows participants to develop their basic advocacy skills and more advanced training examining the critical features of educational policymaking. From Sunday to Wednesday, topics will focus on the foundations of public policy and grassroots advocacy. Topics will review key education statutes like NCLB and IDEA, and how states can create local advocacy networks that are effective at influencing public policy. Communication strategies, NASP initiatives, and specific tools for involving professionals in the advocacy process will be addressed. The basic experience will culminate with a Capitol Hill Day where participants will get a hands-on look at our federal legislative process and take a tour of Capitol Hill, hear from a panel of legislative staff, and have the opportunity to meet with their elected officials or staff to advocate for policies and practices critical to school psychology. State planning opportunities will also be available. Participants extending their stay to include Thursday and Friday will take a more comprehensive look at how educational policy emerges by examining how school crises (violence, suicide, natural disasters, etc.) have stimulated the creation of state and federal policies. Specific examples of legislation that emerged from local and national crises will be examined. Further, these statutes will be analyzed for how they ultimately built the capacity of local school districts to respond to the social, emotional, and behavioral needs of students. Comprehensive participants will also work in collaborative small groups with GWU participants to design policies that respond to a specific problem of practice. All comprehensive participants will also have the option of registering for GWU graduate credit. Those taking the PPI for credit will have the opportunity to partner with GWU faculty and students in the development of a series of educational policy papers to be published by GWU. State credentialing requirements regularly allow graduate credit to be applied to recertification and, in many school districts, advancement on the district pay scale is dependent on earning graduate credit. The NASP/GWU partnership provides a unique opportunity for participants to earn this credit.

Participation in the 2007 NASP/GWU PPI The PPI is an essential training experience for any state interested in pursuing public policy initiatives that impact school psychology. Many states are currently working to achieve NCSP parity, the adoption of national school psychology standards as entry-level for state credentialing, or expanding the availability of school mental health services through community-school partnerships. A terrific way for states to build the capacity of their members to engage in advocacy is to send a state team to the 2007 NASP/GWU PPI. Through this experience state leaders will gain the critical knowledge and a realistic perspective about how to make legislative goals a reality. If you are seriously interested in how you can become engaged in Advocacy in Action, enrolling in the 2007 NASP/GWU PPI is a terrific first step! Interested participants should contact their state association president and express an interest in attending. As with previous PPIs, state association leaders will be asked to identify the state participants selected to attend. Currently, the GPR committee is interested in having every state participate in the summer PPI. Key states with a clear legislative plan for advancing school psychology will be targeted for participation. All PPI participants will need to commit to becoming a leader in educational public policy and building the grassroots advocacy networks needed to advance legislation, regulations, and practices beneficial to the education and mental health of children and youth. A limited number of scholarships will be available based on state association need. NASP staff and GPR members are committed to keeping costs reasonable while providing an enriching and rewarding experience. Please visit the NASP website under the Advocacy/Public Policy icon for information on cost and registration. For more information, please contact one of the following NASP leaders or staff: Stacy K. Skalski, NASP Director of Public Policy, sskalski@ naspweb.org; Barry Barbarasch, Chair, NASP GPR Committee, [email protected]; or Brent Duncan, Co-Chair, NASP GPR Committee, [email protected].  Advocacy in Action is a regular column dedicated to providing state associations and their school psychologist members with ideas on how they can become involved in Legislative Advocacy efforts. If you have a good idea you would like to share for this column, e-mail Stacy Skalski, Public Policy Director at [email protected].

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 19

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PAGE 20 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

CRISIS MANAGEMENT RESEARCH SUMMARIES Edited by Stephen E. Brock, NCSP

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ontributing Editor’s Note: In this column Crisis Management in the Schools Interest Group members summarize recent crisis management publications. This month we bring to your attention three articles relevant to school psychologists who are members of school crisis teams. The first article reviews secondary prevention strategies for youth violence. The second examines a study suggestive of the importance of documenting traumatic stress events as they appear to have some implications for later treatment of PTSD and depression in adulthood. Finally, the third article reports that a crisis intervention card alone is not effective in preventing suicide among individuals who had attempted suicide.

Secondary Prevention for Youth Violence Summarized by Shelley R. Hart, School Psychologist, Fairfield-Suisun Unified School District, Fairfield, CA. Violence is an important concern for schools in the United States. Many schools respond to the issue of violence by implementing prevention programs. School-based secondary prevention programs have been tested in a school setting during the school day, with students at risk. Molina, Dulmus, and Sowers (2005) provide a review of seven such secondary prevention programs, which they define as programs “targeting youth who show early yet mild signs of aggression and antisocial behaviors, or those who are risk for developing such problem behaviors” (p. 96). For this paper a thorough, computerized literature search was conducted of PsycIN-

Book Review

Handbook of School Violence Edited by E. R. Gerler, Jr. (Ed.) (2004, Haworth Press) Reviewed by Georgette Yetter, NCSP

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his very nice edited volume covers a wide range of topics related to the causes, prevention, and interventions for school violence. It is interesting to read and likely to be useful to school psychologists and others interested in school violence issues. The handbook contains both practice-oriented entries and material of primarily theoretical interest. Chapters include: • A meta-analytic review of violence prevention programs developed for elementary and middle schools. This chapter identifies four programs with particularly strong effectiveness and discusses common components of highly effective violence prevention curricula. • A description of several peer mediation training programs. This chapter contrasts comprehensive programs, which have the strongest empirical support but are timeconsuming to implement, with more limited curricula, which are briefer but less effective. It discusses difficulties associated with the feasibility of delivering effective peer mediation training, given the day-to-day realities of school settings. • An engaging paper addressing the many factors that attract youth to membership in gangs. Written from the perspective of attachment theory, this chapter emphasizes the importance of better understanding the specific vulnerabilities that draw youth to gangs and the importance of developing alternative supports for at-risk youth that address these vulnerabilities. • A primer of clinical issues pertaining to crisis intervention in schools. • A detailed description of empirically-supported strategies for implementing crisis intervention in schools. This excellent chapter addresses crisis preparedness, immediate response to crisis situations, medical interventions, and use of support systems. • An engaging account of the events following an actual school shooting that occurred in 2001. This chapter describes the support services that were offered in the immediate aftermath of the tragedy, as well as short-term and long-term follow-up services. It closes with an overview of the response to intervention and long-term recovery. • An informative survey of youth regarding their use of weapons. This paper reports on the accessibility of weapons to youth; their preferred types of weapon (e.g., guns, knives); and the sources from whom weapons are most commonly obtained. In light of these data, the chapter discusses strategies that seem most promising for inhibiting youth access to weapons. • A comprehensive model of the relationship between school violence and youth connectedness to school, peers, family, and community. This fine chapter also identifies age- and context-specific violence prevention programs consistent with this theory. In conclusion, the Handbook of School Violence presents a good overview of the current research and practice addressing school violence. It would be a valuable addition to the bookshelf of every school psychologist and school counselor.  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Georgette Yetter, PhD, NCSP, is an Assistant Professor in School Psychology at Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK. She also is a former Kansas school psychologist.

FO, PubMed, Social Work Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts, and ERIC databases. Search terms included: school violence, secondary prevention, school-based, elementary school, ages 6-12, at-risk, and aggressive, and studies were limited from 1990 to the present. Seven secondary prevention programs were selected for review based on the following criteria: (a) use of an experimental design and a control group, (b) outcome measures included aggressive and hyperactive behaviors, (c) elementary-aged children, (d) intervention designed for at-risk students, (e) sites included elementary schools in the United States, (f) conducted during school hours, and (g) suicide or suicide attempts were not included in the outcome measures. The preventive interventions of the studies included attributional retraining; social skills training; cognitive-behavioral therapy; peer coping skills; and a combination of child, parent, and teacher training for low-income students and students at risk for the development of serious externalizing behavioral disorders. Sample sizes of the studies varied from 52–453, with a mean sample size of 178.86, with five studies including more than 100 participants. Many dependent variables were measured in the studies, including (a) aggression; (b) judgment of intent; (c) pro-social behavior/coping; (d) self-control; (e) self-worth and social rejection; (f) academic performance and number of school disciplinary referrals; (g) anxiety, internalizing problems, peer acceptance, and social skills; (h) utilization of problem-solving strategies, parent depression, confident coping, involvement, parent perception of control, and parent behavioral management practices; and (i) antisocial involvement and interaction, delinquency, drug use, teacher instructional practices, and use of cooperative team learning methods. Results of the review indicated that five of the seven studies reported beneficial effects for participants, and two reported mixed results. Interventions reported to be efficacious were (a) attributional retraining — a cognitive intervention that strengthens the ability to accurately detect others’ intentions (Brain Power Program); (b) social skills training that involved modeling, role playing, feedback, and positive reinforcement (Earlscourt Social Skills Group Program); (c) peer coping skills designed to promote prosocial coping and information exchange skills (Peer Coping Skills Training); and (d) cognitive-behavioral training that included positive social skills training, reinforcement of prosocial behavior, and more adaptive social problem-solving skills (Social Relations Training Program). The authors concluded that, in general, most of the successful programs used cognitive-behavioral techniques and social skills training in dealing with students who were identified as aggressive or at-risk. In closing, Molina et al. (2005) point to the paucity of research on secondary prevention programs and recommend that further research be conducted with children in specific age groups (as opposed to overlapping middle and elementary school-aged children). The authors further suggest that prevention programs should aim at changing multiple domains (e.g., family and community), and encourage researchers to include these components in their programs. Reference Molina, I. A., Dulmus, C. N., & Sowers, K. M. (2005). Secondary prevention for youth violence: A review of selected school-based programs. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 5, 1–3.

Trauma History and Response to Medication for PTSD and Major Depressive Disorder Summarized by Jack Martin, Assistant Professor, and Elizabeth Maciag, graduate student, University of Detroit Mercy, Detroit, MI Yehuda and colleagues (2004) examined the suppression of cortisol following administration of 0.5 mg of dexamethasone (DEX) in adult trauma survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive disorder (MDD), or both, and in some adults who had never been exposed to significant trauma. Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal gland that assists in such things as the rapid conversion of protein into energy. It is known that stress leads to an increased production of cortisol, which at sustained levels can inhibit cell regeneration, and this sometimes has to be reduced to safer levels. The use of a Dexamethasone Suppression Test (DST) helps to determine when neuroendocrine function has normalized so that anti-depressants or electroconvulsive therapy can be terminated. This study focused upon the relationship between cortisol suppression by DEX in PTSD and MDD patients with and without prior trauma. The sample included 45 men and 17 women between the ages of 18 and 53 years. Participants that had a history or evidence of psychosis, bipolar illness, current alcohol or substance dependence were not included. The participants completed the Trauma History Questionnaire, which gave information about their stressful life experiences and the ages of these events. The information about the events from the questionnaire was reviewed using the DSM-IV to see if any of the episodes met the diagnostic criterion for a traumatic event. If an event met the criterion, then the participant was evaluated with the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS). The most disturbing occurrence was considered the focal event. Participants were also given the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV to diagnose other Axis I disorders. Blood samples were taken to determine baseline cortisol levels. Participants consumed 0.5 mg of dexamethasone at bedtime and then blood samples were taken the following morning. Radioimmunoassay was used to determine plasma cortisol levels. Results showed that cortisol suppression was enhanced with PTSD individuals who ingested DEX as a replication of previous studies, but highlighted that it was not related to type of trauma or timeline of illness. In subjects with MDD, cortisol suppression in response to DEX was impacted by the absence of trauma prior to the focal event. MDD participants with trauma prior to the focal event demonstrated suppressed cortisol levels like the PTSD group, whereas MDD participants without a prior trauma demonstrated non-suppressed cortisol levels. This may help to explain why some MDD patients show non-suppression on the DST.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 21 The study shows that neuroendocrine functioning may be different for adults identified as PTSD or MDD than those with MDD who had no preceding focal trauma. For the school psychologist this study highlights the importance of increased vigilance in the recording and treatment of traumatic events in childhood, as this variable may be of assistance when deciding upon treatment strategies following diagnosis of PTSD or MDD in adults. Reference Yehuda, R., Halligan, S. L., Golier, J.A., Grossman, R., & Bierer, L.M. (2004). Effects of trauma exposure on the cortisol response to dexamethasone administration in PTSD and major depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 389–404.

The Use of a Crisis Card Following a Suicide Attempt Summarized by Chris Torem, School Psychologist, West Warwick Public Schools, West Warwick, RI Various research studies have suggested that there are no specific interventions that are effective in preventing the repetition of self-harm. The three largest trials did not produce any significant effect. The other two large studies assessed manual-assisted cognitive therapy (Tyrer et al., 2003) and a primary care guideline-based intervention (Bennewith et al., 2002). The “short report,” titled “Crisis Card Following Self-Harm: 12-Month Followup of a Randomized Controlled Trial,” was published in The British Journal of Psychiatry. Authored by Evans et al. (2005), this study assessed the provision of a crisis card and its accompanying 24-hour crisis telephone consultation’s effect on the repetition of self harm up to the 12-month follow-up level. In the original study (Evans et al., 1999), 827 patients were divided into two groups. The first study period was November 1994 through July 1996. In addition to being admitted to a general hospital for self-injurious episodes, each patient received standard treatment, which varied according to the evaluating clinician. Standard treatment included advice only, a referral to the community mental health team, or a psychiatric hospitalization. One group of 410 received only the standard treatment while the other 417 were additionally provided a crisis card offering 24-hour crisis telephone consultation by an on-call psychiatrist for up to 6 months after the index episode. The study did not reveal any overall effect resulting from the provision of the crisis card; however, the results suggested a “possible benefit” for subjects with no previous history of self-harm. The present study explored a 12-month follow-up. The authors utilized the self-harm register to identify repetition and logistic regression in Stat Version 8.0 for Windows to calculate odds ratios for repetition assessing control and experimental groups. The study analyzed the effect of the crisis card on subjects with and without previous incidents of self-injury. Main analysis. In the 12 months after the index episode, 167 individuals (20.2%) had a repeat occurrence of self-harm. Of the crisis card intervention group, 90 (21.6%) repeated

self-harm within the year. This was compared to 77 (18.8%) in the control group. The time between the index episode and the reoccurrence of self-harm did not differ between experimental and control groups. Subgroup analysis. Again, the analysis did not reveal any strong evidence that the effect of the crisis card differentiated individuals with a single index episode of self harm verses those with the more extensive history of self-injury. Of the individuals in the experimental group with a single index episode, 30 (13.6%) repeated self-injury within 12 months, compared to 31 (15%) in the control group. In the intervention group, 60 (30.9%) of the individuals with a more extensive history of self-harm engaged in repeated episodic self-injury within the year, compared to 45 (22.5%) in the control group. Results of this study verify that the provision of a crisis card fails to prevent repeated episodes of self-injury. This lack of benefit was found at both the six and 12-month followups and results did not differentiate subjects with or without a previous history of self-injury. Furthermore, the crisis card intervention did not show an effect on the number of episodes up to 12 months. The “possible benefit” at six-month follow-up for subjects with a single index episode of self-harm was not corroborated at the 12-month follow-up. Of course the usual caution regarding the application of adult research to children is given. However, it is most likely safe to assume that the crisis card intervention alone will not suffice in preventing the repetition of self-injury among school-aged youth. References Bennewith, O., Stocks, N., Gunnell, D., et al. (2002). General practice based intervention to prevent repeat episodes of deliberate self-harm: cluster randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Medicine, 324, 1254–1257. Evans, J., Evans, M., Morgan, H. G., Hayward, A., & Gunnell, D. (2005). Crisis card following self-harm: 12-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 187, 186–187. Evans, M. O., Morgan, H. G., Hayward, A., et al. (1999). Crisis telephone consultation for deliberate self- self harm patients: Effects on repetition. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 23–27. Tyrer, P., Thompson, S., Schmidt, U., et al. (2003). Randomized controlled trial of brief cognitive behaviour therapy versus treatment as usual in recurrent deliberate self-harm: The POPMACT study. Psychological Medicine, 33, 969–976.  Stephen E. Brock, PhD, NCSP, is on the faculty of CSU Sacramento. He is a member of NASP’s National Emergency Assistance Team (NEAT) and author of the recently developed NASP school crisis intervention training program curriculum (Crisis Intervention & Recovery: The Roles of School-Based Mental Health Professionals). This column will appear several times during the year. If you would like to write a research summary and/or know of a recent study that should be summarized, please contact Dr. Brock at [email protected]

PAGE 22 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

NASP ONLINE Edited by Bill Pfohl, NCSP

Satellite Radio: Or, How to Survive a Lengthy Commute By Lesley Carter, NASP Director of Web Services After a number of months of enduring a long commute with regular radio and a CD player, I decided to take one more small step forward in my technological journey and try satellite radio. I lucked into a sale on receivers over Labor Day and picked one up for under $30 (they normally start at about $49). Dear Hubs installed it for me in under 10 minutes, and after registering and purchasing a subscription, I was good to go. Let me just say that this has made a huge difference in my commute. I generally spend anywhere from 4–6 hours a day in the car, and the range of options on satellite radio has made that time much easier. The sound quality is excellent; the only places where I have encountered problems with reception are under bridges and (inexplicably) one stretch of about a mile in the middle of Harrisburg, PA. In terms of available satellite options, I chose Sirius over XM for the simple reason that Sirius’ sports coverage seemed more comprehensive. Both carry a similar range of music and news stations, including NPR, BBC World Service, and CNN. The subscription prices for both services are similar. Both also offer online radio for their subscribers. • Sirius: www.sirius.com • XM: www.xmradio.com Lesley Carter commutes between Shippensburg, PA and the NASP Office in Bethesda, MD.

Internet Telephony Revisited By Lesley Carter, NASP Director of Web Services Some time ago, I wrote about AT&T Callvantage at Bill’s request. Since then, I have switched to Vonage, as AT&T decided not to provide service to areas that don’t have E911 service. This change has actually been a fortuitous one, as Vonage’s service has been far more reliable than AT&T’s. Additionally, the calling plan we chose not only provides unlimited local and domestic long distance calling, but also free calls to certain countries (mostly located in western Europe) — a definite plus for a half-British household! One feature of Internet telephony that I’ve found especially useful is virtual phone numbers. With both AT&T and Vonage, you can add phone numbers in different area codes from your own to enable friends and family to reach you locally. Example: we were able to set up a virtual number that’s local in Telford, United Kingdom, which means that our family and friends there can phone us without the expense of an international call. There is a monthly charge for this service.

Microsoft — Vista As you read this, Vista Microsoft’s new Operating System is being heavily advertised. This is the newest Microsoft Operating System replacing Microsoft XP (Home & Professional). All new computers will now have it as standard. Based on the reviews (I do not have a copy or NASP funds for this type of project), there are two questions that seem appropriate. Should I just upgrade my current XP or buy a new computer with Vista installed? My impression is if you like what you are currently using, wait until you need a new computer and get both. Microsoft will still support XP for 3–5 years but Microsoft no longer supports Windows 98 or Windows ME. It will still support Windows 2000 for at least one more year. Typically, I suggest just upgrading but this operating system requires more memory, disk space, and higherend video cards to use all its capability. Also there likely will be compatibility problems with peripheral device drivers, such as printers, MP3 players, etc. It seems like too much hassle, so if you can wait 6 months to see what is going on, then I would recommend doing that. PC Magazine staff tried to upgrade, and they know what they are doing, and it was not a big success on some units. Also there is the ever-present security issues with Microsoft finding itself vulnerable to constant attacks from hackers and crackers. All new computers will have the minimal configuration to handle Vista Basic, but you will have to look closer for your Vista choices as the computer will increase in price and capability for each edition of Vista.

Vista will come in 5 configurations — Home Basic; Home Premium; Business; Enterprise (only IT networks), and Ultimate. The Ultimate combines the Home Premium and Business OS. This is the suggested level if you are a gamer or use lots of media (TV, Video editing, and photos). You will need a minimum 2 GB of RAM to run it, which some older computers will not hold. Costs to upgrade the software alone will run from $100 to $400 depending on which version you choose. What you may also face are problems with your school networks and new software compatibility. As Vista is being released so is Office 2007, which is a Vista-based program. The reviews are real positive but you will have problems using all its features on Windows XP and some file types may not be backward compatible. Vista will be a great upgrade for using the Internet, using all media applications and TV interface with the Internet. As far as scoring software, writing reports, and checking e-mail, what you have will work for now.

e-waste What do you do with your old equipment? Most just throw it away or pass it on to someone else. This practice for school psychologists is dangerous. You must make sure all confidential information is removed, not just deleted, from your hard drive. Just watch the news to see how easy it is to retrieve old e-mails, reports, and files from a “cleaned” hard drive. It takes special software to wipe clean a hard drive. Deleting and emptying the Trash Bin is not sufficient to protect your files. After you do ensure that the hard drive is totally cleaned out, then the unit can be passed on to someone else. Intern? You can also pass it on to not-for-profit agencies or organizations. However, the trash dumps of the US are filling up with old computers, monitors, printers, etc. (about 4,000 tons per hour worldwide.) Only 10% of toxic e-waste is recycled each year. These products are mostly hazardous materials and are polluting the environment. Most of the computer manufacturers are now recycling computers and removing the hazardous materials before throwing them out. Almost every component in a computer, monitor, or printer has some toxin in it. (The same can be said for cell phones, MP3 players, VCR and DVD players, etc.) Some manufactures are now producing Green Machines — less toxins used to build it. Dell Computer will recycle any computer from any manufacturer. Fill out a form on their website. HP charges for its service. Remember, PDAs, cell phones, and batteries also contain environmental toxins, so please recycle, as it has become easier to do.

Recalls It seems that there are many technology related recalls, which I mention frequently in this column. The latest is a major one from Toshiba Satellite laptops. The Models in the recall are: A70, A75, M30X, and M35X notebooks. The mother boards are bad and the AC adapters can become disconnected at the point they enter the machine, resulting in a shock, fire, or dead computer. Contact Toshiba for repairs. Due to a court settlement the 12-month warranty will be extended from November 7, 2006. Lexar JumpDrive FireFly and Secure II models are also recalled. They are each 1GB models. They can overheat and catch fire. Fry Electronics sold many of them. You can get a free replacement from Lexar. Also more laptop batteries, manufactured by Sony, are being recalled for Apple computers. Dell, Gateway, and several others have recalled their Sony-made batteries. If you have a laptop, go to the manufacturer’s website to check out if the battery model you have has been recalled. The Lithium Ion components are shorting out and creating an overheating situation and fire hazard.

