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Monitoring Natural Resources Using Remote Sensing Techniques: Current Situation in Nigeria IBRAHIM KANKARA A. [email protected] Abstract. Under the new world economic order, nations are no longer rated developmentally on the basis of their endowment with material resources; rather it is the intellectual capital and technology that count in today’s world. This is because nations with few natural resources are demonstrating greater economic growth than those that are naturally endowed. It is therefore evidently believed that what derive the abundant natural resources are the tools and techniques used in exploration and surveying. The main index for measuring developmental rate in today’s world is the available knowledge and advances in technologies. In Nigeria, as it is elsewhere the increasing awareness of consciousness of natural resources has led to greater investment in human capacity building and knowledge generation, but receiving low attention. This paper examines the state of application of geomatics in studying natural resources of Nigeria, with particular emphasis on soils, vegetations and water resources. It is shown that though there is high level of awareness of relevance of technology and presence of manpower (both high, middle and low levels), problems of funding and low institutional support are pulling back the progress of the technology in the country. Some suggestions are made towards advancement of the technology in natural resources management in the country. Keywords: Natural Resources, Government, Nigeria, Remote Sensing 1. Introduction Remote sensing is a science and act of collecting information about an object at a distance. It also refers to a tool of collecting information of an object on the earth surface. Remote Sensing Research and Applications Project was a multidisciplinary project dedicated to developing the applications of remote sensing technology for addressing the resources’ issues for the USGS at national and regional scales (Abbas et al., 2003). The USGS and the Remote Sensing Research and Applications Project addressed a diverse set of scientific problems, conducting basic research to provide a firm foundation for remote sensing studies and must develop and test new methods of applying existing and evolving remote sensing data to geochemical and geophysical data. This also provides the rationale for interpreting the results of remote sensing applications. Integrating the results of remote sensing analyses with other types of data is a non-trivial task requiring broad knowledge and experience. In Nigeria, there has not been much attempt of using remote sensing in mineral and other natural resources exploration. Much of the work on the Basement complex of Nigeria that employs remote sensing has been targeted at Hydrogeological applications (Jacobson, and Web, 1946; (Bala, 1997; Bala et al. 2000a) It is only of recent that the National Remote Sensing Center is currently encouraging partnership with postgraduate students of the university of Jos in promoting the usage of satellite data in resources/mineral exploration (Abiodun, 2000). As a result of solid state multi-spectral scanners and other raster input devices, there are now available digital raster images of spectral reflectance data (Abbas et al., 2003). The chief advantage of having these data in digital form is that, through them application of computer analysis techniques to the image data is possible. The processes are known as digital image processing. However, data integration expands the utility of natural resources and provides a powerful tool for addressing complex earth science issues for which obtaining the best possible simply refers to the usage of aerial photography and satellite image data. The increasing urbanization of the world’s natural resources is what triggered policy makers to make technologies like remote Sensing imperative for mineral’s planning and development. In the use of tools in resources exploration, the aim is to digitally manipulate the information stored in the imagery in order to extract those that can be directly linked to the surface processes that are associated with the natural resources and mineral deposits being sort after. Specific attributes that were considered useful for exploration in the research are natural resources in commercial quantities and are mostly being exploited in Nigeria such as Limestone, kaolinitic clay deposits, iron oxides, gold, diamond and lateritic clays which were direct weathering and alteration products of highly mineralized pegmatite and which can leave detectable effects on the imagery. Using remote sensed satellite data of Nigeria, the strengths lies in mapping directly the most promising areas for mineralization on a much wider scale in the area where the mineral deposits are available. It was shown that this technique could be useful in mineral exploration (Abbas et al., 2003). Monitoring of natural resources forms an integral part of the regional planning process whereby policies and strategic plans are reviewed and updated. This task typically involves the identification of such resources. As such, spatially referenced data are a fundamental part of an information-based approach to natural resources planning. This information on environmental data provides more meaningful information for planners. 2. Aim and Objectives The aim of this paper is to monitor and delineate mineral deposits in the study area. It also reviews the efforts of the Federal Government of Nigeria at pioneering the building of remote sensing capabilities to exploit mineral resources. The objectives of the study include:

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a. To examine the efficiency of remote sensing in various stages of planning, implementation, and monitoring of resources in Nigeria. b. To advance solution to problems militating to the effectiveness of remote sensing in natural resources. 3. Materials, Methods and Software Used: The materials and data that will be used for this study are Hardware and Software. The Hardware is the High speed memory digital electronic PIV computer, and the Software is as followed: 1. ERDAS Imagine 8.6 for data pre-processing and Water depth simulation with given return periods. 2. ILWIS 3.3 (Integrated Land and Water Information System) for digitization of Land Use and Contour Maps, Map calculations and all remote sensing analysis with spatial and attribute data (Abiodun, 2000). 3. MS Excel for transport frequency analysis. Topographic Map: The topographic maps were sourced from the Nigerian survey Topographic Map Series of Nigeria Abuja; NIGERIA 1:50,000. Satellite Imagery: The satellite image that was used was Landsat ETM of 2008. This image was downloaded from the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF), Earth Science Data Interface (ESDI) and Digital Elevation Model (DEM). 4.