What’s a Nugget? I have always wondered what those “bulges or devices” were on computer connection cords. They are called nuggets. They protect your attached device from Radio-Frequency Interference (RFI) or Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). It insulates both the wire and your electronics from each other. It also can clean up signals in the wire. It is officially called a Ferrite bead or Ferrite choke by electronics manufactures.

Bill’s Favorite Websites • National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems — www.nccrest.org Wonderful site for culturally competent materials; also check out NASP’s resources • e-Notes — www.enotes.com Students use this site to plagiarize papers but more interesting materials are there too. 22,000 pages found with “psychology” search. • Teaching Tolerance — www.teachingtolerance.org Just as it says. • KIDS — www.kids.us What students’ web sites will look like in the future. Just beginning but interesting to explore, especially if you also have kids. • State Suicide Crisis Plans (Suicide Prevention Resource Center) — www.sprc.org Thanks, Dr. Melissa Allen for finding this one. (See state information) • Google Educator — www.google.com/educator New addition and many sub-sites to sign up for. Must register but … lots of resources. • Bartleby — Great Books online — www.bartleby.com Wonderful collection of reference books, classic works of literature for free. Thanks to my daughter — Katie. Be safe when using the internet; protect your personal data!  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Bill Pfohl, PsyD, NCSP, is NASP Past President, former web master, and professor of psychology at Western Kentucky University in Bowling Green, KY. Contact Bill with your technology questions and recommendations at [email protected]

• Monitor Changes in Behavior — Pay attention to changes in your child’s behavior. For example, if your child begins to exhibit new or increased rule-breaking behavior and acts aggressively verbally and/or physically, address this behavioral change with the child and seek assistance from mental health professionals as necessary.

• Keep Weapons Away From Children — Ideally, do not keep guns at home. Store all weapons (e.g., guns, knives) in securely locked locations. For safe gun storage, make sure that the gun’s safety is engaged, the gun is not loaded, and that ammunition is stored in a separate location. Only parents should know where weapons and ammunition are located.

• Teach Positive Ways to Express Emotions — Help children understand that all feelings are valid but there are appropriate ways to express them, even anger and frustration. Help them learn to identify how they feel and why. Suggest a variety of ways to express their emotions, including talking, drawing, writing, and playacting as well as strategies for stress release such as physical activity and meditation.

• Keep The Lines of Communication Open — Parents should make themselves accessible to their children for talks about events in their lives, problems they may encounter, and feelings that they may experience as a result. Parents should assist with healthy problem-solving, stressing problem-solving without violence.

• Limit/Avoid Exposure to Violent Media — One particular culprit that leads to violence among children is the television and other media. Studies of the effects of TV violence on children have found that children may become immune or numb to the horror of violence and gradually accept violence as a way to problem solve. This fact holds true for music and video games as well. Parents should limit their children’s exposure to violent television and video games.

• Be Good Role Models — Violent behavior is often learned behavior. Therefore, parents must model appropriate behavior. Angry or excessive physical discipline, yelling and verbal aggression, and physical or verbal abuse of children always should be avoided, as should violent arguments or behavior between parents. Teaching children to be caring of themselves and others can be a good preventative measure.

Parents are students’ first teachers. Before children enter school, they are students in their parents’ classroom of life. Therefore, it is very important that parents create a home environment that is conducive to positive emotional coping strategies. This can be accomplished in several ways.

Prevention Starts at Home: What Parents Can Do

School should be a place where maximum learning takes place and all who enter feel safe and secure. Indeed, schools today are among the safest places for children; however, the threat of violence remains a concern. Perpetrators of violent behavior at school are most often students who engage in many forms of violence, ranging from bullying and fighting to armed assault, gang activity, and self-harm or suicidal behaviors. Violence interferes with learning and jeopardizes the personal safety and security of students, teachers, and others in the school building. Moreover, students who are at risk for or are engaging in violent behavior are often suffering from emotional or psychological problems and need help. A large body of research suggests that students commit violent acts against others due to an inability to appropriately express aggression and other negative emotions. This is a serious mental health issue that schools need to address through a comprehensive prevention and early intervention approach. Successful violence prevention requires the involvement of parents and educators, and is essential to producing mentally healthy, safe, secure, and thriving learners.

By Cherisse L. Walker, EdS, NCSP NASP Communications Workgroup

NATIONAL Violence Prevention: ASSOCIATION OF A Mental Health Issue SCHOOL Tips for Parents and Educators PSYCHOLOGISTS February 2007 — page 2

NASP (2006). Tips for School Administrators for Reinforcing School Safety, http://www.nasponline.org/ resources/crisis_safety/index.aspx

NASP (2006). Talking to Children About Violence: Tips for Parents and Educators, http://www.nasponline. org/resources/crisis_safety/index.aspx

NASP (2002). Position Statement on School Violence, http://www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/pospaper_ violence.aspx

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (2006). Teaching the basics of violence prevention. http://www.aap.org/pubed/ZZZJ4RC2R7C.htm?&sub_cat=1

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (2006). Facts for families: Children and TV violence. http://www.aacap.org/page.ww?section=Facts%20for%20Families&name=Children%20And %20TV%20Violence

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (2006). Facts for families: Children and firearms. http:// www.aacap.org/page.ww?section=Facts%20for%20Families&name=Children%20And%20Firearms

Resources for Schools and Parents

NASP has a number of resources available to assist families and educators in helping to create school environments that promote positive behavior and develop life skills. Available at www.nasponline.org.

NASP Resources Available Online

Information contained here provides a few ways that parents and educators can promote violence prevention among children. For more information about this issue please contact your local school psychologist. [INSERT YOUR INFORMATION HERE]

• Build Community Partnerships — Schools should collaborate with community service agencies to provide additional knowledge, skills, and resources that can contribute to more effective violence prevention efforts.

• Adopt Zero Tolerance for Weapons — All forms of weapons should be banned from school property. Security measures should be taken to seek out and confiscate any weapons on school grounds, immediately. Consequences for violators should be clear and consistent.

• Collaborate With Others on School Safety Teams — Develop collaboration among general and special educators, support staff (e.g., school psychologists, counselors), administrators, parents, and students to create a school safety plan for your school.

• Provide School-Based Mental Health Services — Have available staff to whom students can go when they are having problems, having difficulty coping with, or adjusting to particular events or situations in their life. These staff can help students work through their personal difficulties and/or refer students and their families to community resources.

• Teach Conflict Resolution — Implement social skills programs and other programs designed to teach peaceful ways to resolve conflicts. Examples of these types of programs are Stop and Think, Peacebuilders, Second Step Intervention, and Peacemakers.

• Early Identification and Intervention — Identify students who exhibit at-risk characteristics of violent behavior, and provide support before these students engage in disruptive or violent behavior.

• Create a Positive School Climate — Develop a strong academic mission along with clear nonviolent and prosocial behavioral expectations. Apply consistent and fair rule enforcement.

Educators have the ability and responsibility to prevent violence among youth and to make schools safe havens where students can learn and have healthy social and emotional experiences. Some strategies include:

Prevention at School: What Educators Can Do

Violence Prevention: A Mental Health Issue

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 23

February 2007 — page 3

© 2007, National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Hwy. #402; Bethesda, MD 20814, www.nasponline.org, phone (301) 657-0270, fax (301) 657-0275, TTY (301) 657-4155

[NOTE: This article may be adapted by NASP members for use in their work with children, families and schools. Please include the following disclaimer: “Adapted with permission from “Violence Prevention: A Mental Health Issue, Tips for Parents and Educators,” NASP 2007, www.nasponline.org.”]

Skiba, R., Ritter, S., Peterson, R., Miller, C., & Forde, S. (2002, March). Creating safe and responsive schools: Systems change issues in school violence prevention. Communiqué, 30 (6).

Jimerson, S.R., Brock, S. E., & Cowan, K.C. (2005, October). Threat assessment: An essential component of a comprehensive safe school program. Principal Leadership, 6 (2). Available: http://www.nasponline. org/resources/principals/nassp_threat.pdf

Furlong, M., Felix, E. Sharkey, J., & Larson. J. (2005, September). Preventing school violence: A plan for safe and engaging schools. Principal Leadership, 6 (1). Available: http://www.nasponline.org/resources/ principals/Student%20Counseling%20Violence%20Prevention.pdf

Violence Prevention: A Mental Health Issue

Remedying the Shortage of School Psychologists

Supporting Student Success:

There is a shortage of school psychologists serving student and system needs. This shortage includes both a diminishing pool of trained school psychologists to fill existing positions (supply and demand) and an inadequate number of school psychology positions in many states and school districts. Supply and demand data from the American Association for Employment in Education indicate that school psychologists have consistently had “considerable” or “some” shortage over the last 10 years. The current crisis is complicated by the fact that about 4 out of 10 currently practicing school psychologists are predicted to retire between 2003 and 2010, more than half by 2015, and 2 out to 3 by 2020 (Curtis, Grier, and Hunley, 2004). In addition to the supply versus demand shortage, there is a shortage of positions, creating high case loads for practitioners and making it difficult for school psychologists to offer the comprehensive academic and school mental health services that students need or the prevention services that ultimately reduce the needs of individual students. While NASP recommends a maximum student-to-school psychologist ratio of 1,000 to 1 in the general population, a recent study revealed a national average of 1,653 students per school psychologist. Similar shortages exist for school counselors and social workers.

Schools need adequate numbers of highly trained school psychologists and other pupil service personnel. Teachers are the foremost professionals in students’ school experiences. However, school psychologists, social workers, and counselors provide services that enable teachers to teach and students to learn more effectively. Even the most gifted teacher may struggle to effectively serve students with learning disabilities; to support students experiencing emotional crises that disrupt learning; to decrease disruptive classroom behavior; or to help a homeless student access food, shelter, and basic health care. At these times, the expertise of school psychologists and other pupil service/student support personnel is crucial.

School psychologists work in both the general education and special education environments. Although historically most school psychologists have worked with students in special education, their assessment, prevention, intervention, and consultation services are employed increasingly in general education as well. The expanding role of school psychologists encompasses school climate issues, classroom management, violence prevention and crisis response, staff training, pre-referral interventions, counseling, and program evaluation. This expanded role is made more critical with the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002) and the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Action (IDEA, 2004), both of which emphasize accountability, student achievement, the implementation of early intervening services, and the need to provide comprehensive research-based interventions that are accessible to all students.

• Support to families in accessing school and community resources necessary to meet student needs.

• Research-based practices and evaluation skills that enhance intervention efficacy, school accountability, and improved student outcomes.

• Culturally competent services that meet the learning and mental health needs of culturally and linguistically diverse student populations and their families.

• Individual, classroom, and school-wide consultation and prevention strategies that improve classroom climate, reduce risk behaviors and violence, improve crisis response, and contribute to safe, positive school environments in which all children can learn.

• Mental health prevention and intervention services including counseling, behavioral supports, and skill development that promote students’ healthy social, emotional, and behavioral development and lower barriers to learning.

School psychologists play a vital role in students’ success in school. They provide: • Assessment and intervention services that help identify student learning and behavioral needs.

There is a growing need for school psychological services. Students come to school with complex and diverse learning and developmental needs that often create barriers to learning. Family issues, poverty, peer conflicts, disabilities, stress, grief and loss, domestic and community violence, substance abuse, and mental health problems all affect a student’s ability to focus and learn in school. The U.S. Surgeon General (1999) reported that one in five children and adolescents will experience a significant mental health problem during their education years. Because of this link, as well as educators’ daily access to children and their families, schools have come to play a crucial role in promoting students’ mental health as well as achievement. If we are truly to raise the bar, close the achievement gap, and ensure that no child is left behind, there must be an adequate supply of personnel who can address both the individual needs of students and the systemic needs of schools and districts.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

PAGE 24 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

February 2007 — page 2

© 2007, National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Hwy. #402; Bethesda, MD 20814, www.nasponline.org, phone (301) 657-0270, fax (301) 657-0275, TTY (301) 657-4155

6. Provide incentives for universities that expand their school psychology training programs, as well as incentives for individuals who elect to take teaching positions in areas with shortages.

5. Create programs that recruit graduate candidates from specific under-represented and under-served populations for future work in those communities or with those populations (such as inner city, rural, and minority populations).

4. Create innovative, flexible grant programs that improve student outcomes associated with the services of professionals experiencing chronic shortages.

3. Restore full funding to the Safe and Drug Free Schools program that seeks to provide comprehensive mental health supports for students.

2. Fully fund the Elementary and Secondary School Counseling Program that allows local school districts to use program funds to hire new school psychologists, counselors, and social workers.

Elected officials can help address the shortage of school psychologists through public policy that supports personnel allocations and comprehensive services that remove barriers to learning and promote student success. Recommendations include: 1. Provide loan forgiveness and tax credits for people who successfully complete accredited training programs and then agree to work in communities with demonstrated shortages (rural, low income).

• Restrictive roles (e.g., testing for special education eligibility) that limit school psychologists’ ability to use their expertise to address systemic issues (such as low achievement and bullying) that in the long run reduce the need for one-to-one services

• Limited supply of qualified professionals willing to work in certain communities (rural, high poverty, high crime) or with specific populations (minorities, socially or economically disadvantaged) due to the personal and professional risks.

• Personnel attrition due to retirement rates exceeding the supply of new university graduates eligible for employment.

• Personnel attrition in special education and related services in the first five years of employment due to poor supervision and mentoring programs, poor working conditions, and growing pressures on teachers and other professionals due to the NCLB penalties levied on schools failing to meet all of the requirements of Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).

• Limited capacity of existing training programs to meet the demand for new professionals due to increasing higher education costs and the limited capacity of universities to expand existing programs due to the shortage of qualified faculty.

• Lack of funding for programs designed to help remedy shortages such as loan forgiveness programs and personnel preparation grants that provide direct assistance to students and incentives for universities to create new innovative and alternative programs.

There are a variety of factors contributing to the shortage of school psychologists. Some of the key reasons for personnel shortages include: • Budget cuts to pupil service programs due to a need for school districts to meet the growing expenses associated with implementing the NCLB mandates.

Supporting Student Success: Remedying the Shortage of School Psychologists

Safe and Affirmative Schools for Sexual Minority Youth

Legal mandates. Many schools fail to recognize sexual minority youth, assume that heterosexuality is the norm, and do not address stressors that affect the safety and education of sexual minority students. These practices have a negative impact on students and significant legal and financial implications for school districts. Any educational program or activity that receives Federal financial assistance cannot discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation or choose which students will be safe. According to the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, students are entitled to equal protection under the law. Nabozny ruling. This protection was evident in Nabozny v. Podlesny, 92 F. 3d 446 (7th Cir. 1996). Jamie Nabozny was beaten to the point of requiring surgery, urinated upon, called anti-gay epithets, and made to suffer repeated assaults. This abuse had a significant impact on Jamie’s mental health and he dropped out of school. Despite frequent meetings with school officials, intervention by Jamie’s parents, and

Legal Requirements and Consequences for Schools

Adolescence can be a stressful period for all youth owing to the tremendous physical, psychological, and cognitive changes that occur. The process of coming out to oneself, or developing a sexual minority identity and coming out to others or disclosure, increases stressors and isolation. Additionally, stressors related to violence, harassment, prejudice, discrimination, and stigmatization place sexual minority youth atrisk for mental health, physical, and educational problems. Rates of suicidal ideation, attempts, and suicide by sexual minority youth are estimated to be two to three times higher than for heterosexual youth. Sexual minority youth are more likely to engage in high-risk behaviors such as drug and alcohol abuse to cope with depression and feeling marginalized. Their homes are not always havens from school since they are also more likely to experience physical and verbal abuse at home. They are frequently kicked out or forced to leave home owing to conflicts related to their sexual orientation. Since homeless sexual minority youth have few marketable skills, many engage in prostitution to support themselves, which greatly increases the risk of HIV infection and drug abuse. School survival is the priority and many experience academic and learning problems. Sexual minority youth may be less involved in school activities and more likely to be truant. They drop out of school because of harassment at a rate about four times the national average (data from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in 1989).

Implications of Risk Factors

School climate is a significant determinant of whether an environment is healthy and conducive to learning. A 1999 study conducted by the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Educators Network (GLSEN) examined 42 of the largest school districts in the country and found that almost half received a failing grade in providing a positive climate for sexual minority youth. Most students are taught that overt behavior, such as the use of religious, racial or ethnic slurs, is intolerable. However, homophobic name-calling and anti-gay taunts such as “fag” or “You’re so gay” are rampant in most schools and are dreaded by students. A climate survey by GLSEN (2001) found that 83% of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered youth experienced verbal, physical, or sexual harassment and assault at school, which is significantly higher than for heterosexual youth. Specific acts of school violence included sexual minority youth being urinated and/or ejaculated upon, attacked with weapons, receiving death threats, having their clothes pulled off, and being gang raped. More than 68% of sexual minority students reported feeling unsafe in school because of their sexual orientation. However, in one third of incidents of anti-gay harassment, adult witnesses did not help.

School Climate for Sexual Minority Youth

Schools have a legal, ethical, and moral obligation to provide equal access to education and equal protection under the law for all students. For many sexual minority youth, schools are unsafe and survival, not education, is the priority. According to Kinsey (as cited in Uribe & Harbeck, 1991; see “Resources”), an estimated 10% of students are exclusively homosexual. Sexual minority and gender nonconforming youth are denied basic rights such as a free and appropriate public education owing to prejudice, harassment, and discrimination in schools.

By Erica Weiler, PhD, NCSP Harrisburg, PA

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 25

February 2007 — page 2

• Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network — http://www.glsen.org • A central aim of the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) is to ensure that all students are valued and respected regardless of their sexual orientation. This organization also seeks to create school environments where all students are safe. The GLSEN website contains information for both students and educators. • Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays — http://www.pflag.org • Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) seeks to promote the well-being of LGBT individuals, and to provide support and information to their parents, families, and friends. A portion of the PFLAG website contains information about education and programming efforts designed to ensure equality for sexual minority individuals in school settings.

School psychologists seeking further information on issues related to sexual minority youth are encouraged to consult the references listed below. Many of the resources may also be appropriate to refer to sexual minority youth, as well as their family and friends, for valuable information and support. It is noted that the list provided is far from exhaustive, as many agencies and organizations seeking to improve the lives of sexual minority individuals exist. Those ultimately selected for inclusion were chosen due to the focus on sexual minority children and adolescents, as well as the perceived relevance to school-based practitioners.

LGBT Resources for School Psychologists*

Creating safe and affirmative schools for all students, including sexual minority and gender nonconforming youth, is essential to increase equal access to education. When school personnel do not intervene in anti-gay abuse, they deny the existence and unique needs of this population and place this population’s mental health and education at risk. Conversely, school personnel may improve the physical, social, and psychological functioning of sexual minority youth through their support and advocacy.

Conclusion

Schools typically do not have the information, interest, or comfort to address the needs of sexual minority youth. However, school personnel are responsible for all students, including sexual minorities. School personnel may be their only support system and, with effective intervention, can have a positive impact on the lives of these students. An affirmative environment is more likely when personnel are knowledgeable about protective factors and the needs of sexual minority youth, provide support and understanding, and become advocates and allies. Increase safety. The most basic intervention to improve school climate is to increase school safety. Anti-gay epithets create a negative school climate and enforce the message that hate speech is permitted. A school-wide policy of zero tolerance for anti-gay harassment, hate epithets, and slurs must be developed and consistently enforced. This policy should apply to students and staff and include incidents from namecalling to physical/sexual assault. The creation of a non-discrimination school policy for sexual minority students and staff extends additional protections. Including staff in the policy demonstrates to youth that their role models will not be discriminated against, which may increase the likelihood of staff being “out” and willing to serve as resources. Affirmation of diversity. To increase the affirmation of diversity in schools, diversity must be equally represented, respected, and celebrated. To eliminate misinformation and bias, accurate information regarding sexuality, sexual orientation issues, and famous sexual minority individuals must be infused into different subjects in the curriculum. Setting a positive environment includes displaying posters about sexual minority youth, literature by sexual minorities, and providing library resources. The use of gender neutral and inclusive language indicates that sexual orientation is not assumed. To assist school personnel in understanding sexual minority youth and use effective interventions, ongoing inservices, anti-bias training, and education regarding the legal responsibility to protect and treat all youth respectfully is needed. An effective way to improve school climate is to establish a school-based GayStraight Alliance, which provides support and companionship, improves self-esteem, and promotes positive school change.

School-Based Interventions

identification of his attackers, the school took no meaningful disciplinary action against the perpetrators. The three administrators were found guilty of discrimination because they failed to protect Jamie, but responded to harassment directed at others. They were personally liable for a settlement of nearly $1 million. The legal mandate of equality applies to all decisions that a public school official might make that would treat sexual minority youth differently.

Safe and Affirmative Schools for Sexual Minority Youth

February 2007 — page 3

© 2007, National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Hwy. #402; Bethesda, MD 20814, www.nasponline.org, phone (301) 657-0270, fax (301) 657-0275, TTY (301) 657-4155

Erica Weiler, PhD, NCSP, is a school psychologist at a private residential school for at-risk, low-income youth in Harrisburg, PA. She co-authored School Discipline and School Violence: The Teacher Variance Approach, and has provided numerous trainings about sexual minority youth. This handout is updated from an article initially provided by NASP to the Guidance Channel website in December 2001 and was first published in Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators (NASP, 2004).

Youth Resource — www.youthresource.com

The Safe School Coalition of Washington — www.safeschools-wa.org

Project 10: On-Site Educational Support Services for GLBTQ Youth — www.project10.org

Parents and Families of Gays and Lesbians (PFLAG) — www.pflag.org

!Outproud! The National Coalition for GLBT Youth — www.outproud.org

National Youth Advocacy Coalition (NYAC) — www.nyacyouth.org

NASP Work Group on Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Issues — www.nasponline.org/advocacy/glb.html

Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund — www.lambdalegal.org

Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) — www.glsen.org

Advocates for Youth — www.advocatesforyouth.org

Websites

* Compiled by Laura Crothers for “Bullying of Sexually Diverse Children and Adolescents,” published in the February 2007 issue of Communiqué.

• National Association of School Psychologists Position Statement on Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning (GLBTQ) Youth — http://www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/pospaper_glb.aspx • The NASP position statement regarding sexual minority youth serves as a general guide to the conduct of practitioners working with members of this population. Of particular relevance to the practicing school psychologist, the position statement includes numerous recommendations for creating safe educational environments for sexual minority youth.

• American Psychological Association’s Healthy Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Students Project — http://www. apa.org/ed/hlgb/ • This portion of the American Psychological Association’s (APA) website contains information pertaining to sexual minority youth, as well as a variety of helpful links for school professionals, youth, and parents.

• Advocates for Youth — http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/glbtq.htm • This section of the Advocates for Youth website contains links to a variety of fact sheets and pamphlets, and provides helpful tips and strategies for those working with LGBT or questioning youth. Many of these resources could easily be shared with students, parents, and/or teachers.

Safe and Affirmative Schools for Sexual Minority Youth

PAGE 26 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 27

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Bullying of Sexually Diverse Children and Adolescents By Laura Crothers, NCSP

A

s numerous students, parents, and educators can readily attest, bullying is a frequently-occurring, painful phenomenon of childhood. In fact, peer victimization is a widespread problem in schools throughout the United States, with approximately 30% of all students reporting being bullied by peers sometime during their school careers (Nansel et al., 2001). While overall school violence has declined (Centers for Disease Control and Protection [CDC], 2006), childhood bullying has persisted, possibly because: 1) children’s and adolescents’ aggressive, dominance-seeking behaviors have not been eradicated, but merely have changed forms from overt demonstrations to more subtle and covert actions that are therefore less likely to be noticed and addressed by educators and parents; 2) there is a discrepancy between students’ attitudes (which are often against bullying) and their actual behavior in bullying situations (encouraging the bullying, silently witnessing it, giving little support to victims); and 3) contextual factors persist, such as poor adult supervision, unstructured, unscheduled time at school, and educator ambivalence regarding bullying behavior (Ross, 1996; Salmivalli, Lagerspetz, Björkqvist, Österman, & Kaukiainen, 1996).

Bullies and Victims Although there are some differences in definitions of bullying, most researchers tend to agree that peer victimization implies a differential power status between bullies and their victims, repeated acts over time, and treatment that is physically, verbally, and/or psychologically damaging to victims (Smith & Brain, 2000). Understanding the breadth of bullying has become increasingly difficult in recent years, as acts of verbal abuse and relational forms of victimization have been added to the list of primarily physically aggressive behaviors that traditionally have defined bullying. Additionally, due to their access to technology, children also may engage in cyber-bullying, wherein bullies humiliate their victims via e-mail, instant messaging, and/or blog postings (Price, 2004). Regardless of its form, bullying is associated with a variety of negative outcomes for both bullies and their victims. Comorbidity exists between bullying and mental health disorders, such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, depression, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder (Kumpulainen, Rasanen, & Puura, 2001), and there is a greater likelihood that perpetrators of bullying behavior will engage in criminal behavior, domestic violence, and substance abuse as adolescents or adults (Farrington, 1993). Students who frequently bully seem to continue to rely upon dominance-oriented strategies as they age, which may partially explain why they tend to experience a decline in popularity when they enter high school (Olweus, 1993). Child bullies are also more likely than peers to have poor academic achievement and struggle with career performance in adulthood (Carney & Merrell, 2001).

LGBT Resources for School Psychologists School psychologists seeking further information on issues related to sexual minority youth are encouraged to consult the references listed below. Many of the resources may also be appropriate to refer to sexual minority youth, as well as their family and friends, for valuable information and support. It is noted that the list provided is far from exhaustive, as many agencies and organizations seeking to improve the lives of sexual minority individuals exist. Those ultimately selected for inclusion were chosen due to the focus on sexual minority children and adolescents, as well as the perceived relevance to school-based practitioners. • Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network — http://www.glsen.org A central aim of the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) is to ensure that all students are valued and respected regardless of their sexual orientation. This organization also seeks to create school environments where all students are safe. The GLSEN website contains information for both students and educators. • Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays — http://www.pflag.org Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) seeks to promote the well-being of LGBT individuals, and to provide support and information to their parents, families, and friends. A portion of the PFLAG website contains information about education and programming efforts designed to ensure equality for sexual minority individuals in school settings. • Advocates for Youth — http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/glbtq.htm This section of the Advocates for Youth website contains links to a variety of fact sheets and pamphlets, and provides helpful tips and strategies for those working with LGBT or questioning youth. Many of these resources could easily be shared with students, parents, and/or teachers. • American Psychological Association’s Healthy Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Students Project — http://www.apa.org/ed/hlgb/ This portion of the American Psychological Association’s (APA) website contains information pertaining to sexual minority youth, as well as a variety of helpful links for school professionals, youth, and parents. • Position Statement on Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Questioning (GLBTQ) Youth — http://www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/pospaper_glb.aspx The NASP position statement regarding sexual minority youth serves as a general guide to the conduct of practitioners working with members of this population. Of particular relevance to the practicing school psychologist, the position statement includes numerous recommendations for creating safe educational environments for sexual minority youth.

Victims of bullying often suffer from feelings of loneliness and low self-esteem (Bullock, 2002). At school, these students are frequently fearful and intimidated, which hampers their ability to concentrate in class and learn effectively (Bullock, 2002; Price, 2004). In a longitudinal investigation of relational aggression, physical aggression, and social-psychological adjustment in elementary school students, Crick, Ostrov, and Werner (2006) found that the strongest predictor of future internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, as well as increases in these behaviors, was the combination of relational and physical aggression. Further support for the relationship between being bullied and externalizing behavior problems was found by Sullivan, Farrell, and Kliewer (2006), who concluded that different forms of peer victimization were significantly related to cigarette use, drug and alcohol use, and delinquent behaviors in a sample of urban middle school students. For some young victims, school becomes such an aversive place that they desire to cease attending altogether. Although specific studies regarding the relationship between school avoidance or refusal and bullying are few, some researchers have speculated that suffering from peer victimization keeps many students from attending school each day, causing many young people to miss valuable instructional time, thus further undermining their capacity to be successful academically (Buhs, Ladd, & Herald, 2006; Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1996).

Bullying of Sexual Minority Youth Among those at greatest risk for being bullied by peers are youth whose non-gender conformity or sexual orientation places them in the minority, which includes those who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) and perhaps those questioning their sexual orientation as well, a group of adolescents who represent about 5% of American high school students (GLSEN, 2006). For as many as two million school-age children and adolescents, victimization may be related to their perceived sexual orientation, including verbal and physical harassment, threats, and intimidation (Browman, 2001). Such youngsters also tend to be subjected to derogatory comments, name-calling, and/or jokes pertaining to their actual or perceived sexual preference (Horowitz & Loehnig, 2005). In a study of 218 secondary school students and teachers in Pennsylvania, more than 80% of students reported that they heard various homophobic remarks at school (Grant, 2006). Such treatment can have a variety of negative outcomes for the development of sexual minority youth, including low self-esteem, depression, suicidal ideation or completion, abuse of alcohol and other substances, sexual acting out, exposure to sexually transmitted diseases, and subjection to violence at rates higher than their heterosexual counterparts (Callahan, 2001; National Association of School Psychologists, 2004). Adams, Cox, and Dunstan (2004) contend that much of the prejudice, discrimination, and victimization associated with developing a non-heterosexual identity are encountered at school. As a result, for many sexual minority students, school is experienced as unsafe, and hence their survival, rather than their education, assumes top priority (Weiler, 2004). Because LGBT youth often fear being attacked and/or ridiculed while at school, remaining focused on learning tasks presents quite a challenge, placing these students at heightened risk for a variety of academic difficulties and scholastic underachievement (NASP, 2004). When compared to their heterosexual peers, sexual minority youth are also more likely to be absent frequently and leave school altogether, with 28% dropping out of school before graduation (NASP, 2004; National Mental Health Association, 2004). The adverse effects that bullying can have upon the lives of sexual minority youth extend far beyond the academic realm. For example, students whose behavior is atypical for their gender (Young & Sweeting, 2004) and sexual minority youth frequently report a loss of friends due to their sexual orientation (D’Augelli, 2002), and many feel lonely and isolated from members of their peer group (Callahan, 2001). In an attempt to avoid rejection and/or ridicule at the hands of their peers, sexually-diverse youth may hide their sexual orientation, which often intensifies the sense of confusion and self-doubt that typically plague these children and adolescents. As previously indicated, those who choose to reveal their sexual orientation to others generally fare only marginally better, however, as they risk violence, harassment, prejudice, and discrimination by their peers, families, and/or teachers, as well as society at large (Weiler, 2004). Gender-role nonconformity has been found to be associated with suicidality among gay male youth, with bullying mediating this relationship (Friedman, Koeske, Silvestre, Korr, & Sites, 2006). Further, as sexually-diverse youth progress from adolescence into adulthood, they may carry the scars from peer harassment with them. In a study of 1,285 gay, lesbian, and bisexual adults in the United Kingdom, 31% reported attempting suicide, which was associated with discrimination such as physical attack or school bullying (Warner, 2004). Thus, while sexual minority youth may face the same social and developmental challenges as their heterosexual peers, the added burdens of social isolation, selfdoubt, and fear create difficulties beyond those experienced by their non-sexual minority counterparts, during adolescence and beyond (Weiler, 2004). Of particular concern to schools is that much victimization of students based on sexual orientation occurs at a low level, and as a result, often goes undetected by educators and other school-based professionals. While LGBT students are frequently bullied and harassed by peers, many do not report the problem to school officials (Grant, 2006). Additionally, when they are aware of the problem, educators may not address bullying of sexually-diverse children and adolescents because of fear of discrimination, fear of job loss, their own prejudices, or failure to recognize bullying based on sexual orientation as a serious problem (Browman, 2001). Nonetheless, as Dupper and Meyer-Adams (2002) assert, even low level victimization angers and alienates youth, and contributes to an overall hostile school environment. In addition, harassment by peers undermines students’ physical and emotional well-being and safety, and could potentially result in retaliatory violence (Dupper & Meyer-Adams, 2002). Unfortunately, research conducted by Adams and colleagues (2004) indicates that few schools specifically address issues pertaining to

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 29 sexual orientation in their anti-bullying policies. Thus, in order to improve the educational experience of sexual minority students, it is vitally important that school psychologists, educators, and other school staff develop an increased awareness of the issues faced by these students, and learn effective strategies for preventing and intervening in instances of bullying of LGBT children and adolescents.

Role of the School Psychologist In a recent survey of school psychologists (all of whom were members of NASP), Savage, Prout, and Chard (2004) found that school psychologists tend to report positive attitudes toward sexual minority youth, and that many are willing to address the issues faced by these students while on the job. However, numerous practitioners surveyed reported low-to-moderate levels of knowledge regarding the difficulties faced by sexual minority youth, and most felt inadequately prepared to deal effectively with these students in their schools (Savage et al., 2004). As educators trained in prevention, assessment, and intervention regarding mental health issues, school psychologists are in an ideal position to effect positive change in the lives of sexual minority youth. The following recommendations provide an outline of specific steps that school psychologists can take in their efforts to improve the educational, social, and emotional experiences of sexually-diverse children and adolescents at school. Providing education and training to school personnel and students. Dupper and Meyer-Adams (2002) indicate that school personnel are often indifferent and lack training relevant to sexual minority youth; in some instances, they may actually be perpetrators of victimization of this population. Clearly, this finding underscores the need for school psychologists to provide training and education for educational personnel regarding the ethical and legal responsibility to ensure that all students, regardless of their sexual orientation, are protected and treated respectfully (Weiler, 2004). Educating staff regarding the unique difficulties often faced by sexual minority youth, as well as effective ways to interact with and respond to concerns voiced by sexually-diverse children and adolescents, should likewise be beneficial. Similarly, educating students in this regard is critical to improving the experience of LGBT youth at school (NASP, 2004). School psychologists and other school-based mental health professionals can present information about bullying of sexually-diverse students and the damaging effects of peer-harassment upon children’s and adolescents’ present and future functioning. Films such as Let’s Get Real, the Columbine Award winner for Best Short Documentary by the Moondance International Film Festival, can be used to initiate discussions among middle and high school students about the social issues related to bullying and peer-violence. In this film, sixth through ninth grade students talk about bullying from a wide range of perspectives, including those who have been perpetrators, victims, and bystanders (New Day Films, 2006). Showing support for diversity. School psychologists should model the use of accepting and affirming language, attitudes, and behavior in their daily interactions with

students and school staff (NASP, 2004). In addition, it is critical that school psychologists provide acceptance and support to sexual minority or questioning youth, as these students tend to fear being misunderstood and/or rejected, yet desperately need to feel that they are accepted both by peers and trusted adults (Weiler, 2004). School psychologists can identify themselves as supportive of sexually-diverse youth by affi xing rainbow posters or stickers outside of their office, or by placing “safe zone” stickers on their doors (Weiler, 2004). These gestures also send the message to students that the school psychologist is a trusted adult who can be consulted when issues relating to sexual orientation arise. For interested individuals, several posters (such as those referenced above) are available for download and printing from the NASP website at http://www.nasponline. org/advocacy/glbtposters.aspx. To further demonstrate their acceptance of all students, school psychologists can support the development of groups that promote understanding and acceptance of human diversity (NASP, 2004). For example, they can advocate for the formation of Gay/ Straight Alliances within their school system to provide sexual minority youth with a forum for discussion and support, and to educate their heterosexual peers. The Safe Schools Manual, created by the Saint Paul Public Schools’ Out for Equity program, can be used to provide support to sexually-diverse students, families, and educators through suggestions for implementing and supporting Gay/Straight Alliance after-school clubs and guidelines for operating school-based LGBT support groups (Horowitz & Loehnig, 2005). Counseling. In counseling (either individual or group-based), school psychologists can encourage sexual minority youth to discuss incidents of victimization based on their sexual orientation, and address any mental health issues that may arise as a result of these experiences (D’Augelli, Pilkington, & Hershberger, 2002). Before initiating a counseling relationship with a LGBT student, it is imperative that school psychologists be well-informed of the difficulties often faced by these individuals. Practitioners may gain such knowledge through a variety of avenues, possibly by reading, pursuing additional coursework, particularly in the area of human sexuality, or consulting with colleagues who have more knowledge and experience working with sexual minority youth. In addition, it is crucial that school psychologists continually monitor their own attitudes regarding nontraditional sexual orientation in an effort to ensure that any biases and beliefs they hold do not hamper their ability to work effectively with members of this population. In schools in which the student body is particularly diverse, knowledge of the stance that various cultural, ethnic, and religious groups take regarding homosexuality is also advisable. Consulting for curricular changes. School psychologists can also advocate for the inclusion of information about homosexuality and sexual minority individuals into existing curricula. Making such curricular modifications provides sexually-diverse youth with role models and demonstrates to students that individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender are capable of leading meaningful, productive lives. Altering the school curriculum to reflect greater tolerance and acceptance of LGBT individuals should also  continued on page 30

      


  


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Bullying… continued from page 29

help to reduce social stigma and homophobic attitudes among students and staff alike (Callahan, 2001). Furthermore, including information relevant to sexual minority youth in the curriculum may help to reduce the sense of being misunderstood and the feeling of being invisible that are often experienced by these students (NASP, 2004). Specific curricular changes may include requiring students to read works written by well-known LGBT authors in an English class, or discussing the gay rights movement along with other civil rights movements in a history course (NASP, 2004). Further, the Safe Schools Manual contains psychoeducational lesson ideas and practical strategies to make schools safer for LGBT youth, as well as a comprehensive selection of local and national organizations and websites that provide service and support to sexual minority students (Horowitz & Loehnig, 2005). Given that school psychologists often receive little or no professional training relevant to sexual orientation, advocating for curricular changes at the university level may also be beneficial. School psychologists should therefore encourage training programs to include coursework and field practice relevant to work with sexual minority youth, and to devote increased instructional time to discussions of issues faced by these students within the school setting. Additionally, school psychologists can consult with college and university librarians to increase holdings of books, periodicals, and media devoted to topics of relevance and concern to students and faculty regarding sexual diversity. Assisting in the development of school-wide policy. To ensure that sexual minority youth feel safe, school-wide policies forbidding anti-gay harassment should be developed and implemented or added to existing policies. School psychologists can assist in developing a systemic school policy of zero tolerance for discrimination and harassment, with particular attention devoted to bullying of sexually diverse students, since children and adolescents, faculty, and staff may not perceive this form of victimization to be as damaging as other kinds of intolerance. Elements of such policies should include a clear statement regarding specific incidents that will not be tolerated, such as name-calling, property damage, and physical or sexual assault (Weiler, 2004). School-based practitioners can also assist in determining appropriate consequences for students violating school policy, and collaborate with school staff in its implementation. Because feeling safe at school is a necessary precursor to both academic and social success, the development of policies designed to protect sexual minority students from victimization is essential to improving the school experiences of these youth. An example of this may be found in the Harvey Milk High School in New York City, which was established in 1985 for the purpose of providing a safe learning environment for LGBT adolescents (Mayes, 2006). Furthering knowledge through research activities. Although the issue of bullying in schools has received much attention in the research literature in recent years, a paucity of studies investigating victimization among LGBT youth in the United States have been conducted to date. However, because these students are likely to be bullied at rates higher than their heterosexual peers, and suffer from a variety of negative consequences as a result, a broader, in-depth understanding of the victimization of this population is sorely needed. School psychologists are thus advised to conduct and support research with this unique population of students, particularly with regard to effective interventions and programs specifically designed to address the needs of LGBT and questioning youth in schools. Additionally, school psychologists should ensure that relevant research findings are disseminated to colleagues, students, and parents (NASP, 2004). Advocacy at the regional, state, and national levels. Using organizational consultation, school psychologists can also be valuable in assisting legislators in developing policies designed to ensure the safety of all students, regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity. In 2004, New Jersey was ranked as first among all 50 states and the District of Columbia in supporting safe school laws for LGBT youth and educators. Unfortunately, most students do not enjoy legal protections against anti-LGBT bullying and harassment. (Only 8 states and the District of Columbia currently have statewide legal protections for students based on sexual orientation, and only California, Minnesota, and New Jersey include protections based on gender identity or expression.) Further, more than 75% of the approximately 47.7 million K-12 students in the United States attend schools that do not include sexual orientation and gender identity/expression as statewide protected classes alongside federally mandated protections based on religion, race, and national origin (Snorton, 2005).

Conclusion Although bullying of sexual minority youth in schools is widespread, educators are generally unaware of the degree of victimization faced by these students, and thus often fail to intervene in instances when bullying occurs. Furthermore, because school-wide antibullying policies tend not to directly address issues related to sexual orientation, it may be unclear to students and staff alike what types of behavior will/will not be tolerated in this regard, as well as the repercussions for failing to adhere to school policy. Nonetheless, given the variety of risks faced by sexual minority youth, addressing the unique needs of this population in the school setting is crucial. School psychologists are in an ideal position to effect positive change in the lives of sexual minority youth through a variety of methods, such as education, consultation, counseling, advocacy, and research activity. 

References Adams, N., Cox, T., & Dunstan, L. (2004). ‘I am the hate that dare not speak its name’: Dealing with homophobia in secondary schools. Educational Psychology in Practice, 20, 259–269. Browman, D. H. (2001). Report says schools often ignore harassment of gay students. Education Week, 20(39), 5. Buhs, E. S., Ladd, G. W., & Herald, S. L. (2006). Peer exclusion and victimization: Processes that mediate the relation between peer group rejection and children’s classroom

engagement and achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 1–13. Bullock, J. R. (2002). Bullying among children. Childhood Education, 78, 130–133. Callahan, C. J. (2001). Protecting and counseling gay and lesbian students. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education, and Development, 40, 5–10. Carney, A. G., & Merrell, K. W. (2001). Bullying in schools: Perspectives on understanding and preventing an international problem. School Psychology International, 22(3), 364–382. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006, September 19). School Violence. Retrieved from: http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/fact_book/23_School_Violence.htm. Crick, N. R., Ostrov, J. M., & Werner, N. E. (2006). A longitudinal study of relational aggression, physical aggression, and children’s social-psychological adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 131–142. D’Augelli, A. R. (2002). Mental health problems among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths aged 14 to 21. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 433–456. D’Augelli, A. R., Pilkington, N. W., & Hershberger, S. L. (2002). Incidence and mental health impact of sexual orientation victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths in high school. School Psychology Quarterly, 17, 148–167. Dupper, D. R., & Meyer-Adams, N. (2002). Low-level violence: A neglected aspect of school culture. Urban Education, 37, 350–364. Farrington, D. P. (1993). Understanding and preventing bullying. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (pp. 381–458). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Friedman, M. S., Koeske, G. F., Silvestre, A. J., Korr, W. S., & Sites, E. W. (2006). The impact of gender-role nonconforming behavior, bullying, and social support on suicidality among gay male youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 621–623. Grant, T. (2006, September 27). Gay students often bullied in PA schools. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, pp. B1, B2. Horowitz, A., & Loehnig, G. (Eds.). (2005). Safe schools manual. Saint Paul, MN: Out for Equity. Kumpulainen, K., Rasanen, E., & Puura, K. (2001). Psychiatric disorders and the use of mental health services among children involved in bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 102–110. Mayes, T. A. (2006). Separate public high schools for sexual minority students and the limits of the Brown analogy. Journal of Law and Education, 35, 339–348. Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2094–2100. National Association of School Psychologists. (2004). Position statement on gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (GLBTQ) youth. Bethesda, MD: Author. Retrieved September 2, 2006, from http://www.nasponline.org/about_nasp/pospaper_ glb.aspx National Mental Health Association (2004). Back to school — bullying at school: Harassment puts gay youth at risk. Alexandria, VA: Author. Retrieved October 6, 2006 from http://www.nmha.org/pbedu/backtoschool/bullyingGayYouth.cfm New Day Films (Producer). (2006). Let’s get real [Motion picture]. Available from New Day Films, http://www.newday.com/films/LetsGetReal.html Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Price, S. (2004). The problem with bullies. Junior Scholastic, 106, 8–9. Ross, D. M. (1996). Childhood bullying and teasing: What school personnel, other professionals, and parents can do. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Salmivalli, C, Lagerspetz, K., Bjôrkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1996). Bullying as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status within the group. Aggressive Behavior, 22, 1–15. Savage, T. A., Prout, H. T., & Chard, K. M. (2004). School psychology and issues of sexual orientation: Attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge. Psychology in the Schools, 41, 201– 210. Smith, P. K., & Brain, P. (2000). Bullying in school: Lessons from two decades of research. Aggressive Behavior, 26, 1–9. Snorton, R. (2005, April 1.). GLSEN’s 2004 state of the states report is the first objective analysis of statewide safe schools policies. New York: Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network. Retrieved October 6, 2006 from: http://www.glsen.org/cgi-bin/iowa/all/ library/record/1687.html Sullivan, T. N., Farrell, A. D., & Kliewer, W. (2006). Peer victimization in early adolescence: Association between physical and relational victimization and drug use, aggression, and delinquent behaviors among urban middle school students. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 119–137. Warner, J. (2004). Rates and predictors of mental illness in gay men, lesbians and bisexual men and women. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 185, 479–485. Weiler, E. M. (2004). Legally and morally, what our gay students must be given. The Education Digest, 69, 38–43. Young, R., & Sweeting, H. (2004). Adolescent bullying, relationships, psychological wellbeing, and gender-atypical behavior: A gender diagnosticity approach. Sex Roles, 50, 525–537. © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Laura Crothers, PhD, NCSP, is a trainer at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, PA, and a member of NASP’s LGBT Workgroup.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 31

Updated for today’s needs The Vineland-II gives you unprecedented flexibility along with detailed information for your diagnostic decisions. Use this test to assess individuals with mental retardation, autism spectrum disorders, developmental delays, brain injuries, and other impairments. Teacher Rating Form—Now Available! Formerly known as the Classroom Edition, use this efficient form to learn about a student’s behavior in the classroom or in conjunction with one of the other versions of the Vineland-II to collect information about an individual’s behavior in a variety of settings.

PearsonAssessments.com 800.627.7271 AGS assessments are now part of Pearson Assessments. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All Rights Reserved. AAE 1118 08/06

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Lessons Learned From Recent Hurricanes: Efforts Related to Schools and Students By Frank Zenere, National Emergency Assistance Team

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he U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools and the Emergency Response and Crisis Management Technical Assistance Center hosted the Project School Emergency Response to Violence (SERV) Hurricanes Katrina and Rita: Recovery Efforts Related to Schools and Students meeting in New Orleans Louisiana, on November 2–3, 2006. The gathering brought together participants from the states most affected by recent hurricanes: Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, and Texas. The format of the meeting provided representatives from each of the states an opportunity to share information regarding the actions they are utilizing to mitigate, prepare, respond and recover from hurricanes. The composition of teams included professionals from emergency management, education, and mental health backgrounds. This author was selected as one of a six-person team representing the State of Florida. A wide array of topics were discussed during the two-day meeting. Points of emphasis included emergency operations, sheltering, maintenance and facilities management, food service, transportation, human resources, finances, displaced and homeless children and families, and mental health needs and services. Discussion also centered around what actions were successful, which were not, and lessons learned.

Lessons Learned This is a partial list of “lessons learned” that were presented at the meeting. • School systems are critical first responders. • Community-wide disasters change all the rules — a “new normal” is created. • Schools are a critical part of the community’s infrastructure. A return to normal for the school district indicates a return to normal for the community. • School districts should provide disaster awareness, preparation and mitigation education for students and families. • Create inter-district and inter-agency collaborative agreements that foster sharing of human and material resources. • Internet-based academic enrichment activities for student use can be accessed during periods of school closure. • Auditory/visual media can be used to provide parents with guidance for assisting the postdisaster recovery and coping of children. • Encourage students to participate in recovery-oriented activities and projects. • Utilize school mental health professionals as consultants, advocates, trainers, and interventionists. • Be attentive to emerging and longitudinal reactions of students and staff that require attention. • Don’t try to do it all alone. • Stagger resources for long-term utilization. • Ask for help sooner. • Have pre-disaster planning in place. • Communication with families is exceedingly difficult following a disaster. • As you gear up to provide services for children, don’t forget staff’s needs. • Schools provide displaced students one aspect of their lives that is stable and predictable, especially when the displacement is likely to be long-term. • Creative scheduling can often make up lost schools days following disaster, with- out extending the school year. • Prepare to receive more offers of assistance than can be handled. • Discipline issues initially increased, but soon stabilized to baseline levels. • Some staff and students continue to experience significant stress one year post-disaster.

Disaster Response in Louisiana The impact of recent hurricanes has hit the state of Louisiana with great ferocity; 1,293 residents perished; 883 people are missing (as of 4/10/06); 360,000 residents are displaced

out of state; 40 public schools were destroyed and 835 were damaged; 12,000 teachers were displaced; 175,809 public school students were displaced, including 72,479 displaced out of state (Louisiana Department of Education, 2006). In response to the disaster, the Louisiana Department of Education sought and was granted, 2.75 million dollars to implement recovery activities. Project SERV activities included the development of a Mobile Team Manual for the Louisiana Department of Education, which consisted of five modules: Training Techniques and Facilitation Skills; Reactions to Disaster-Schools Helping Children and Caregivers with Recovery and Reintegration; Creating Safe Environments; Creating Classroom Communities and Healthy Responses to Life Changing Events. Additional Project SERV efforts involved the following: • Mobile teams of displaced professionals were interviewed and hired. • Mobile teams were trained to provide services to schools and districts. • A brochure and assistance packet were developed and disseminated. • Schools and districts were notified of training opportunities ( Project SERVE & Louisiana Department of Education, 2006) The Louisiana Spirit Recovery Project was created through a series of FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) and SAMHSA (Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration) service grants to address post hurricane disaster mental health concerns. Specifically, the focus is placed upon crisis, trauma, grief and loss, and resiliency factors. Services conducted by Louisiana Spirit include information education, psychosocial education, referral, supportive counseling, resiliency support, crisis/trauma counseling, psychological first aid, grief and loss counseling, and community education and training (Louisiana Spirit Recovery Project, 2006).

Impact Across the Gulf Coast Although Louisiana residents received the most extensive impact as measured by loss of life and damage assessment, the people of Mississippi were heavily impacted as well. Unfortunately, the needs of Mississippi residents are often overshadowed by the media focus on New Orleans. Likewise, the people of Texas have been greatly affected by the exodus of Gulf Coast residents evacuated as a result of the wrath of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. At the present time, 251,000 evacuees remain in Texas, 39% of which are children; 41% of evacuee households report a monthly income of less than $500 (Texas Health and Human Services Commission Survey: Hurricane Katrina Evacuees, 2006). Alabama and Florida have also endured hardships as a result of recent hurricane experiences. Florida, in particular, has been struck by seven hurricanes and three tropical storms over the past three years. The impact of multiple storm exposure most assuredly dampens the post-disaster resiliency of children and families. Hopefully, lessons learned from this “ad hoc” gathering will be implemented across disciplines to support students, families and staff as they prepare for, mitigate, respond to, and recover from disasters, whether they are natural or human caused. The educational community must collaborate with other professions to ensure our success in this endeavor. 

References Project SERVE and the Louisiana Department of Education (2006). Presentation conducted at the Project School Emergency Response to Violence (SERV) Hurricanes Katrina and Rita: Recovery Efforts Related to Schools and Students Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana. Louisiana Spirit Hurricane Recovery Project (2006). Presentation conducted at the Project School Emergency Response to Violence (SERV) Hurricanes Katrina and Rita: Recovery Efforts Related to Schools and Students Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana. Texas Health and Human Services Commission Survey: Hurricane Katrina Evacuees (2006). Presentation conducted at the Project School Emergency Response to Violence (SERV) Hurricanes Katrina and Rita: Recovery Efforts Related to Schools and Students Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana. Frank Zenere, EdS, is one of the original members of the NASP National Emergency Assistance Team (NEAT) and a member of the Miami-Dade County (FL) Public Schools Crisis Team.

Book Review

See Jane Hit: Why Girls Are Growing More Violent and What We Can Do About It By James Garbarino (2006, Penguin Press) Reviewed by Terry Molony, NCSP & Maureen Henwood

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d. Note. See Jane Hit has been selected for the Book Conversation at the NASP Convention in New York on Wednesday, March 28, 2007 from 2:15 to 3:15 PM.

Startling statistics reveal that from 1990 to 1999, aggravated assaults by girls under 18 increased by 57%, while they decreased by 5% for boys. In See Jane Hit, James Garbarino explores this social phenomenon through the lens of human ecology, developmental psychology, and evolutionary biology. With clarity, eloquence, and compassion, he reviews numerous research studies that indicate that boys and girls are not wired differently initially. They all start out as aggressive beings; however, girls traditionally exchange the physical aggression for more subtle, socially acceptable behaviors as they get older and develop better verbal skills and social competence. Garbarino suggests that this is changing, in part due to excessive television viewing (25% of 6th graders watch 40 hours a week) and because pop culture is liberating aggressive girls. In the past, research regarding the connection between television viewing

and violence revealed a negative effect for boys but not girls. However, current research suggests that the effects are now the same for boys and girls. Garbarino explains the self-validating upward spiral: as more girls who hit see girls on TV hitting, they come to believe that everyone hits. Even the honorable Hermoine from Harry Potter expresses a positive feeling when she punches Malfoy and the audience applauds her. Based on the Laws of Human Ecology, first introduced by Urie Bronfenbrenner, Garbarino asserts that you can never do just one thing. Human systems are so interconnected that every action you take has several different consequences, many of which might be unintended or even negative. Seemingly positive changes in society, such as girls being offered more opportunities to be powerful (i.e., through sports), may have some negative consequences, such as increased violence, that were not anticipated. Without the supervision of caring parents and coaches, pop culture, left to itself, appears to be unleashing a new aggressive kind of “girl power.” As in his earlier books, Garbarino poignantly discusses the elements of a socially toxic culture, which include “spirit-deadening superficial materialism, reduced benevo continued on page 33

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 33

NASP STUDENT CONNECTIONS Edited by Lauren Fisher & Anna M. Peña, NCSP

School Psychology Awareness Week 2006: Another Success! Reports from school psychology graduate programs across the country reveal that this year’s School Psychology Awareness Week was a resounding success! NASP Student Leaders spearheaded efforts at their universities to promote awareness of our field during this national Awareness week, which occurred November 6-10 this past year. Student Leaders and their classmates used NASP resources, such as posters, PowerPoint presentations, and brochures, along with a good deal of their own creativity, to effectively spread the word about the dynamic role of school psychologists. This year’s theme, Success, Learning, and Mental Health, was reportedly well received, as students worked to inform undergraduates, professionals in closely-related fields, parents, and school personnel about school psychologists’ efforts to support the mental health of children in the schools. Student Leaders described an impressive variety of activities that the students in their programs undertook to promote the field. Numerous programs reported that they posted and distributed NASP materials in undergraduate and graduate psychology and education departments, and in school internship sites. In addition, students often organized presentations within their programs to inform students about NASP, student membership, and NASP student resources in order to connect them with benefits of belonging to a professional organization in their field. Celebratory events such as dinner parties, awards ceremonies, and social gatherings were held to show appreciation for faculty and supervisors committed to supporting future school psychologists, and to celebrate and promote connections between school psychology professionals and students. In honor of this clear demonstration of student commitment to the field, we have decided to highlight some of the many wonderful School Psychology Awareness week events that were shared with us at NASP. These examples were provided to us by Student Leaders and reflect the hard work and energy that they and their classmates put into raising awareness of our field. University of Arizona-Tucson — Student Leader: Carlos Dejud At the University of Arizona the graduate students celebrated School Psychology Awareness Week in style. They received a proclamation from the City of Tucson–Mayor’s Office, held a bake sale (all proceeds to go towards their holiday philanthropy program), handed out brochures and information sent from NASP Headquarters, held a presentation at the Department of Psychology, and finally held a social mixer at a local pub to culminate the week with a big bang! University of Toledo — Student Leader: Julie Colturi The University of Toledo’s program is a new one, and it just started a school psychology student organization. As a new program eager to become active in the profession, their first order of business was to take part in activities for the School Psychology Awareness Week. School psychology students visited different undergraduate education classes to let future teachers know what school psychologists do and how teachers and school psychologists can work together. Additionally, they held a party to celebrate their commitment to and enthusiasm for the field. During the party, students took the opportunity to thank their advisors and professors for their work and dedication to the students. At the University of Toledo, they so much enjoyed spreading awareness about our chosen profession that they are continuing to engage in activities. An article was printed in the college paper about their program and what school psychologists do in the field. In addition, they are planning to continue to engage in discussions with undergraduate education and psychology students about the field. University at Buffalo — Student Leader: Bryan Malchoff Students from the University at Buffalo (UB) presented to several undergraduate psychology classes to provide students with information about a career in school psychology and the school psychology graduate program at UB. In addition, students created a NASP bulletin board in the Graduate School of Education building to create awareness about NASP and the importance of the organization. Moreover, information about NASP and encouragement to join and post on e-Community discussions were presented to first-year students in the school psychology program. Finally, posters about school psychology and pamphlets were distributed throughout our campus and in numerous practicum sites. Towson University — Student Leader: Amy Gallo At Towson University in Maryland students participated in School Psychology Awareness Week by posting the “Success, Learning, and Mental Health” poster on campus and at their practicum/internship sites. Students placed table tents in the dining areas on campus that answered, “What is a school psychologist?” In addition, presentations were made to college psychology honors courses, local colleges (undergraduate Psi Chi), and high school students about the field. Further, students passed out brochures about the field from NASP and sent a daily e-mail to all students on the topic of School Psychology Awareness Week and who to contact with questions. Moreover, students shared appreciation of their professors and supervisors through small gifts, said “thank you” to the teachers at our practicum/internship sites through small gifts, poems, etc. Lastly, students designed and passed out pencils about the field and wore their Towson school psychology t-shirts to show spirit. The College of Saint Rose — Student Leader: Carrie Dow-Gebbie At the College of Saint Rose, students distributed information via e-mail to psychology students concerning both School Psychology Awareness Week and NASP membership.

In addition, students distributed relevant NASP pamphlets and handouts to students and hung posters on campus. Students further provided handouts to St. Rose professors and conducted informal discussions with students and classroom teachers about the various roles that school psychologists play and the services that they can provide. Lastly, students contacted the New York Association of School Psychologists (NYASP) to coordinate a presentation about the field. The diverse activities held by these programs represent only a sample of the successful activities organized by students across the country during the 2006 School Psychology Awareness Week. We appreciate the efforts and participation of all graduate programs that took part in this celebration of our field. A special thank you to NASP Student Leaders who were instrumental in organizing activities in their programs. All participants’ commitment to expanding the awareness and understanding of the field of school psychology benefits current and future school psychologists, and paves the way for school psychologists to create lasting change in the lives of students and families.

Welcome to Our Newest 2006-2007 NASP Student Leaders! Alfred University — Maria Furgiuele Brigham Young University — Suzanne Jacobson Capella University — Carla Junquera Edinboro University of Pennsylvania — Cynthia Davenport Florida State University — Jessica Bryant Francis Marion University — Blair Edwards Lewis and Clark College — Ryan Ruhl Murray State University — Stephanie Carter Rutgers University — Meredith Cregg-Wedmore Southern New Hampshire University — Eileen Jordan University of Dayton — Suzann Erickson University of South Carolina — Jessica Carfolite

Student Leader Spotlight! Emily Graybill is now serving her second term as a Student Leader (SL) for Georgia State University. Last year she did a fantastic job as a Southeastern Regional SL. This year she is serving as the State SL for Georgia. In this capacity she has diligently worked to recruit new Student Leaders and provided SLs in her area with valuable information about professional development, outreach, and advocacy opportunities each month. Moreover, Emily is conscientious in her duties as a SL, and the students in her program benefit as a result. Nominations for Student Leader Spotlight are made by current 2006–2007 Regional Leaders.

e-Communities Launched! Please take the time to check out our new and improved e-Communities. You can register at http://www.nasponline.org/communities.aspx  Lauren Fisher, MS, and Anna M. Peña, MS, NCSP are 2006–2007 NASP graduate assistants.



See Jane Hit… continued from page 32

lent adult authority and supervision, civic cynicism, and fragmentation of community, all promulgated throughout the vehicle of pop culture that often undermines legitimate adult authority and promotes a vivid linking of assertive sexuality and explicit aggression” (p.10). To offset the pervasive influence of the socially toxic culture, Garbarino suggests that we need to develop lifelines and safety nets for girls so that they can get physical without getting violent. He suggests that as a society, we need to focus on building developmental assets for girls, to help to empower them by channeling assertiveness in positive directions, and through a greater involvement of benevolent adults to counteract some of the powerful negative peer influences. Although the emerging epidemic of increasing violence is very alarming, Garbarino ends his thought-provoking examination of the topic on a hopeful note. He provides examples of how disaster was averted in the past when a warning was heeded. As school professionals we need to seriously digest the information that Garbarino has so insightfully recorded and take efforts to intervene. We can play a great role in developing relationships with girls, while also effecting system-wide changes throughout our school districts. Dr. Garbarino has provided us a great tool with his inspiring and powerful investigation into the causes of and some possible solutions to violent behavior in girls.  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Terry Molony, EdS, NCSP, is a school psychologist in Cherry Hill, NJ and a doctoral candidate in school psychology at the Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine, where she is an adjunct professor. Maureen (Mo) Henwood is a student in the masters program in school psychology at the Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine. Terry (’77) and Mo (’02) were both athletes at the University of Notre Dame, separated by 25 years of progress in women’s sports. As a four-year varsity lacrosse player, Mo feels that the opportunity to participate in sports, coupled with the support and guidance of caring adults, helped to empower her to productively channel her physical strength and intellect. During the NASP Convention on Wednesday, March 28, 2007 from 2:15 to 3:15 pm, Dr. Garbarino will lead us in a discussion of his book and will answer any questions you might have. Please join us for this exciting opportunity to share ideas with Dr. Garbarino. The NJASP Book Group will facilitate the conversation.

PAGE 34 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

PEDIATRIC SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Lyme Disease: Etiology, Neuropsychological Sequelae, and Educational Impact By R. A. Hamlen & D. S. Kliman

S

chool psychology publications contain few articles on the impact of Lyme disease on the capacity of school-aged children to function successfully within an educational program. This oversight is of considerable concern, as the school psychologist can be a front-line consultant for assistance with a child or adolescent presenting with sequelae of vague behavioral, cognitive, learning and/or psychological problems. The focus of this article is to highlight the importance of the school psychologist to recognize impaired school performance due to undiagnosed Lyme disease, act as the child’s advocate within the medical and school community, and assist in the design of a supportive educational environment for the ill child.

Disease Overview Lyme disease is a multi-system infection caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi that is generally transmitted to humans from rodents through the bite of a deer tick (Ixodes scapularis, I. pacificus) (CDC, 2004). The bite often is unnoticed due to the small, poppy-seed sized tick. The initial indications of infection can include a reddish rash, fever, chills, fatigue, joint pain, headache, stiff-neck, mental confusion, and sleep disturbance. Misdiagnosis of initial symptoms and delayed treatment can lead to debilitating chronic illness with musculoskeletal, cognitive, and neuropsychiatric impairments (Cameron, 2003; Halperin, 2004; Shadick et al., 1994; Tager & Fallon, 2001). Symptoms are multivariate and often have puzzling presentation in some patients, especially children (Fallon et al., 1998). Infection incidence and risk Lyme disease is the fastest growing U.S. insect-vectored disease, with a 40% increase in the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) surveillance cases from 2001 to 2002 (23,763 cases) (CDC, 2004). This trend continued in 2005 with a 36–84% increase relative to 2004 reported for northeastern and mid-Atlantic states (CDC, 2006). Under-reporting is acknowledged by the CDC (2000) and is a particularly troublesome issue based on incidence of pediatric cases (Dedeoglu & Sundel, 2003; Shapiro & Seltzer, 1997; Young, 1998).

Table 1. Neurological and cognitive symptoms in children with undiagnosed Lyme disease1 • Headaches and neck stiffness • Neuropathy (nerve pain) in back, legs or hands • Paresthesia (tingling sensation, often in legs and hands), facial paralysis (Bell’s palsy), tinnitus, and sensory hyperacusis (unusual sensitivity to sound or light) • Deficits with memory — short-term, sequential, spatial, and tracking, slowness of word and name retrieval. • Decreased reading comprehension and handwriting skills • Impaired speech fluency — stuttering and slurred speech • Inability to accurately perform previously mastered mathematical calculations • Vision problems — difficulty in the classroom in seeing and following visually presented material, and frequent blinking or tics, inability to coordinate eye movement — targeting difficulties, and distorted visual images • Musculoskeletal (movement) and coordination impairment, balance problems (clumsiness or vertigo) • Executive function impairment — inability to activate or sustain effort and attention, and manage frustration; confusion, and thinking sluggishness in expressing thoughts • Frequent errors in speaking, writing, spelling, or dyslexic-like behaviors (errors in letter and number reversals). • Frequent errors in speaking, writing, spelling, or dyslexic-like behaviors (errors in letter and number reversals). • Severe and chronic fatigue unrelieved by rest — falling asleep in class, missing class due to tiredness, and sleep disturbance • Emotional and uncharacteristic behavioral presentation — withdrawal from peers or shift to a lower functioning group, depersonalization (loss of a sense of physical existence), cessation of involvement in sports or other extra-curricular activities, inattentiveness, attention deficit behavior, obsessive-compulsiveness, depression, anxiety, panic, aggression, defiance, explosive outbursts, mood swings, irritability, hyperactivity, nightmares, and sudden suicidal thoughts • Inability to perform at grade level — inconsistency or sloppy school work, late assignments, decline in grades, being overwhelmed by schoolwork, missed school days, and school phobia 1

Adams et al, 1994; Berenbaum, 2004; Coyle 2002; Fallon et al., 1998; Gordon, 2000; Halperin, 2004; Juchnowicz et al., 2002; Pietrucha, 2001; Peltomaa et al., 1998; Rachman & Garfield, 1998; Sherr, 2000, 2002; Shotland et al., 2003; Tager & Fallon, 2001; Tager et al., 2001.

Lyme disease occurs nationwide; however, twelve states — Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin — account for 95% of cases reported nationally (CDC, 2004). People of all ages are vulnerable to Lyme disease, and significant infection rates occur in children ages 5 to 14 years (CDC, 2004). Children in endemic suburban residential areas surrounded by deer tick-infested woods are at significant risk of infection. Each spring the risk increases appreciably as temperatures reach 40° F, when deer ticks become active and outdoor activities increase (Lane et al., 2004). Diagnosis A central diagnostic difficulty responsible for the current debate within the medical community regarding diagnosis and treatment of Lyme disease (Hamlen, 2004; Stricker and Lautin, 2003) is the lack of a definitive and readily available laboratory test for active infection (Donta, 2002; Tylewska-Wierzbanowska & Chmielewski, 2002). Physicians are challenged to diagnose early infection based on clinical presentations (patient history, exposure risk, and symptoms) using testing data, including those for co-infections, as supporting evidence for the diagnosis (Krause et al., 2002). The CDC (1997), FDA (1999), and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases/NIAID (2001) have acknowledged the commercially available serology tests are not sufficiently sensitive for diagnosis, warned of the overdependence on test results in diagnosis and treatment decisions, and stated that a clinical diagnosis is necessary. Diagnosis is especially difficult when the rash is absent (Steer et al., 2003), serology is negative (Kaiser, 2000), uncharacteristic symptoms occur (based on physician experience), and atypical neuropsychiatric symptoms are present (Tager & Fallon, 2001). The task of separating a primary psychiatric disorder from the neuropsychiatric sequelae of Lyme disease can be daunting. Single photon emission tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and neuropsychological testing may be required to make a differential diagnosis (Fallon et al., 1997; 2003).

Physical and Neuropsychological Sequelae in Children Cognitive symptoms are a direct result of dysfunction of the cerebral cortex where cognitive processing occurs (Bransfield et al., 2001). While children with Lyme disease can experience a plethora of symptoms, it is generally the subtle neurological and cognitive deficits that have eluded prior detection. These deficits have the most profound negative impact on a child’s school performance and social life (Table 1). Every child with Lyme disease has a unique profile of symptoms which can vary significantly during the process of infection. In addition to the previously described neurological and cognitive deficits readily identifiable by the school psychologist, additional presenting sequelae that may be detected during a student interview are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Presenting sequelae documented for Lyme disease flu-like illness — fever and chills gastrointestional manifestations — chronic gastritis, duodenitis, and colitis cardiac complications — irregular rhythm and heart block ocular defects — optic neuritis, neuropathy, conjunctivitis, uveitis, keratitis, ocular pain, and decreased vision or loss rheumatologic symptoms — arthritis, myalgias, arthralgias, and musculoskeletal pain

Reference CDC, 1997 Fried et al., 1999 Karadag et al., 2004; Lo et al., 2003 Mikkila et al., 2000; Rothermel et al., 2001 Shadick et al., 1999

Any of the symptoms in Tables 1 and 2 can indicate undiagnosed Lyme disease and it should be considered when unusual changes in behavior or academic performance are noted. Frequently, symptoms develop in a child who previously performed well within the school environment. A most challenging manifestation of Lyme disease is that symptoms may persist, or they may be episodic and fluctuating in type and severity, further confusing diagnosis as the child may not appear sick in the traditional sense (Berenbaum 2004; Smith, 2004). Disease onset may be gradual with increasing fatigue, social disinterest, or deteriorating school performance (Fallon et al., 1998). An important finding is that cognitive and behavioral difficulties are similar to those observed with affective, oppositional defiant, and attention deficit disorders (Healy, 2000; Ramirez, 2003; Tager et al., 2001). Further complicating diagnosis is the inability of children and teenagers to express their feelings to parents or friends (Lang, 1997). Children generally are not diagnosed initially with psychiatric manifestations of Lyme disease because their complaints are seen as indistinct and functional in nature. If the undiagnosed disease process has psychiatric manifestations that lower the child’s frustration tolerance and/or increase irritability and impair cognitive functioning, a referral from the school or treating physician to a psychiatrist to address an assumed psychogenic or functional disorder is likely (Fallon et al., 1998). While much of the data on psychiatric illness in children due to Lyme disease are anecdotal, 60% of confirmed Lyme disease adult patients reported an episode of major depression during their illness, 90% for the first time in their life (Fallon & Nields, 1992; Rachman & Garfield, 1998). In cases where facial paralysis (Bell’s palsy) was the initial symptom of infection and when appropriately treated with antibiotics, the neuropsychologic, cognitive functioning, and general health outcomes (based on neuropsychologic tests) were comparable to those who did not have Lyme disease (Adams et al., 1999a; Vazquez et al., 2003). Where initial symptoms were a skin rash or cognitive impairment, studies also indicated significant

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 35 recovery with treatment (Adams et al., 1999b; Nowakowski et al., 2003; Wang et al., 1998). However, Bloom et al. (1998) reported that in patients with late neurologic manifestations of Lyme disease, improvement was often gradual or they presented with continuing neurocognitive symptoms requiring I-V antibiotic therapy. Pediatric cases with significant clinical deterioration have been documented by clinicians (Shapiro & Seltzer, 1997; Young, 1998). The specific reasons why some children suffer severe deficits is unknown. However, children whose diagnosis and treatment were delayed and who displayed considerable impairment had significantly more school-related cognitive and psychiatric sequelae compared to healthy children (Tager et al., 2001). Unfortunately, there are children who remain ill for months or years who have been seen by several physicians who erroneously labeled the child as hypochondriachal, psychosomatic, depressed, or malingering (Berenbaum et al., 1999; Bernbaum, 2004; Healy, 2000; Pietrucha, 2001).

Educational Concerns: How Can the School Psychologist Help? Although most school nurses are alert to the impact of Lyme disease on schoolaged children (Healy, 2000; Kyle-Louise, 2001; McSweegan, 2001; Rudd-Arieta, 2003), information on this disease is generally absent from school psychology publications. As a front-line consultant to the educational team, the school psychologist should have a basic understanding of Lyme disease diagnosis and treatment and be able to recognize and articulate the impaired school performance frequently caused by this illness. There are few phenomena addressed by school psychologists that are as emotionally and clinically challenging as cognitive deterioration of children (Shaw, 2005). Understanding the origin of the cognitive decline is essential for the school psychologist to determine the type of deterioration the child is most likely experiencing and to define the rehabilitation, education accommodations, and parental and sibling support needed. The Pediatric Index of Skill Change (PISC) instrument is a possible tool for identifying and understanding the nature of cognitive deterioration (Shaw, 2005). The school psychologist has a role as a post-diagnosis student advocate and active participant in the school and medical management of the student’s illness. School psychologists can serve as a sounding board for parents through listening and giving support and encouragement. There also is a need for follow-up skill assessment to monitor effectiveness of educational accommodation and medical treatment. The school psychologist can play a pivotal role in ensuring that the ill child is not left behind, but instead able to function to the best of her/his ability (Berenbaum, 2004; Smith, 2004). Federal law, i.e., Section 504 of the Federal Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, and the 1993, 1997, and 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Acts (IDEA) mandate that students with disabilities in elementary, secondary, and post-secondary schools receiving federal financial assistance not be discriminated against because of their disabilities. In many cases schools are required to provide accommodations or supportive individual educational programs to help ill students achieve their academic goals (Betz, 2001; Boyce et al., 2000). Accommodations include

shortened days, untimed tests, dropping unnecessary requirements, alternative testing methods, separate/quieter testing locations, and modified home instruction programs (Msall et al., 2003). As educational personnel may not be familiar with the physical, neurological, and emotional ramifications of Lyme disease in the school setting, the school psychologist in cooperation with the school nurse and special education teacher can provide insight about the illness and educational accommodations (Cavendish, 2003).

Conclusions Because Lyme disease can be difficult to diagnose, schools can be the best settings to observe the neuropsychological sequelae secondary to the disease. Whenever a change in a child’s behavior, mood or overall functioning occurs, Lyme disease should be considered as a possible etiology (Fallon et al., 2006). School psychologists, nurses, and teachers need to be aware of the symptoms and course of Lyme disease as they possibly can be the first to identify an underlying infectious cause of aberrant student behavior. Lyme disease has become a permanent part of America’s public health landscape, impacting most perilously its young patients as well as their families and the medical and school communities. All children seriously affected by Lyme disease have alteration in personality, cognitive functioning, and behavior (Sherr, 2002). Undiagnosed, chronic Lyme disease is avoidable and the school psychologist has a key role, as a member of the multidisciplinary team, to conduct a thorough assessment and differential diagnosis, assess skill loss, and develop effective educational and other therapeutic techniques. 

References Adams, W. V., Rose, C. D., Eppes, S. C., & Klein, J. D. (1994). Cognitive effects of Lyme disease in children. Pediatrics, 94, 185–189. Adams, W. V., Rose, C. D., Eppes, S. C., & Klein, J. D. (1999a). Long-term cognitive effects of Lyme disease in children. Applied Neuropsychology, 6, 39–45. Adams, W. V., Rose, C. D., Eppes, S. C., & Klein, J. D. (1999b). Cognitive effects of Lyme disease in children: A 4-year followup. Journal of Rheumatology, 26, 1190–1194. Berenbaum, S. (2004). Lyme disease in children and adolescents: Parenting dilemmas. Lyme Times, 36, 16–18. Berenbaum, S., Canon, M. L., Liegner, K. B., & Kochevar, J. (1999). Treatment of adolescents with neuropsychiatric Lyme disease. 12th Annual Intl Sci Conf Lyme Disease Spirochetal Tick-borne Disorders (abstract). Betz, C. L. (2001). Use of 504 plans for children and youth with disabilities: Nursing application. Pediatric Nursing, 27, 347–352. Bloom, B. J., Wyckoff, P. M., Meissner, H. C., & Steere, A. C. (1998). Neurocognitive abnormalities in children after classic manifestations of Lyme disease. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 17, 189–196.  continued on page 36

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Pediatric School Psychology… continued from page 35

Boyce, M. H., Gelfman, M. H., & Schwab, N. (2000). School health services after Cedar Rapids Independent School District v. Garret F. Journal of School Nursing, 16, 54–59. Bransfield, R., Brand, S., & Sherr, V. (2001). Treatment of patients with persistent symptoms and a history of Lyme disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 1424–1425. Cameron, D. (2003). Treatment delay as a risk factor for treatment failure in Lyme disease. 16th International Scientific Conferemce on Lyme Disease and Other Tick-borne Disorders, Hartford, CT, June 7–8 (abstract). Cavendish, R. (2003). A Lyme disease case study and individualized healthcare plan. Journal of School Nursing, 19, 81–88. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (1997). Case definition for infectious conditions under public health surveillance (Lyme disease surveillance case definition). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 46, (RR10), 1–55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2000). Surveillance for Lyme disease— United States, 1992–1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 49(SS03), 1–11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2004). Lyme disease—United States, 2001–2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 53, 365–9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2006). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 54(51 & 52), 1301–36. Coyle, P. K. (2002). Lyme disease. Current Neurology Neuroscience Report, 2, 479–487. Dedeoglu, F., & Sundel, R. P. (2003). Emergency department management of lyme disease. Clinical Pediatric Emergency Medicine, 5, 54–62. Donta, S. T. (2002). Late and chronic Lyme disease. Medical Clinics of North America, 86, 341–349. Fallon, B. A, & Nields, J. A. (1992). Psychiatric manifestations of lyme borreliosis: Part 1, A controlled study of major depression. 5th Int’l Conf on Lyme borreliosis, Arlington, VA (abstract). Fallon, B. A, Das, S., Plutchok, J. J., Tager, F., Liegner, K., & van Heertum, R. (1997). Functional brain imaging and neuropsychological testing in Lyme disease. Clinical Infectious Disease, 25 (Suppl 1), S57–63. Fallon, B. A., Keilp, J., Prohovnik, I., Van Heertum, R., & Mann, J. J. (2003). Regional cerebral blood flow and cognitive deficits in chronic Lyme disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 15, 326–32. Fallon, B. A., Kochevar, J. M., Gaito, A., & Nields, J. A. (1998). The underdiagnosis of neuropsychiatric Lyme disease in children and adults. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21, 693–703 Fallon, B. A., Vaccaro, B., Romano, M., Clemente, M. D. (2006). Lyme borreliosis: Neuropsychiatric aspects and neuropathology. Psychiatric Annals, 36, 120–128. Food and Drug Administration. (1999). Lyme disease and test kits: Potential for misdiagnosis. FDA Med Bull 1999. Fried, M. D., Abel, M., Pietrucha, D., Kuo, Y-H., & Bal, A. (1999). The spectrum of gastrointestinal manifestations in children and adolescents with Lyme disease. Journal of Spirochetal Tick-borne Diseases, 6, 89–93. Gordon, A. G. (2000). Hyperacusis and origins of lowered sound tolerance. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 12, 117–119. Halperin, J. J. (2004). Central nervous system Lyme disease. Current Infectious Disease Reports, 6, 298–304. Hamlen, R. (2004). Lyme borreliosis: Perspective of a scientist as patient. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 40, 603–604. Healy, T. L. (2000). The impact of Lyme disease on school children. Journal of School Nursing, 16, 12–18. Juchnowicz, D., Rudnik, I., Czernikiewicz, A., Zajkowska, J., & Pancewicz, S. A. (2002). Mental disorders in the course of lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis. Przegl. Epidemiology. 56 Suppl. 1, 37–50. Kaiser, R. (2000). False-negative serology in patients with neuroborreliosis and the value of employing of different borrelial strains in serological assays. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 49, 911–915. Karadag, B., Spieker, L. E., Schwitter, J., Ruschitzka, F., Luscher, T. F., Noll, G., & Corti, R. (2004). Lyme carditis restitutio ad integrum documented by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Cardiology Review, 12, 185–187. Krause, P. J., McKay, K., Thompson, C. A., Sikand, V. K., Lentz, R., Lepore, T., Closter, L., Christianson, D., Telford, S. R., Persing, D., Radolf, J. D., & Spielman, A. (2002). Disease-specific diagnosis of coinfecting tickborne zoonoses: Babesiosis, human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, and Lyme disease. Clinical Infectious Disease, 34, 1184–91. Kyle-Louise, J. (2001). Lyme disease: An in-depth look at a formidable infection. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 27, 461–470. Lane, R., Steinlein, D., Mun, J. (2004). Human behaviors elevating exposure to Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs and their associated bacterial zoonotic agents in a hardwood forest. Journal of Medical Entomology, 41, 239–48. Lang, D. (1997). Coping with Lyme disease. 2nd ed. New York: Henry Holt Publishing. Lo, R., Menzies, D. J., Archer, H., & Cohen, T.J. (2003). Complete heart block due to lyme carditis. Journal of Invasive Cardiology, 15, 367–9. McSweegan, E. (2001). Lyme disease is a potential health concern for school-age children. Journal of School Nursing, 17, 170. Mikkila, H. O., Seppala, I. J. T., Viljanen, M. K., Peltomaa, M. P., & Karma, A. (2000). The expanding clinical spectrum of ocular Lyme borreliosis. Ophthalmology, 107, 581–87. Msall, M. E., Avery, R. C., Tremont, M. R., Lima, J. C., Rogers, M. L., & Hogan, D.P. (2003).

Functional disability and school activity limitations in 41,300 school-age children: Relationship to medical impairments. Pediatrics, 111, 548–53 Nowakowski, J., Nadelman, R. B., Sell, R., McKenna, D., Cavaliere, L. F., Holmgren, D., Gaidici, A., & Wormser, G. P. (2003). Long-term follow-up of patients with cultureconfirmed Lyme disease. American Journal of Medicine, 115, 91–96 Peltomaa, M., Pyykko, I., Seppala, I., & Viljanen, M. (1998). Lyme borreliosis: An unusual cause of vertigo. Auris Nasus Larynx, 25, 233–242. Rachman, M., & Garfield, D. A. (1998). Lyme disease and secondary depression: Universal lessons from an uncommon cause. Psychosomatics, 39, 301–302. Rothermel, H., Hedges III, T. R., & Steere, A. C. (2001). Optic neuropathy in children with Lyme disease. Pediatrics, 108, 477–481. Rudd-Arieta, M. P. (2003, June). Lyme disease in children. An overview. Advanced Nurse Practitioners, 77–78. Shadick, N. A., Phillips, C. B., Logigian, E. L., Steere, A. C., Kaplan, R. F., Berardi, V. P., Duray, P. H., Larson, M. G., Wright, E. A., Ginsburg, K. S, et al. (1994). The long-term clinical outcome of Lyme disease. A population-based retrospective cohort study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 121, 560–567. Shadick, N. A., Phillips, C. B., Sangha, O., et al. (1999). Musculoskeletal and neurologic outcomes in patients with previously treated Lyme disease. Annals of Internal Medicine, 131, 919–926. Shapiro, E. D., & Seltzer, E. G. (1997). Lyme disease in children. Seminar in Neurology, 17, 39–44. Shaw, S. R. (2005, March). Cognitive deterioration in children: Review and clinical issues. Communiqué, 33 (6), 28–31. Sherr, V. T. (2000) Panic attacks may reveal previously unsuspected chronic disseminated Lyme disease. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 6, 352–356. Sherr, V. T. (2002). The pillaging of personalities: Our lost kids are being high jacked by spirochetes. The Lyme Times, 32, 14–16. Shotland, L. I., Mastrioanni, M. A., Choo, D. L., Szymko-Bennett, Y. M., Dally, L. G., Pikus, A. T., Sledjeski, K., & Marques, A. (2003). Audiologic manifestations of patients with post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome. Ear and Hearing, 24, 508–517. Smith, P. V. (2004, September/October). The effects of Lyme disease on students, schools and school policy. School Leader, 9, 52. Steer, A. C., Dhar, A., Hernandez, J., et al. (2003). Systemic symptoms without erythema migrans as the presenting picture of early Lyme disease. American Journal of Medicine, 114, 58–62. Stricker, R. B., & Lautin, A. (2003). The Lyme wars: time to listen. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, 12, 1609–1614. Tager, F. A., & Fallon, B. A. (2001). Psychiatric and cognitive features of Lyme disease. Psychiatric Annals, 31, J3-J11. Tager, F., Fallon, B., Keilp, J., Rissenberg, M., Jones, C., & Liebowitz, M. (2001). A controlled study of cognitive deficits in children with chronic Lyme disease. Journal of Neuropsychiatry Clinics and Neuroscience, 13, 500–507. Tylewska-Wierzbanowska, S., & Chmielewski, T. (2002). Limitation of serologic testing for lyme borreliosis: Evaluation of ELISA and Western blot in comparison with PCR and cultural methods. Wein Klin Wochenschr, 114, 601–605. Vazquez, M., Sparrow, S. S., & Shapiro, E. D. (2003). Long-term neuropsychological and health outcomes of children with facial nerve palsy attributable to Lyme disease. Pediatrics, 112, 93–97. Wang, T. J., Sangha, O., Phillips, C. B., et al. (1998). Outcomes of children treated for Lyme disease. Journal of Rheumatology, 25, 2249–2253. Young, J. D. (1998). Underreporting of Lyme disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 1629. Websites Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, http://www.ed.gov/policy/rights/guid/ocr/ disabilityoverview.html (retrieved October 2006). Federal Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504, http://www.ed.gov/policy/rights/reg/ocr/ edlite-34cfr104.html (retrieved October 2006). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1993, 1997, 2004, http://www.ncd. gov/newsroom/publications/2005/burdenofproof.htm (retrieved October 2006). National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (National Institute of Health), Diagnosis of Lyme disease (2001), http://www.niaid.nih.gov/dmid/lyme/diagnosis.htm (retrieved October 2006). Pietrucha, D. M. (2001). Neurological manifestation of Lyme disease in children, http:// library.lymenet.org/domino/file.nsf/0/c8237a2ae855bac6852567c700120021?Open Document (retrieved October 2006). Ramirez, L. P. (2003). How Lyme disease mimics attention deficit disorder, http://www. parenting-child-development.com/Lyme-Disease.html (retrieved October 2006). © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. R.A. Hamlen, PhD, is retired Research Fellow in Biology from the Agricultural and Nutrition business with E. I. DuPont de Nemours, Inc. and currently Vice Chair and Science Advisor of the Lyme Disease Association of Southeastern PA (affiliate of the Lyme Disease Association, Inc.), member of the International Lyme and Associated Diseases Society (ILADS), and the Lyme Disease Task Force in Delaware. D. S. Kliman, EdD, is a retired clinical psychologist who has worked with children and adults with Lyme disease and a past board member of the Lyme Disease Association of Southeastern PA, She also has chronic Lyme disease.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 37

For every child to succeed, every child must be able to read. “Ensuring that more children receive effective reading instruction means that more children will receive the help they need before they fall too far behind.” —No Child Left Behind, 2000

To be a full part of this educational mission, school psychologists and other educational consultants must know how to identify and help struggling readers to develop the skills and strategies essential to reading fluency. Understanding, Assessing, and Intervening on Reading Problems is designed for the practitioner and provides an understanding of how reading develops, how to assess reading development and link that information to intervention, and how to teach reading using evidencebased approaches. Divided into two sections, the book covers:

Section One: Understanding Reading Development Chapter 1: How Children Emerge in Literacy Chapter 2: Environmental Factors and Other Characteristics of Children Who Face Challenges in Becoming Literate Chapter 3: Assessment of Reading Performance That Is Linked to Targeting Reading Interventions

Section Two: Evidence-Based Reading Interventions Chapter 4: Chapter 5: Chapter 6: Chapter 7:

Effective Teaching Principles of Reading Word-Level Interventions Comprehension Interventions Conducting Functional Analyses of Reading Performance

Chapters emphasize research-based strategies and highlight where further research is necessary, as well as offer practical implementation suggestions and study guide questions for graduate coursework and continuing professional development.

Clear, concise, and practical. An essential resource for educational consultants working with teachers and parents to help all children read to succeed.

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Implementing RTI: Empirical Perspectives

RTI Will Fail, Unless … By Matthew K. Burns, Contributing Editor

E

d. Note: CQ is pleased to welcome Matt Burns as Contributing Editor for RTI for volume 35. In addition to soliciting some exciting articles on implementation issues, Matt contributed the following perspective regarding the challenges facing districts implementing RTI approaches. For most people change is as uncomfortable as a Minnesota winter, but this seems especially true for those of us in education (Ysseldyke, 2005). Educators seem to continuously seek out new and improved ideas, tactics, methods, and programs that will help all children learn better, but often rely on small changes that are generally consistent with current practice (Neil, 1992). Thus, we enthusiastically embrace the next, newest and greatest approach, but then later abandon the supposed new innovation as ineffective, when actually the innovation was either not innovative or never implemented. Perhaps a likely area in which this trend of supporting status quo in the name of reform could be the recent regulatory provision that allows the use of data collected in response to a research-based intervention (RTI) as a means to diagnose a learning disability (LD). Gerber recently stated in a listserv posting that RTI “will fail as a policy and we’ll be writing for the next five years about why” (personal communication, 2006). This prediction caused me to reflect upon the long-term sustainability of RTI and to conclude that he is absolutely correct. Education has a long history of failed innovations (Ellis, 2005) and it would be somewhat naive to assume RTI will be different. However, RTI must not be the latest in the long line of abandoned hope among educators, because it represents the best opportunity to truly reform education and school psychology since the original Elementary and Secondary Education Act was passed in 1965. In fact, RTI represents the best venue for school psychologists to implement desired roles since the calls for role change and expansion started over 50 years ago. Therefore, the goal of this is article to discuss how to keep these well-grounded prognostications from becoming reality. The following are suggestions that, if implemented, may be sufficient to sustain RTI, but otherwise, RTI as an initiative will likely fail. Thus, RTI will fail, unless …

We Focus on Enhancing Learning Rather Than LD Identification It now almost seems unfortunate that RTI was institutionalized in special education regulations. As we continue to operationalize RTI and consider how it should be implemented, we need to clarify or perhaps even reconsider our purpose. Are we attempting to identify children who are truly learning disabled? If so, then RTI is almost indefensible because labeling a child with a disability due to a lack of adequate response to effective interventions is basing a diagnosis on prognosis: A child who fails to respond to an intervention is identified as LD because the non-responsiveness predicts a continued lack of adequate response and, therefore, must be manifesting a disability. This represents the same high-inference logic as current diagnostic approaches such as the discrepancy model or identifying processing deficits (Dean & Burns, 2002). Moreover, the seminal work by Cromwell, Blashfield, and Strauss (1975) concluded that valid diagnostic paradigms are based on data that lead to treatments with known outcomes (diagnosis to prognosis). If one accepts this, then using RTI data to diagnose a disability is using data that lead to treatments with assumed outcomes, and it is the failure to achieve those outcomes that results in diagnoses. Gerber (2005) stated that the RTI approach does nothing to inform us about learning disabilities. A literal interpretation of Cromwell and colleagues (1975) questions LD as a diagnostic paradigm because identification as LD has yet to lead to treatments with known outcomes (Kavale & Forness, 2000). Thus, we need additional research to better understand learning disabilities and how the identification of a child as LD directly translates into practice. Until then, perhaps it would be more useful to conceptualize an LD diagnosis as a means rather than an end. If RTI were conceptualized much the same way that we view positive behavior supports (PBS; Sugai & Horner, 1999), then there likely would be much less debate and more acceptance. PBS and RTI are more closely aligned than most educators realize. Although the exact origin of the three-tiered model is a matter of some debate, PBS clearly articulated the targeting of resources to needs well before RTI adopted the same language. RTI was defined as the systematic use of assessment data to most efficiently allocate resources in order to enhance learning for all children (Burns & VanDerHeyden, 2006; Jimerson, Burns, & VanDerHeyden, in press). Under this resource allocation paradigm, RTI is a method to match resources to student needs, much like the PBS model, and the desired outcome is the systematic search for effective interventions. In other words, we seek to find the intervention that will allow a child to be successful rather than identifying children for whom previous and presumed future interventions lacked success. In this approach special education becomes the funding avenue for children whose needs are so intense that they require the resource expenditure allotted to special education. This approach functionally moves the primary jurisdiction over RTI from special to general education. Some would undoubtedly question the validity of an LD diagnosis based on the match between special education resources and student need, but this diagnostic line would be data leading to interventions with known outcomes with no need for inferences. This is by no means a perfect diagnostic model, but until the instructional utility for an LD diagnosis is identified, a utilitarian viewpoint should be used in which the end justifies the means. However, if and when a valid instructional prescript is associated with the LD diagnosis, then we should reconsider our practices based on the subsequently related outcomes for children.

We Focus on Tiers I and II Rather Than III The three-tiered model of RTI conceptualizes Tier I as a quality core curricula and instruction, Tier II as a standardized intervention within general education for small groups of children, and Tier III as individualized intensive interventions for children delivered in either general or special education as need dictates (Burns, Deno, & Jimerson, in press). The knowledge base with which to inform practice at all three tiers is extensive and well confirmed. Thus far, most of the research within RTI has focused on Tiers II and III (e.g., Burns, in press; McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2005; Torgesen et al., 2001; Velletino et al., 1996), which is an important line of inquiry. However, perhaps the best way to assure a meaningful deviation from the status quo is to closely examine current practice rather than proposing an added layer of innovation. Fortunately, the technology exists to evaluate and focus on Tier I. VanDerHeyden has demonstrated on many occasions that problems frequently exist on a classwide rather than individual level (VanDerHeyden & Burns, 2005; VanDerHeyden, Witt, & Gilbertson, in press; VanDerHeyden, Witt, & Naquin, 2003). She recommends examining classwide median scores for benchmark data and those that fall below established criteria (e.g., benchmarks associated with the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills; Good, Simmons, Kame’enui, Kaminski, & Wallin, 2002; fluency norms presented by Hasbrouk & Tindal, 2005, or scores at or above those that represent an instructional level; Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Jiban, 2006) suggest that a Tier I intervention is required rather than a standardized intervention for small groups of children. Moreover, Ysseldyke and Christenson (2002) provide a comprehensive rubric with which to assess the quality of the learning environment in order to make necessary modifications. Perhaps the best possible outcome of the RTI movement could be a close examination of general education practices to ensure responsiveness to the needs of children. Research has found that on average 20% of children will not be successful in general education despite our best efforts (Burns, Appleton, & Stehouwer, 2005). Thus, we need interventions with a sound research base. Unfortunately, many efforts in practice focus on the use of problem-solving teams as the RTI model without first implementing a small-group intervention. This approach sees the problem-solving team process as Tier II and special education as Tier III. In order for individualized interventions to be effectively implemented, they should be limited to approximately 5% of the student population. For example, in an elementary school with 500 children, 100 will not be successful (20% of 500). No problemsolving team or problem-analysis approach can be successful with that many children because the problem-analysis process and resulting interventions are too time and resource intensive to be implemented. Thus, many school districts implement a watered-down version of the problem-solving team process under the umbrella of RTI (Burns, Vanderwood, & Ruby, 2005). However, if effective Tier II interventions reduce that number from 100 to 25 (5% of 500), then a proper and effective problem-solving team model can be implemented and more successfully meet the intense needs of these struggling learners.

We Concretely Define RTI and Ensure Implementation Fidelity Perhaps the greatest challenge to successful RTI implementation, and the factor that could most likely lead to its downfall, is the fidelity with which we implement the model, decision rules, quality core curricula, and subsequent interventions. Diagnostic models that depend on teacher implementation could be problematic; among many reasons, these models rely on consistent behavior among teachers and students (Gerber, 2005). Moreover, as stated earlier, what is commonly referred to as “educational reform” is often an endorsement of current practice (Sarason, 1995), and, in order for real change to occur, the reform movements must address attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of those who actually implement the change (Sarason, 1996). Successful school reform is dependent on an explicit and highly structured model to be implemented (Goldenberg, 2003), but significant variation exists among what schools are currently doing in the name of RTI (Burns & Ysseldyke, 2005). Thus, perhaps the first step should be to clearly identify what RTI entails and to establish some consistency in key points such as decision rules, intervention processes, and problem-analysis procedures. Although some variability among districts may be necessary to account for unique circumstances, all models should follow a common core problem-analysis procedure (Burns et al., in press) and more importantly each district should explicitly detail its procedures before implementing RTI within its schools. Although forethought and specificity are needed for RTI to be successful, the implementation cannot be viewed as an administrative directive, because failure to consider those who implement the change will doom it to failure (Sarason, 1990). Instead, meaningful change has to be the result of shifts in the school culture rather than the reverse (Cuban, 1988). In other words, we have to change the values, beliefs, and rituals of the organization before meaningful change can occur (Schein, 1985). To discuss how this would best be accomplished is beyond the scope of this article, but two things should be considered: consistency with teacher values and an emphasis on solving problems. Kezar (2001) recommends that the organization discusses what it values as a prerequisite to change and ensure that the innovation is consistent with those values. Most teachers go into education because of a “deep sense of what is good for kids and society” rather than an interest in improving test scores (Ferrero, 2005, p. 10). This relates back to the need to focus on student learning rather than LD identification. Most teachers, including those who teach children with disabilities, probably do not have a strong interest in how children are identified for special education eligibility, but will be passionately involved in seeing success among children in their classrooms. Secondly, successful organizations are ones that focus on implementing solutions to problems (Vecchio, 2000). Thus, RTI will likely be perceived as consistent with the values

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 39 of those who implement it (i.e., the teachers) if it is presented as a data-based decisionmaking approach to resource allocation that will reduce challenges within the classrooms. Finally, data must be presented to show that these things are in fact happening. In my work with schools that are implementing an RTI approach, I have frequently been impressed with the great work already occurring. By far the characteristic that I see most among successful initiatives is a school staff that embraces data-based decision making. Moreover, specific systemic and individual student goals are established and progress toward those goals is objectively measured. Simply pointing out the consistency between RTI and the reason most people go into teaching will probably not lead to successful implementation, but it certainly seems to be a prerequisite and perhaps what separates RTI from many of the unsuccessful innovations that preceded it. Ysseldyke (2005) also predicted that fidelity of implementation would be the greatest obstacle to successful RTI implementation, but further indicated that making the process easily consumed would enhance the likelihood of success. Perhaps the best way to accomplish this is through technology-enhanced assessments and instruction (Ysseldyke & McCleod, in press). The use of technology makes ongoing data collection, data consumption, and data-based decision making a more plausible proposition, which would keep those important aspects of RTI from monopolizing teacher time. Moreover, schools must collect data to determine if they are correctly implementing the RTI process as they designed it. Gansle and Noelle (in press; Noelle & Gansle, in press) provide a comprehensive discussions of how to accomplish this and why it is so important.

We Match Interventions to the Needs of Children Because of an extensive interest in, and/or anxiety about RTI among practitioners, trainings, workshops, and conference presentations on the topic are frequent. Invariably the most frequent question is, “What program should we use for Tiers II and III?” Schools are sincerely interested in finding the best research-based program to meet the needs of their children, but they often leave out the needs of their children when selecting interventions. Although some commercially prepared interventions are better than others, most are based on sound research and have data to suggest their effectiveness. The issue is not finding a good program, but matching the program to the child’s needs. Tier II involves standardized interventions for small groups of children, but the word “standardized” does not mean every child receives the same intervention. The National Reading Panel (2000) identified five areas of reading instruction — phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. The first step after identifying a child as below desired levels on a benchmark assessment, and after determining it is not a classwide or Tier I problem, is to determine in which of the five areas the child is deficient and to treat that area as an intervention heuristic. Once the deficit is isolated (suggesting an important role for school psychologists) (Burns & Coolong-Chaffin, 2006), the child can be grouped with age-appropriate children who also lack that skill and be brought to accuracy and proficiency in the skill with a targeted intervention.

We Adequately Consider Psychometric Issues Assessment is a critical aspect of RTI (Gresham, 2002). Therefore, we need to consider the technical adequacy of the tools used within the model and the consequences of the model in its entirety (Messick, 1995). Christ (2006) found that when using curriculum-based measurement for progress monitoring, assuming typical assessment conditions, at least 8 weeks of data are needed for the error of the slope to exceed the magnitude. For example, it would be possible that a slope of 1.5 words per minute/week would be used to determine that a child is making adequate progress, but the standard error of that slope, again assuming typical conditions and two data points per week, could range from + 1.34 to + 2.01 (Christ, 2006), which would make the magnitude of the slope (1.5) uninterpretable. Moreover, Jenkins (2003) pointed out the need for data examining the specificity and sensitivity of measures used within an RTI decision-making framework. Thus, there appear to be meaningful psychometric questions that need to be addressed. In addition to considering technical issues, school personnel need to define what constitutes a “comprehensive evaluation.” It seems that most practitioners consider RTI and progress monitoring as synonymous terms, but there is much more to RTI than CBM. Reading fluency data can effectively identify children who have reading difficulties, but these data do not suggest what interventions are needed. Thus, curriculum-based assessment for instructional design (CBA-ID; Gickling & Havertape, 1981), for example, is an essential component of the assessment model used within RTI (Burns, Dean & Klar, 2004). Moreover, proponents of RTI point out that federal regulations protect the child’s right to a comprehensive assessment, but measures used within the comprehensive evaluation should be determined by their relationship to positive child outcomes and include direct measurement of achievement, behavior, and the instructional environment (Gresham et al., 2005). Readers are referred to Shapiro’s (2004) assessment-to-intervention model as the basis for a comprehensive RTI assessment model.

We Stop Thinking of RTI as Something That Can Fail It is critical that this conversation continue because there are unanswered questions. For example, we need to know more about how to best meet the needs of children who are English language learners within an RTI framework and how to best implement this approach with students in secondary grades. However, we must not think of RTI as something that can succeed or fail. This is not because of any self-fulfilling prophecies, but because in order for RTI to have a positive effect on children, we have to recognize it as a paradigmatic change rather than a supposed innovation. Scholars have called for school psychology to adopt a more scientific paradigm in which decisions are based on an experimental, rather than correlational discipline (Reschly & Ysseldyke, 2002). RTI is exactly that. It is not an intervention, model, or tool, but instead is a commitment to data-based resource allocation and targeted interventions.  continued on page 40

Knowing what works is half the battle. Serving the needs of students with academic and behavior problems is a major challenge for schools today. Increasingly pervasive issues such as violence, delinquency, illiteracy, and substance abuse may seem daunting, but no youngster is beyond help. Knowing what strategies work and how to implement them can help shift the balance between the risk and protective factors that shape a child’s ability to thrive. Interventions II offers the latest in evidence-based measures that have proven to create safer, more effective schools. Leading experts contributed to 38 updated and expanded chapters that reflect changes in: • • • • • •

School safety and violence prevention Intervention and assessment strategies for social-emotional functioning Reading, literacy, academic performance, and achievement Primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention and intervention System-level strategies and policies School-wide, small group, and individualized interventions NASP Item # N0020

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Essential for educators, mental health professionals, public safety officials, and community service providers.

PAGE 40 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists 

RTI Will Fail, Unless… continued from page 39

RTI has been a controversial topic ever since it was endorsed by the President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education (2002), but even the most skeptical critics support a prereferral model to better meet the needs of all students (Kavale, Kaufman, Naglieri, & Hale, 2005). Fortunately, the federal provision allows local educational agencies to choose an RTI or traditional approach. This is fortunate because it allows for gradual implementation based on school readiness and need. Schools could implement a threetiered assessment-to-intervention model without using the data for eligibility purposes. Thus, until the model can be adequately defined and implemented, until schools examine the effectiveness of their Tiers I and II strategies, and until a psychometrically sound assessment-to-intervention model is implemented that targets deficits and monitors progress, schools would not adopt an RTI approach to determining special education eligibility. Most importantly, school should not use RTI to determine eligibility unless data exist to show that these provisions are in place, and should only continue to use such a model if data demonstrate that children are learning — which I predict they will. 

References Burns, M. K. (in press). Reading at the instructional level with children identified as learning disabled: Potential implications for response–to-intervention. School Psychology Quarterly. Burns, M. K., Appleton, J. J., & Stehouwer, J. D. (2005). Meta-analytic review of response-tointervention research: Examining field-based and research-implemented models. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 23, 381–394. Burns, M. K., & Coolong-Chaffin, M. (2006). Response-to-intervention: The role of and effect on school psychology. School Psychology Forum: Research in Practice, 1 (1), 3–15.. Burns, M. K., Dean, V. J., & Klar, S. (2004). Using curriculum-based assessment in the responsiveness to intervention diagnostic model for learning disabilities. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 29 (3), 47–56. Burns, M. K., Deno, S. L., & Jimerson, S. R. (in press). Toward a unified response-to-intervention model. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.) Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. New York: Springer. Burns, M. K., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (2006). Using response to intervention to assess learning disabilities: Introduction to the special series. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 32, 3–5. Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Jiban, C. (2006). Assessing the instructional level for mathematics: A comparison of methods. School Psychology Review, 35, 401–418. Burns, M. K., Vanderwood, M., & Ruby, S. (2005). Evaluating the readiness of prereferral intervention teams for use in a problem-solving model: Review of three levels of research. School Psychology Quarterly, 20, 89–105. Burns, M. K., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2005). Comparison of existing responsiveness-to-intervention models to identify and answer implementation questions. The California School Psychologist, 10, 9–20. Christ, T. J. (2006). Short-term estimates of growth using curriculum-based measurement of oral reading fluency: Estimating standard error of the slope to construct confidence intervals. School Psychology Review, 35, 128–133. Cromwell, R., Blashfield, R., & Strauss, J. (1975). Criteria for classification systems. In N. Hobbs (Ed.), Issues in the classification of children (pp. 4–25). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Cuban, L. (1988). A fundamental puzzle of school reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 70, 341–344. Dean, V. J., & Burns, M. K. (2002). A critical review of including intrinsic processing difficulties in learning disabilities diagnostic models. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 25, 170–176. Ellis, A. K. (2005). Research on educational innovations (3rd ed.). Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education. Ferrero, D. J. (2005). Pathways to reform: Start with values. Educational Leadership, 62 (5), 8–14. Gansle, K. A., & Noell, G. H. (in press). The fundamental role of intervention implementation in assessing resistance to intervention. In S. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. New York: Springer. Gerber, M. M. (2005). Teachers are still the test: Limitations of response to instruction strategies for identifying children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 516–524. Gickling, E. E., & Havertape, S. (1981). Curriculum-based assessment. Minneapolis, MN: School Psychology Inservice Training Network. Goldenberg, C. (2003). Settings for school improvement. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 50, 7–16. Good, R. H., Simmons, D., Kame’enui, E., Kaminski, R. A., & Wallin, J. (2002). Summary of decision rules for intensive, strategic, and benchmark instructional recommendations in kindergarten through third grade (Technical Report No. 11). Eugene, OR: University of Oregon. Gresham, F. M. (2002). Responsiveness to intervention: An alternative approach to the identification of learning disabilities. In R. Bradley & L. Danielson (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice. The LEA series on special education and disability (pp. 467–519). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Gresham, F.M., Reschly, D.J., Tilly, W.D., Fletcher, J., Burns, M.K., Christ, T., Prasse, D., Vanderwood, M., Shinn, M.D. (2005). Comprehensive evaluation of learning disabilities: A response to intervention perspective. The School Psychologist, 59 (1), 26–30. Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, G. (2005). Oral reading fluency: 90 years of measurement (Tech. Rep. No. 33). Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon, College of Education, Behavioral Research and Teaching.

Jenkins, J. (2003, December). Candidate measures for screening at-risk students. Paper presented at the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas City, MO. Jimerson, S., Burns, M. K., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (in press). Response to intervention at school: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. New York: Springer. Kavale, K. A. & Forness, S. R. (2000). Policy decisions in special education: The role of metaanalysis. In R. Gersten, E. P. Schiller, & S. Vaughn (Eds.), Contemporary special education research: Synthesis of the knowledge base on critical instructional issues (p. 281–326). Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kavale, K. A., Kaufman, A. S., Naglieri, J. A., & Hale, J. B. (2005). Changing procedures for identifying learning disabilities: The danger of poorly supported ideas. The School Psychologist, 59 (1), 17–25. Kezar, A. (2001) Understanding and facilitating organizational change in the 21st century. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. McMaster, K. L., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., & Compton, D. L. (2005). Responding to nonresponders: An experimental field trial of identification and intervention methods. Exceptional Children, 71, 445–463. Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50, 741–749. National Reading Panel (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Neill, S. D. (1992). Dilemmas in the study of information: exploring the boundaries of information science. New York: Greenwood. Noell, G. H., & Gansle, K. A. (in press). Assuring the form has substance: Treatment plan implementation as the foundation of assessing response to intervention. Assessment for Effective Intervention. President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education (2002). A new era: Revitalizing special education for children and their families. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. Reschly, D. J., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2002). Paradigm shift: The past is not the future. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology IV (pp. 3–21). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists. Sarason, S. (1990). The predictable failure of educational reform. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Sarason, S. (1995). School change: The personal development of a point of view. New York: Teachers College Press. Sarason, S. (1996). Revisiting the culture of school and the problem of change. New York: Teachers College Press. Schein, E. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership: A dynamic view. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Shapiro, E.S. (2004). Academic skills problems: Direct assessment and intervention (3rd edition). New York: Guilford Press. Sugai, G. & Horner, R. H. (1999). Discipline and behavioral support: Practices, pitfalls, and promises. Effective School Practices, 17 (4), 10–22. Torgesen, J. K., Alexander, A. W., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Voeller, K. K. S., & Conway, T. (2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes for two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 33–58. VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Burns, M. K. (2005). Using curriculum-based assessment and curriculum-based measurement to guide elementary mathematics instruction: Effect on individual and group accountability scores. Assessment for Effective Intervention 30 (3), 15–29. VanDerHeyden, A. M., Witt, J. C., & Gilbertson, D. A (in press). Multi-year evaluation of the effects of an RTI model on identification of children for special education. Journal of School Psychology. VanDerHeyden, A. M., Witt, J. C., & Naquin, G. (2003). Development and validation of a process for screening referrals to special education. School Psychology Review, 32, 204–227. Vecchio, R. P. (2000). Organizational behavior: Core concepts (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Dryden Press. Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Sipay, E. R., Small, S., Chen, R., Pratt, A., & Denkla, M. B., et al. (1996). Cognitive profiles of difficulty-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experimental deficits as basic causes of specific reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 601–638. Ysseldyke, J. (2001). Reflections on a research career: Generalizations from 25 years of research on assessment and instructional decision making. Exceptional Children, 67, 295–309. Ysseldyke, J. (2005). Assessment and decision making for students with learning disabilities: What if this is as good as it gets. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28, 125–128. Ysseldyke, J. E., & Christenson, S. L. (2002). Functional assessment of academic behavior. Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Ysseldyke, J. E. & McCleod, S. (in press). Using technology tools to monitor response to intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. New York: Springer. © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Matthew K. Burns, PhD, is the coordinator of the School Psychology Training Program at the University of Minnesota and a former school-based practitioner in Michigan.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 41

Interview With the Author

A Powerful Video-Based Intervention for At-Risk Youth . . .

NASP’s Newest Publication Addresses Reading

EW The Real Deal! N

E

d. Note. This month, NASP releases its new book, Understanding, Assessing, and Intervening on Reading Problems, by Laurice Joseph. Through an online interview, CQ asked Laurice to discuss the content of the new book and its value for school psychologists.

Tell us about your background in reading (research, teaching, etc.) and how you became interested in this area. Actually, I am continually learning from so many wonderful scholars within and outside of the field of school psychology who are conducting incredible research in the area of reading. My interest in helping children learn how to read began when I was an undergraduate student. I joined service-oriented clubs that involved tutoring children with learning disabilities, autism, and serious emotional disturbance. I received my BS in general elementary education and special education with a specialization in reading at the University of Dayton. I also received a special education degree in addition to a school psychology degree during my masters’ degree program at The Ohio State University. It was during my undergraduate and graduate training that I learned about direct instruction principles and how critical their application is for helping students acquire literacy skills. After graduate training, I practiced as a school psychologist for five years, and the most common referral problem, despite the age or grade level of the students, was in the area of reading. I realized I needed to learn more about this critical area so that I would be in a better position to help children at various age and grade levels and be a more effective consultant to their teachers and parents. Therefore, I returned to the Ohio State University to earn my PhD in school psychology with a specialization in reading. I became a doctoral student supervisor of the reading clinic for the School of Teaching and Learning in the College of Education under the directorship of Professor Sandra McCormick. Since obtaining a faculty position at the university level, I, along with my graduate students, have been passionate about discovering effective and efficient methods of intervening on reading problems. In many ways, I am still a student undertaking the “big course” in learning all there is to know about reading as there is so much yet to learn, and I have many remarkable colleagues to thank for all their contributions in this area. Briefly, tell us about the content of the book. Reading is a huge topic — what does this book cover, and what might be unique about it versus other books on reading? The book is divided into sections. The first section contains chapters that address understanding reading development, and the second section entails a discussion about reading interventions and ways to test the effectiveness of interventions. In the first section, Chapter 1 consists of a discussion about the critical skills that are necessary for learning to read and reading to learn. Concepts about print, guided storybook reading, phonemic awareness, alphabetic understanding, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehending text are critical reading skills among others that are described in this first chapter. In Chapter 2, environmental variables, such as parental involvement and home-school collaborations, are discussed as influential factors that contribute to children’s reading development. In Chapter 3, curriculum-based types of assessments that directly target specific skill areas, target appropriate interventions, and monitor progress are described. The second section of the book mainly describes various types of reading interventions. The first chapter in this section provides the reader with general teaching principles that are effective for helping students learn reading skills. These principles include activating prior knowledge, teaching prerequisite skills, demonstration, modeling, scaffolding, shaping using positive reinforcement, systematic corrective feedback, opportunities to practice, teaching to mastery, and promoting generalization and other instructional components. Chapters 5 and 6 describe a multitude of word reading level and comprehension interventions that have at least received some research support. The final chapter describes how to test the effectiveness of the interventions and discusses using functional analysis as a way to determine if and how well children are responding to intervention. The book is rather unique from other books in the area of reading because it is especially written for consultants who work with educators and parents who directly instruct children. Certainly, this book can be used by general classroom teachers, special educators, speech and language therapists, and parents, however. This book also contains a rather large section on various types of interventions as well as ways to practically assess the effectiveness of interventions in an applied setting. Who is the intended audience(s)? The intended audience is first and foremost school practitioners, students in training, educational consultants such as directors of special education, general and special educators, and university trainers. How will school psychologists most likely use this book? This book is intended to be a foundational and practical resource tool for school psychologists and other educational consultants who work with teachers and parents as they engage in the challenging and rewarding task of helping children learn to read. This book can be used as resource for graduate students in training as they engage in their field based practicum experiences and internships. Additionally, this book can used in conjunction with other books about reading, reading assessments, and reading programs. What were some of the challenges you encountered in putting this book together? This was a single-authored endeavor, and therefore, gathering literature on various aspects within the field of reading seemed a bit overwhelming at times along with real continued on page 42

Anger Management for Adolescents Cognitive-Behavioral-Relaxation Techniques with Small Groups Leader’s Guide

Quick Reference Guide

Set of 24 Skill Cards

Relaxation Audio CD Three training videos in DVD or VHS formats

Grades 6-12. This easy-to-implement, “plug and play” program is recommended for groups of six to eight students. It is especially beneficial for working with tough-to-reach students who have emotional and behavioral disorders. The structured intervention engages students in cognitive exercises for learning to recognize and correct thinking errors that lead to anger, active practice of social-behavioral skills through role-playing, and participation in progressive muscle relaxation exercises. The Real Deal includes three training videos that focus on specific skills for controlling anger. It also includes a self-relaxation audio CD featuring six different scripts, male and female narrators, and a variety of background sounds.

• Takin' It (47 min.) Receiving negative feedback or criticism from someone, usually an authority figure — a parent, teacher, or other adult. • Givin' It (38 min.) Expressing negative feedback such as criticism, disappointment, anger, or displeasure. • Workin' It Out (33 min.) Listening, identifying problems and possible solutions, suggesting alternatives, and working out a compromise. Each video features dramatic vignettes of adolescents dealing successfully and unsuccessfully with real-life conflict situations. The videos also show group training sessions in which students discuss and role-play similar situations. The complete training package consists of three DVDs (or three VHS tapes), a Self-Relaxation Audio CD, a Leader's Guide, a Quick Reference Guide, and a Set of 24 Skill Cards (eight copies of the card for each of the three skills). Complete Program, DVD Format, Item 5315, $395.00 Complete Program, VHS Format, Item 5314, $395.00

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PAGE 42 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists

OFF TA SK By Pam Beeman

This Convention Of all the places the NASP convention could be held, I think Manhattan would have to be at the top of my list. There’s a pervasive mystique about the Big Apple, the setting of so many stories, movies, and legends. It’s not hard to tell that other school psychologists think so, too, with the rate at which the hotel rooms sold out! But are any of the rest of you struggling like this? The entire trip would be out-of-pocket for me (we have no staff development budget at this time), so I’ve really vacillated on whether I can make it or not. I know I’d get tons of upto-date information on our profession and practices, plus I have a minor wish to celebrate my 20th anniversary of writing Off-Task, and then there’s Manhattan … but I’m not sure it’s enough to get me there. I’ve been scanning the flights, but the budget deal would land me in Long Island at 11 pm. Does not sound like a good way to start out considering I would be alone, don’t know the area or transit connections, and am notoriously directionally-challenged. I have traveled enough to know something about the many things that could go wrong. I also may be straining some friendships, trying to make an affordable roommate deal. What the heck, it’s tax deductible. Maybe I’ll see you there.

More “Cobbler’s Kids Go Barefoot” I just had one request of my tribe, which was reunited over the holidays: On the threehour drive home from the relatives, could we please do without headphones? I understand that the appeal of headphones is the isolation as much as the music (although it cracks me up to turn around and see — and hear — the four of them singing along to four different songs), and that can be important, nay, crucial for kids in a big family. Still, we’re not all together that much any more, so I thought I’d give this a stab (figuratively! That’s figuratively.). Much as I had hoped, the conversation took a kind of sentimental turn, with everybody asking questions or sharing memories. These are the moments that are the goal when we are exhorted to have meals together or plan Family Time, and I was basking in it. Dad asked that each of us share a “pleasant” memory of each of the other family members. This all went well until it was my turn to be “it:” “Mom, remember the time you accidentally burned me with the curling iron?” “And you forgot me at camp, remember?” “Mom, remember the time I told you something and you promised you’d never tell anybody and then you wrote a column about it??” “How about the time you let the advent wreath burn down and it set the table on fire?” Wait, wait! Pleasant memories! In four kids, that’s, let’s see, abuse, neglect, mental

POLICY CONCERNING ADVERTISING APPE ARING IN THE NASP COMMUNIQUÉ The published advertisement of any product, event or service by the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) is neither an endorsement of the advertiser nor of the products, events or services advertised. NASP is not responsible for any claims made in an advertisement. Advertisers may not, without prior consent, incorporate in a subsequent advertisement or promotional material the fact that a product, event or service has been advertised by NASP. NASP provides publications for and on behalf of the membership to advance the profession of school psychology and to enhance the welfare of children and families. NASP therefore will accept advertising based upon legal, social, professional and ethical considerations. Promotion of products, events or services must be directly relevant to school psychology practice and training; must be consistent with the ethical principles and practice guidelines of the Association; and must be consistent in tone, content and appearance with the Association’s goals and relevant publications. The Association reserves the right to reject any advertising that is not in keeping with this policy or which is submitted for the purpose of airing either side of controversial professional or social issues, including promotion of candidates for election.

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cruelty, and arson. It’s a wonder I’m still entrusted with their care. Luckily they’re straining their seat belts, falling down laughing. And they still want to weigh in with one more: “Remember the time we were visiting in New York and you read the map wrong and we got off the subway and ended up walking eighty blocks back to our hotel in the middle of the night?” So anyway, if I do get to the NASP Convention in Manhattan, don’t ask me for directions. Even if I’ve got a map.

Data, Data, Data A team from my middle school attended a great training on RTI and came back kind of chomping at the bit to try something new. Now, as much as I’m ambivalent (let me count the ways …) about a lot of the NCLB fallout, I can always be seduced by actual data. Those RTI charts with the weekly monitoring dots and connecting lines, showing that upward curve of skills improving over time … mm, mm, mmm. Good stuff. We decided to try our first-ever school-wide middle school data collection, in three academic areas. We typed up and numbered fresh reading probes, right out of the grade-level textbooks, hired substitute teachers to help us administer them, and listened to each and every student on campus read three selections each. We designed a 10-minute math probe, prevailed on the math teachers to administer it to every class, then got PTA volunteers to correct them for us. We collected a 3-minute writing sample from every student, had them count up the total words written and then we scrutinized every one to tally up correct word sequences. [Is anybody else having the experience of taking on a huge new RTI challenge like this … while at the same time still being responsible for every task in what was already a full-time job?] Most things about this were fun. I learned a lot about how to enter the data into our district-wide database and then access it when I needed it. I like listening to students read because it helps me bottom-line rebut all the media horse hockey about how Today’s Students Can’t Read (the only ones who even struggled are already in either special ed or English as a Second Language). I loved reading the writing samples because we changed the starter sentence to “The best/worst thing that has happened to me since starting junior high is …” and we got some great peeks into the lives of our students. They wrote about everything from making new friends to getting grounded for bad grades to deciding to “pierce our belly bottens …. The next day me and my brother started fighting it got caught on the couberd and it riped out.” A few wrote like I-M or text messaging: “i forgot yor 2 busy.” There was one particularly poignant one about losing a beloved grandmother, and one that baldly said that the best thing was he hadn’t killed himself yet (straight to the counseling office with that one!!). Some things were drudgery, especially “bubbling in” answer sheets, but we got a bunch of volunteers together and had a Bubble Party complete with snacks, music, and little containers of bubbles. A few things were dumb, like me accidentally printing 900 pages that had hardly anything written on them because I hadn’t configured the hard-copy page set-up correctly … and the printer is in another building. Aargh, and I am such a tree-hugger. I apologize to the universe! Just one thing was really painful. The task that took the longest (and actually still isn’t complete, here in December) was grading and tallying the writing samples. We kept the pile of 800 in a box in the office so people could take a stack and grade them when they had time. Now that we’re down to about the last 100 to do, I went to collect them to start the Bubble Sheets … and found that they’d mistakenly been … yes, you hear it coming … shredded. Oddly, my main reaction was relief that it wasn’t me who had done it. Accidents happen, right? Still, I’m not telling the volunteers. Maybe they’ll never find out.  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Pam Beeman is a school psychologist in Chico, California and indeed, this is the 20th anniversary of her first Off Task column for Communiqué. Pam has outlasted a long list of NASP Presidents and (so far) at least three editors. Long may she write!



NASP’s Newest Publication… continued from page 41

izing that new research is continually being conducted and published. I wanted to make sure that the contents in this book reflected current best practices as much as possible. The other big challenge was balancing time for writing this book and my full-time duties as a university professor. I needed to maintain full-time teaching and advising responsibilities, conduct outreach and engagement activities to local schools, conduct research studies, and submit peer-reviewed journal manuscripts while also working on this incredible endeavor. I must admit, approximately all of my weekends and evenings for over six months were devoted to completing this book. I created a progress monitoring chart and recorded whether or not I spent a sufficient amount of time writing each day and whether or not I was meeting my self-imposed deadlines for completing chapters. Goal setting and self recording helped me remain engaged on this task until completion. Any other comments about the writing and production of this book? Working with outstanding professional publishers like NASP made this endeavor a most rewarding and pleasant experience. The dedication of the staff in the publications department was incredible in helping me shape this document into the best that it could be. I rank them among the very top publishers in the field of education and psychology!  ©2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Laurice Joseph, PhD, NCSP, is on the faculty of the school psychology program at the Ohio State University in Columbus, OH. She’s also a member of the Communiqué Editorial Team as a reviewer and authored several handout on reading topics for Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators. To order her new book, visit the NASP Store on the NASP website. Member price $38; nonmember $45.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 43

Implementing RTI

Response to Intervention at the Secondary Level: Two Districts’ Models of Implementation By Holly Windram, Barb Scierka, & Ben Silberglitt St. Croix River Education District

were assigned to another study hall, usually at a different time of the school day with a different staff member.

R

Description of RTI English Class One response to these trends was the creation of the “RTI English 9” class. The class was designed to remediate basic reading and writing skills in order to increase academic engagement, reduce discipline referrals, and provide core ninth grade English content instruction needed to advance to 10th grade English curriculum. Moreover, this course provided a consistent time and place in general education for tier 2 level interventions to occur. Instruction. The RTI English 9 class met daily for 85 minutes (one block) for the entire school year. Two full-time, general education teachers instructed 18 students in the class. One teacher was a core curriculum content specialist and the other was an academic interventionist with training in remedial reading and writing instruction and progress monitoring for secondary level students. The content included the core ninth grade English curriculum taught at a modified pace and adapted to meet the needs of diverse learners. In addition, 30–40 minutes of each block were dedicated to daily remedial group and individual reading and writing instruction. The content of the remedial instruction and how it was delivered (small or whole group v. individual) was adjusted quarterly based on curriculum-based measurement (CBM; Deno, 1985) reading and writing data that were collected for every student in the class on a weekly basis for reading and two times monthly for writing. Finally, RTI English 9 utilized cooperative learning as its primary method of instructional delivery. The content specialist chose cooperative learning as the primary instructional method given the extensive research base and his past success in using this approach with students considered at-risk for academic failure. Typically, the English 9 class is taught during one block for one semester, but the RTI English 9 class covers this content during one block for an entire school year (two semesters). An instructional challenge was to modify the pace and content of the core English 9 curriculum. RTI English 9 students. Student enrollment in the RTI English 9 class was determined by several sources of data including CBM and group administered standardized measures of reading such as the Minnesota Basic Skills Test (BST) and the Measures of Academic Progress (MAP)(Northwest Evaluation Association, 2005) in math, reading, and language arts. Furthermore, overall attendance and grades during 8th grade were considered. Finally, input and recommendations from students’ eighth grade teachers

esponse to Intervention (RTI) is the practice of providing high quality instruction matched to student needs through a three-tiered model, and using rate of learning over time and level of performance for making important educational decisions (Batsche et al., 2005). Although RTI is allowed in federal regulations, the research literature offers few strategies or models of implementing RTI in secondary settings (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2005). Consequently, few districts have taken on the challenge of implementing RTI at the secondary level. The purpose of this paper is to describe two models of RTI implementation at the secondary level, one for language arts and another for math. The discussion will include the systems-level structural and instructional challenges, how data were regularly used for decision-making, and reflection on lessons learned for future RTI implementation.

Model One: Language Arts Intervention Background Information Chisago Lakes School District is located in rural Minnesota and serves 3,600 students grades Pre-K through 12 from five predominantly white, lower to middle socio-economic communities. This district is a member of the St. Croix River Education District (SCRED), which serves five rural districts in northeastern Minnesota. Chisago Lakes High School (CLHS) serves about 1,200 students in grades 9–12, approximately 10% of which receive special education services, 8% receive free and reduced lunch, and approximately 1% receive English Language Learning instruction. CLHS is on a block schedule with four 85minute blocks per day. The school year consists of four quarters that are 9 weeks long. During the 2003-2004 school year, Chisago Lakes High School began implementing a five-step problem-solving model through its student assistance team (SAT). After two years, the SAT team identified two challenging trends for RTI implementation: 1) a need for a schoolwide, tier 2 program for ninth grade students to address remedial academic skill instruction, passing classes, school attendance, and discipline referrals; and 2) the logistical challenges for developing interventions for individuals or groups of students on a block schedule, where student classes changed four times per school year. For example, in order to fit 15-30 minute academic interventions into students’ schedules, they often were assigned to 85- minute study halls for which they received no credit towards graduation. At the end of a nine-week term, if students still needed intervention, they often

 continued on page 44

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PAGE 44 — Newspaper of the National Association of School Psychologists 

RTI at the Secondary Level… continued from page 43

were used for final enrollment decisions. Specifically, teachers were asked about students’ overall academic performance, level of school engagement, and amount of anticipated support needed for a successful transition to the 9th grade. Overall, the decision to place a student in the RTI English 9 class was not based on a single point of data, but rather a comprehensive look at the child’s overall academic performance and school engagement indicators such as attendance. The team for RTI English 9 class placement decision-making included the high school assistant principal, the school psychologist, the three guidance counselors, the assistant principal from the middle school, and several middle school teachers. Eighteen eighth grade students who the team considered to be the most at-risk for academic failure in 9th grade were enrolled in the class. Of these 18 students, 12 had passed their Minnesota BST (graduation standard test) in Reading, but only two students achieved the MAP benchmark score set for eighth grade students in the spring and met or exceeded the eighth grade CBM oral reading fluency benchmark of 160 words per minute. Four students were at or above the eighth grade CBM writing fluency benchmark of 72 correct word sequences when given 30 seconds to think and 3 minutes to write. 2005-2006: Year One Implementation The first quarter of the school year, the RTI English 9 teachers focused on three main goals: 1) build relationships with students, 2) establish a consistent cycle of CBM data collection, and 3) apply problem-analysis procedures to make decisions about what kinds of academic interventions would be needed and for whom. These were lofty goals considering that the content specialist teacher was new to the district and both teachers were involved in ongoing training in the district’s problem-solving model, using data for decision-making, and developing a repertoire of academic interventions. There were several formal and informal meetings among the school psychologist, the assistant principal, and both teachers to trouble-shoot, answer questions, and provide mentorship and support for the new concepts. For example, the academic interventions teacher worked closely with the school psychologist on collecting accurate baseline data and then using these data for individual student goal setting. The school psychologist also provided consultation for applying the problem-solving model/problem analysis and then determining appropriate interventions. At the end of the first quarter, the RTI English 9 team met to review the data. The team used the CBM data, first quarter grades, and student observations conducted by the teachers and guidance counselors to identify individual and classwide needs. Based on these, the team felt the entire class would benefit from daily implementation of remedial interventions in both reading and writing. The team chose to implement the Six-Minute Solution (Adams & Brown, 2003) and a daily oral language (DOL) writing activity. The Six-Minute Solution is a peer tutoring, reading fluency building intervention. In samelevel pairs, students engage in repeated readings of 1-minute nonfiction passages as their partners note the number of words read correctly. Daily Oral Language consists of sentences with spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors that students correct. Students corrected two incorrect sentences individually, and then sentences were corrected as a whole class. The reasons the team chose these interventions were threefold: 1) problem analysis revealed that these interventions were a good fit with the identified reading and writing problems of the RTI English 9 students; 2) students in special education with similar academic needs receiving these interventions had shown growth on their CBM reading and writing fluency measures; and 3) these interventions were brief enough to reasonably fit into the class block, but still allow ample time to cover core content. At the end of the second quarter, the team again met to review the data. Individual students were identified for further problem-solving. One student was identified as having exceptional oral reading and writing fluency rates, but was failing all ninth grade classes, refused to wear his glasses, and was frequently off-task. The team decided to implement an individualized behavior intervention plan with this student in the RTI English 9 class. In addition, three students were identified as making little or declining progress in oral reading fluency, and they were reading below an eighth grade level. After further analysis of the reading problems, the team determined that these students needed more time for fluency building instruction. An additional reading intervention where students completed daily one-on-one multiple repeated readings with a trained paraprofessional was implemented at the start of Term Three. Two notable challenges emerged at this time. First, the academic interventions teacher was only available for 45 minutes of the 85-minute block due to building-wide scheduling demands. Hence, there was need for a paraprofessional to deliver additional instruction to students not making progress. Second, the three students receiving the additional, one-on-one reading interventions had to be pulled from the content instruction of the RTI English 9 class. The content specialist noted that at this point the class felt like a “revolving door” in which students were coming and going for interventions or additional progress monitoring. This also interrupted the routine and flow of content delivery, which is critical for students who struggle with academically engagement. Year One Summary of Outcomes At the end of the school year, the RTI English 9 team met to review student data and reflect on accomplishments and challenges. Of these 18 students, still only 12 had passed their Minnesota BST in Reading. However, 11 students were at or above the eighth grade oral reading fluency benchmark of 160 words per minute, and eight were at or above the eighth grade writing fluency benchmark of 72 correct word sequences. One notable success was the dramatic improvement in overall reading fluency on instructional level passages with an average slope of 1.01 words increased per minute per week. Corroborating this information were growth rates on the MAP test in reading. Eight students approached or achieved the MAP benchmark score set for ninth grade students in the spring, and 14 had shown growth on their MAP scores. Average growth from fall-to-

spring for students participating in the RTI English 9 class was 4.9 Rasch unit (RIT) points (typical score for high school students is 230 to 260 and national average growth for ninth graders is 1.6 points). Growth for these same students in their eighth grade year, before this intervention, was 0.9 RIT points (national average growth for eighth graders is 3.2 RIT points). However, slopes for writing fluency were not as improved with an average slope of .16 correct word sequence per minute per week. Of the three students who received an additional reading intervention, two students met year-end goals. The third student was referred to the special education team and eventually qualified for special education services under Specific Learning Disability through the RTI process as described by IDEA 2004 (20 U.S.C. 1414(b)(6)(B)).

Model Two: Math Intervention The second example of using high school students’ response to intervention data for making instructional decisions comes from the East Central School District, a rural district located in east-central Minnesota. East Central serves approximately 900 students and is a member of the St. Croix River Education District. Approximately 50% of the students are eligible for free and reduced lunch. Students are predominantly white with the largest ethnic minority group being Native American (around 10%). The district consists of a single K-12 building and an Area Learning Center. Students At Risk In 2005 the Minnesota Department of Education changed the timing and content of tests students need to pass in order to graduate from high school. The test used to determine eligibility for graduation in mathematics moved from 8th grade to 11th grade, which dramatically reduced the amount of time students had available for remedial work if they did not pass the test. Additionally, the test now includes higher-level mathematics content, such as Algebra, Geometry and some content typically seen in an Advanced Algebra course. The building principal and secondary math department faculty were concerned that many students would not be adequately prepared to pass such a test. The optimal sequence of math classes in order to obtain the necessary content for the state tests was Algebra in ninth grade, Geometry in 10th grade, and Algebra II in 11th grade. East Central began to look at this particular course sequence, the number of students enrolled in these courses, and other test results to determine who would be at-risk for not passing the new graduation test in mathematics in grade 11. Students in grades 2 through 9 take the Measures of Academic Progress (MAP; NWEA, 2005) in the fall and spring to determine student’s instructional needs and evaluate effectiveness of programs by measuring yearly growth. NWEA recommends that students who obtain a RIT score of 235 in mathematics will be ready for Algebra (NWEA, 2005). Given the recommendation for students to take Algebra in ninth grade, students who did not score a 235 by the end of their eighth grade year were at-risk for not passing the graduation test in mathematics. According to the 2005 norms of the MAP, expected growth of eighth grade students in math is an increase of 5.2 RIT points during the eighth grade year. Students who scored 230 or higher in fall of their eighth grade year were thus on track to master the content of Algebra, Geometry, and Algebra II by the MCA Math test. Using the 230 RIT score as a benchmark for students’ readiness for the sequence of math courses, the district found 28 of the 62 eighth grade students scored below 230 RIT in fall. These students were at-risk for failing to graduate from high school. Intervention: Math Resource Room The secondary administration and mathematics teachers decided to implement a math resource room to help these students prepare for Algebra in grade 9. The math resource room provided students with an opportunity to participate in supplemental math instruction to remediate their math skills so as to be better prepared for Algebra by ninth grade. Students had to miss another class in order to participate in the math resource room. Most students missed a physical education or other elective class. Parent permission was required due to the change in students’ schedule. Of the 28 students who were invited to participate in the math resource room due to a RIT score in mathematics below 230 in fall of 8th grade, 16 students participated. The math resource room was structured based on several best practices components. Grading and behavior management followed recommendations by Sprick (1985). Components included learning contracts and a grading system that focused on work completion, accuracy of work, and effort/behavior. Students could earn points for contributing to math conversations, asking relevant questions, and making a significant improvement in behavior or attitude during class. Students could lose points for disruptive behavior, late work, unexcused absences, and reminders to stay on task. Grades were based on participation points (behavior/effort), accuracy of daily assignments, monthly test scores, and weekly CBM probes. As recommended by Sprick (1985), students met with a paraprofessional weekly to compute their grade so they always knew how well they were doing in the class. Instruction for students was based on their MAP Mathematics test performance. The MAP test has a Learning Continuum that specifies skills the students need to learn, and instruction was based on this list of skills. The math resource room was staffed by an eighth grade teacher, a paraprofessional, and peer tutors, which reduced the ratio of instructor (including peer tutor) to student to one instructor for every two students. The peer tutors allowed students to have easy access to assistance and they modeled good working behaviors. Students participated in daily math resource room sessions from January to May. In both September and May, students took the MAP test to see growth for the eighth grade year. The typical growth from fall to spring for eighth grade students according to the 2005 national norms was 5.2 RIT points. The average increase in RIT points for the students who participated in the math resource room was 10.83 versus an average growth of 1.88 RIT points for those same students in the previous year (see Figure 1).  continued on page 45

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 45

LOOSE ENDS By Leslie Talbott

A

t ethics classes, we school psychologists love to debate who is our actual client. We never resolve the issue because we have multiple clients: the teacher, the school system, the student, and even the parent. Recently, I have been having encounters that are pointing to the parent as the client with whom I might actually make a difference. My school system (and many others, I suspect) is so caught up with how our new laws are going to impact them and how they might implement the new regs that they don’t seem to be listening to a word that I say. The teachers are so stressed out about test scores that they remind me of those TOVA computer screens. They just scan what I say for the target words they want to hear and they disregard the rest. The students? Well, some teachers might say that the kids weren’t paying attention in the first place! But the parents are largely unaware of the changes taking place in educational law, so they have a pretty simple agenda: they want their child to do well in school. I was remembering my first really memorable parent conference back in the early 1970s. I was a young first grade teacher teaching in a rural area of South Carolina. Some of my students lived in mill towns provided by the textile mills where their parents worked. Little Roger was the youngest of many children born to his parents who worked in the mills. Roger was not used to indoor toileting and he kept running out the door of my classroom to do his business on the playground. That turned out to be the least of my worries, however. By January, Roger had still not learned all the alphabet letters and their sounds. We were nowhere close to reading and his math skills weren’t progressing either. My principal suggested that we have Roger evaluated by the school psychologist. This was a totally new concept to me. In New York, where I had taught previously, I had never seen a school psychologist. Somehow the principal in South Carolina knew how to bring such a person to my room and in a few weeks, she came and took Roger for a few hours. I never met with her, but I did receive a letter that told me that Roger was intellectually handicapped and that he was going to a special class. The principal told me to have a meeting with the parent to deliver the news. I was appalled — how was I to do such a thing? I spent several sleepless nights waiting to meet Roger’s mom. When she came in after school, I was so upset that I burst into tears. Finally, I managed to pull myself together enough to deliver the news. She took it in stride, patting my hand and comforting me. “Don’t take on so, honey,” she said. “Roger’s daddy weren’t but so smart in school, but he’s



RTI at the Secondary Level… continued from page 44

Outcomes Although participating students made on average twice the growth typically seen in eighth grade, our goal was to increase student’s skills to a point where they were ready for Algebra in 9th grade, which is indicated by a RIT score of 235. One student increased performance to 235 RIT points, and two others obtained scores of 234 RIT points. Nine of the 13 remaining students made significant growth but were still not at a level that would predict success in Algebra. Four of the students did not make substantial growth. Despite the fact that not all of these students reached the recommended goal of 235 RIT points, these students went on to take Algebra in their ninth grade year, with continuing supplemental instruction through the resource room. Due to accumulating credits for graduation, students could only participate in the math resource room during study halls or electives. The math resource room was successful in increasing students’ math skills as measured by average growth on the MAP. A survey of math resource room students found that students typically said the math resource room helped them. All participating students agreed that the math resource room should be continued. The most significant outcome will be apparent when these students take the MCAII test in 11th grade. Increasing the number of students who pass the test on the first try will confirm the success of this intervention. Figure 1. Average growth on the MAP math for students participating in Tier 2 math “Resource Room” intervention, in the year before participation (04–05) and the year of participation (05–06), compared to national average (“typical”) growth in both grades.

the best hunter you ever saw.” I learned a lot from this encounter. We have to be caring but honest with parents. We have to concentrate on strengths before we talk about how the school system might help this child. Most importantly, the parents may have different goals and perspectives than we do. In the past months, I have been meeting parents from all over the country and from many different places in the world. They love their children and they are baffled at the changes that have occurred in public education since they were students. I have decided that I can reach out to these parents and be their bridge to the world their children inhabit seven hours a day. For one mom, I was describing that her boy’s poor reading comprehension was due to his lack of word knowledge. When I showed her the words he read correctly but didn’t understand, she remarked that she didn’t know what the words meant either. “Here’s the deal, Mom. Are you concerned enough about your child’s progress to go buy some vocabulary-building books and do them every night with your son?” For another parent, the teacher was describing the poor organization and work habits of the student. The mother smiled sheepishly and said that she was very disorganized now that she was working fulltime. “Mrs. X, every woman at this table is a working mom. We all struggle with organizing. Can you commit to spending 20 minutes each and every night to checking your son’s agenda book and looking at each of his homework assignments? And can you commit to following some simple organizing routines to help your son be ready when he arrives at school every day? It might help you as well.” Another mother was hostile because her son’s behavior was resulting in one-day suspensions that were impacting her job. She was furious at the teacher and the principal, but hadn’t identified the real problem, which was her son’s behavior. “I’m going to be pretty frank, Mrs. Y. You have joined your son on the other side of the teacher’s desk. Your place is with the teacher on the adult side of the desk. If you are willing to listen to some feedback on how you might find your right place in your son’s life, I think your problems about missing work could clear up in a hurry. Are you willing to listen to me? If not, I will certainly respect your wishes and be quiet.” I’ve been pretty happy with my parent contacts lately. They are direct, jargon-free, and seem to produce change in the kids. But I never would have gotten here unless I had met so many parents who taught me what I know about talking and listening to parents.  © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Leslie Talbott, PhD, retired and then returned to work as a school psychologist in Gwinnett County, GA.

Lessons Learned for the Future The data from these interventions served to further develop both programs. In RTI English 9, programming will continue for students in grade 10, as well as for incoming ninth grade students. A greater focus on writing instruction will also be included in these courses. In the Math program, the use of the resource room will be expanded to serve a wider range of grade levels, rather than waiting until eighth grade to deliver this important supplemental intervention. Both examples described above demonstrate that delivery of supplemental interventions within an RTI framework can be accomplished at the secondary level. In both cases, appropriateness of the intervention, as well as adjustments to intervention, were based on psychometrically sound data in keeping with best practices. Furthermore, buildingwide adjustments to allow for Tier 2 level resources, including staff and classroom space, was necessary. Fortunately, this was accomplished primarily through existing resources with few new resources being added. Anecdotally, the use of these data was highly valued by all team members, despite the fact that many team members in both examples were new to these concepts and uses of data. Rather than blocking the development of datadriven decision making practices in their schools, these secondary teachers welcomed the opportunity to evaluate and adjust instruction in an informed manner. 

References Adams, G., & Brown, S. (2003). The Six-Minute Solution: A Reading Fluency Program. Longmont, CO: Sopris West. Batsche, G., Elliott, J., Graden, J.L., Grimes, J., Kovaleski, J.F., Prasse, D., Reschly, D., Schrag, J., Tilly III, W.D. (2005). Response to Intervention policy considerations and implementation. Reston, VA: National Association of State Directors of Special Education. Deno, S.L. (1985). Curriculum-Based Measurement: The emerging alternative. Exceptional Children, 52, 219–232. Mastropieri, M.A. & Scruggs, T.E. (2005). Feasibility and consequences of response to intervention: Examination of the issues and scientific evidence as a model for the identification of individuals with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 525–532. Northwest Evaluation Association (2005). 2005 Normative Data: Monitoring growth in student achievement. Lake Oswego, OR: Author. Sprick, R. S. (1985). Discipline in the secondary classroom: A problem-by-problem survival guide. West Nyack, NY: Center for Applied Research in Education. © 2007, National Association of School Psychologists. Holly Windram, PhD, is a school psychologist, Ben Silberglitt, PhD, is a school psychologist and Outcome Service Manager, and Barb Scierka is Math Initiatives Manager with the St. Croix River Education District in Rush City, MN.

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EMPLOYMENT NOTICES Additional employment ads are posted in the new NASP Career Center at: www.naspcareercenter.org. Ads below are listed in alphabetical order by state. States accepting the NCSP for licensure are indicated with an asterisk (*). AZ*/School Psychologist: Tucson Unified School District in sunny Tucson, Arizona seeks School Psychologists for the 20072008 school year. A great opportunity to work with children from diverse cultural settings, this position requires a wide range of skills including psycho-educational assessment, consultation, intervention planning, and case management. Bilingual applicants are encouraged, but this not required. Starting salary ranges from $41,764 to $56,919 depending on years of experience, plus additional $6000 stipend (additional $1000 stipend for doctoral-level and $700 for EdS). Candidates must be certified or eligible for certification as a school psychologist through the Arizona Department of Education. Electronic applications must be submitted using the Employment link at www.tusd1.org . Address questions to Brent Holt, Lead Psychologist: [email protected] or (520)225-6410. CO*/School Psychology Internships: Colorado Springs, Colorado. Academy School District 20 is accepting applications for 2 school psychology internships (EdS and PhD level candidates). These internships are 187-day contract positions beginning on August 2, 2007. The intern experience includes a broad-based training program covering all phases of assessment, consultation, crisis intervention, counseling, and behavioral and academic interventions. A monthly staff development seminar for interns and district school psychologists provides the opportunity to learn about and discuss topics pertaining to the changing practice of school psychology. Supervision is provided according to NASP guidelines. The stipend is $20,000. A personal interview is required. Interested applicants should send a letter of interest with a resume to: Jane Moon, EdS, NCSP, 6500 East Pine Loop Drive, Colorado Springs, CO 80840, (719) 234-4900, (719) 234-4999 FAX, [email protected] FL*/School Psychologists: Miami-Dade County Public Schools (M-DCPS) is seeking 2 outstanding, new, full-time school psychologists. Positions are available now for individuals who can provide the following services: screening, consultation, intervention development, progress monitoring, and evaluations. The district is progressively implementing collaborative school support teams which emphasize an innovative screening, diagnostic, and response to intervention approach. M-DCPS’s school psychology positions are for 12 months (260

days) with starting salaries ranging from $44,640 to $52,560, depending on highest degree held and years of experience. Applicants must be NCSP or school psychology certifiable by the State of Florida. To obtain additional information please contact Joseph L. Jackson, Administrative Director, at [email protected] or by phone at (305) 995-1735. Information about M-DCPS can be obtained by visiting our website at http://psy.dadeschools.net FL*/School Psychology Program Director: The Department of Psychology at Barry University seeks a school psychologist who will lead, expand, and be a spokesperson for our well-recognized NASP-approved specialist degree program. Appointment is to begin Fall 2007 and rank is open. The ideal candidate will have strong administrative skills, a productive research program, a sound record of teaching at the graduate level and commitment to undergraduate education. The department’s graduate programs also include an MS in Clinical Psychology, and both the School and the Clinical programs follow the scientist-practitioner model of training. The position requires graduate and undergraduate teaching. Qualifications include a PhD from an APA-accredited school psychology program, experience in practice as a school psychologist, and eligibility for licensure and certification in the State of Florida. Review applications will continue until the position is filled. Applicants should send a letter of interest, vita, three recommendation letters, and graduate transcripts to Dr. Lenore Szuchman, Chair, Department of Psychology, Barry University, 11300 N.E. 2nd Avenue, Miami Shores, FL 33161-6695. Barry University is an Equal Opportunity Employer. IA*/School Psychologist: Iowa School Psychology – Iowa has established a statewide network to help school psychology interns and professionals locate employment within the state. Iowa’s regional Area Education Agencies (AEAs) offer full pay and benefits for internships (average $30,000 plus). For information go to: www.iowaschoolpsych. com and click on “Employment.” Or contact Eric Neessen, Iowa Department of Education, Grimes State Office Bldg., Des Moines, IA 50319-0146; Phone: (515) 281-0345; Email [email protected] MA*/Faculty: The Massachusetts School of Professional Psychology seeks a fulltime (.8 FTE or higher) faculty member for its dynamic school psychology program. Doctoral degree required; NCSP expected. School psychology practice and graduate level teaching experience highly preferred. Desired areas of specialization and teaching experience include behavioral and instructional interventions, system interventions, biological bases of behavior and learning, educational assessment and intervention, school and family systems, diversity and

GUIDE L INE S FOR AUTHOR S The primary purpose of the Communiqué is to keep membership of the National Association of School Psychologists informed about the activities of the Association and current issues and practices relevant to the profession. In addition to articles submitted by the Contributing Editors, unsolicited manuscripts from members and readers are encouraged. It is assumed that any manuscript submitted for review is not being considered concurrently by another journal, including School Psychology Review. If the article has been submitted to or published previously in another newsletter, such as a state association newsletter, the author should so indicate in order to obtain permission to reprint and to give proper credit to the original publishing source should it be accepted by the Communiqué. The editor reserves the right to edit the manuscript as necessary for publication if accepted, including editing due to space or layout limitations. An electronic file of the manuscript should be submitted, along with a cover letter containing the author’s name, title (please note degree and NCSP certification if applicable), and institutional affiliation. Manuscripts of no more than 3500 words including references are preferred, although consideration will be given to longer articles. All manuscripts should be sent to Andrea Canter at [email protected]. Because of a backlog of manuscripts and a limited amount of discretionary space available each month, articles are frequently accepted well in advance of their publication date. NASP holds copyright on all articles accepted and published in the Communiqué unless otherwise noted.

cross-cultural psychology, and group process and group therapy. Send cover letter and CV to Bob Lichtenstein, PhD, Chair, Faculty Search; MSPP; 221 Rivermoor Street; Boston, MA 02132. Applications will be reviewed when submitted and considered until positions are filled. MSPP is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action employer. MD*/School Psychologists & Interns: Harford County Public Schools. Applications for full-time, 10- month school psychologists and school psychology interns are now being accepted for the 2007-2008 school year. School psychologists must be eligible for Maryland certification. Experience is desirable. For an application and/or additional information, please contact Peg Goodson, (410) 588-5238, or via e-mail: [email protected]. Affirming Equal Employment in Principle and Practice. NJ*/Assistant/Associate Professor: 12month position; teach graduate courses and guide curriculum development in school psychology program. Serve as clinical director, head of a Community Psychology Center (psychological clinic and training center). Supervise student practicum and internship experiences in clinic. Required experience in administration of a psychological/mental health clinic, school special services department or similar; senior clinician/supervisor with school psychology, child clinical psychology, or related experience; experience with clinical supervision child/adolescent emphasis. Doctorate in School Psychology, Child Clinical Psychology, or related professional psychology specialization required. NJ licensed psychologist or license eligible. Administrative or managerial experience, knowledge of training standards of APA and NASP, history of collaborative work with community agencies and clinical sites preferred; teaching experience preferred. Position begins 9/1/07. Send letter of interest, CV, and 3 letters of reference to Dr. Suzanne Bousquet, Chairperson, at sbousque@kean. edu or mail to Kean University, Department of Psychology 1000 Morris Ave., Union, NJ 07083. NJ*/ Pediatric Neuropsychologist: Neuropsychologist in Princeton, NJ is looking for an individual interested in taking over a private practice. Successful candidate will have good working knowledge and expertise in psycho-educational and neuropsychological assessment of children. Candidate should have a doctorate and be license eligible in NJ for independent practice. Training/supervision provided as needed. Information about the practice can be found on http://www. geocities.com/ princetonneuropsychologist/ description.html. OH/Assistant/Associate Professor: University of Cincinnati. The School Psychology Program has an open position for an Assistant/Associate tenure-track faculty member available September 1, 2007. Applicants must have an earned doctorate in School Psychology (or anticipated by August, 2007) from an approved program (NASP and/or APA) and have experience as a school psychologist. Applicants must demonstrate applied research (or potential) from a behaviorally-oriented perspective and excellence in teaching (i.e., intervention and field-based courses from a behavior analysis orientation). Applications will be accepted immediately and considered until the position is filled. Applicants must apply online (www.jobsatuc.com, position #26UC1337). In addition, please send 3 letters of recommendation and official transcripts to: David Barnett, Search Committee Chair, School Psychology Program, University of Cincinnati, PO Box 210002, Cincinnati, OH 452210002. The University of Cincinnati is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer,

Women, Minorities, Disabled Persons, and Vietnam Era and Disabled Veterans are encouraged to apply. TN/School Psychologist: The Department of Psychology (Middle Tennessee State University) with 45 full-time faculty and 6 graduate programs has a tenure track position opening (#120140) at the rank of Assistant/Associate Professor in School Psychology beginning August 2007. The PhD degree in Psychology is required by August 1, 2007, eligibility for NCSP certification preferred. Responsibilities include supervision of school based practica experiences, supervision of thesis research, involvement with the profession at the local, state, and national level. Quality teaching, active research and service is expected. To apply for this position, go to https://mtsujobs.mtsu.edu and follow the instructions on how to complete an application, attach documents, and submit your application online. If you have questions, please contact Academic Affairs at 615-898-5128. Review begins October 29, 2006 and continues until the position is filled. EO/AA Employer. VA*/Virginia School Psychologist Internships: Prince William County, 2007-2008 School Year. The Prince William County School System is accepting applications for school psychologist internships for Masters and Doctoral level candidates. These internships begin July 1, 2007 and end June 30, 2008. The internships include an extensive program covering general counseling techniques, grief counseling, crisis intervention, multicultural assessment, processing assessment, curriculum-based assessment, processing assessment and other current topics pertaining to the practices of school psychology. Doctoral candidates will receive two hours per week of supervision from a psychologist who is licensed for independent practice in Virginia. Internship sites meet requirements of the Council for Directors of School Psychology Programs. The stipend is $21,000, with 16-20 leave days. Application deadline is February 9, 2007. A personal interview is required. Interested applicants should send a letter of interest and a resume to Kathleen Aux, Supervisor of School Psychologists, PWC Schools, P.O. Box 389, Manassas, VA 20108. 703791-7250. E-mail: [email protected]. Interviews will be scheduled as applications are processed. VA*/Assistant Professor of School Psychology: Radford University, Department of Psychology, Radford, Virginia. Seeking candidates to fill a tenure-track Assistant Professor position in School Psychology to join a NASP approved EdS degree program. Must be able to teach graduate courses in school psychology, supervise school-based practicum and intern students, and teach undergraduate service courses. Also includes responsibilities for advisement, university service, and the initiation and maintenance of an active research program in area of specialization; some teaching in the evenings and off campus will occasionally be required. Doctorate completed by 8/2007. Post-graduate experience as a school psychologist or in training school psychologists is desirable. Applicants must provide a letter of application, current vita, and names and contact information for three references to Dr. Hilary Lips, Chair, Department of Psychology, Box 6946, Radford University, Radford, Virginia 24142. Radford University is a co-educational comprehensive, state-supported institution with an emphasis on teaching located in scenic southwest Virginia, 40 miles from Roanoke, with an enrollment of approximately 9,200 students. Information on the University and the Department of Psychology is available at www.radford.edu. Radford University is an EO/AA employer.

Communiqué • Volume 35, Number 5 • February 2007 — PAGE 47

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