Methodology: a. Image Classification: The Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) satellite imagery of the study area was used to create a land use/cover map because the available topographic map of the areas was old. The land use/cover themes were generated through manual interpretation because more than half of the areas in most Nigerian environments are also heavily trafficked (Edett et al, 1994). Six general land use/land cover classes were generated: flood plain agricultural land, built-up River, Cultivation and natural resources, Gully, residential and scattered cultivation, shrubs and orchards (Abiodun, 2000). b. Statistical analysis: Traffic frequency analysis will be applied in this study by selecting maximum congestion levels in the study area. The few studies done in Nigeria using modern remote sensing include that of Ananaba and Ajakaiye (1987) that shows evidence of tectonic control of natural resources in Nigeria from lineament density analysis, and Goki et al (2005) that used digitally processed Landsat 5 imageries to map mineralized resources. Other studies that focused on geological applications of natural resources included those of Bala (1997); Bala et al (2000a); Edet et al.(1994); Odeyemi et al.(1999); Bala et al (2000b) and Ayok (2009) 5. Location of The Study Area The study area, Nigeria is located between latitudes 4 to 14 degrees north of the Equator and Longitudes 3 to 15 degrees East of the Greenwich Meridian. It has about 923,768 square kilometers (which is approximately 356,669 square miles). It is bounded to the north by Niger republic, to the east by Chad, to the west by Benin republic and bounded to the south by Cameroun. The country has a highest point of 2,042 meters (which is also 6,699 feet), and has a broad coastline of 853 km (which is also equivalent to 530 miles) (Kankara, 2002).

Fig. 1: Satellite Imagery of part of Northern Nigeria International Conference of GIS-Users, Taza GIS-Days, May 23-24, 2012 Proceeding Book

154 6. Processing of Digital Image The stages involved in image processing as applied to this are outlined as follows: The images were first pre-processed prior to the supply of the images used (Drury,1991). The Environmental Monitoring Project office of Federal Department of Agricultural Land Resources Kaduna supplied the images used, the organization of which is in Band Sequential (BSQ) presented in seven bands in raster format. EROS EDC prepared and supplied the dataset in the New National Landsat Archive Production system (NLAPS) and the National Data Format (NDF) (Ayok, 2009). To rectify the imagery, Ground Control Points and satellite orbit information (Drury, 1991) were utilized since there is no Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for Nigeria. Hence imagery rectification was to existing geocoded Landsat MSS and SPOT Multispectral data (that is image - to - image geo-coding) utilizing the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system, Clarke 1880 spheroid. In order to spectrally enhance the specific features of interest such as clays, iron, aquamarine, barites, beryl, etc. spectral rationing was carried out on selected bands based principally on the centering of the relevant TM bands on the EM spectrum. The ratio images were subsequently aligned and converted into formats that can be projected into color composites in RGB Guns. Single TM bands were also selected for color composites in order to enhance the spectral classes of the surface materials as recorded by the DN values. Upon forming the images of data required (training sites), supervised classifications (both hard and soft) were carried out in order to recognize the pattern of distribution of the spectral classes in the images used of the study area, which involved interactively searching the whole images to extract areas of mineral/resources enrichment (Drury,1991). Lineaments play important roles in controlling mineralization; hence their study and interpretation became necessary based on the geological assumptions that they have relevance and links to mineral exploration targets (Odeyemi, 1999). Thus, the images were carefully inspected for such features and subsequently subjected to Lineament Density Analysis utilizing a pixel size of one square kilometer. Areas of high relief which were thought to be of greatest potential for mineral resources were read off after assigning appropriate thresholds. All the data sets were then compared in the context of geology and modification of the existing geological map was carried out following field check (ground truth) and coordinate recording. 7. Results and Discussion The advent of Remote Sensing has created a large field of opportunity for development of new approaches to computer processing of geographically referenced data, which add a new dimension to the management, analysis and presentation of large volumes of information required in resources monitoring (Sodangi, 2009). The use of Remote Sensing has enhanced the rationality by improving data accuracy and accessibility and as a consequence leads to better decision on resources. Remote Sensing provide the facilities to deal with the data requirement for the functions mentioned above. One important Remote Sensing capability is in handling both digital cartographic data and the associated databases of attribute information for map features (Healey, 1988). Remote Sensing can store the map co-ordinates of point locations, linear and areal features. These features have attributes that must be stored in the database. Once all the data are stored, both the digital map and the database can be manipulated simultaneously (Odeyemi et al, 1999). Generally, surface cover is a direct consequence of subsurface geology. The reflectance spectra of weathered iron minerals are weak in the blue (0.45-0.52 um) region, TM band 1 and strong in the red (0.63-o.69um) region-TM band 3, hence ratio 3/1 has high values for iron stained areas and emphasized natural hydrated oxide, which shows as bright patches. The clay minerals, which are enriched in the highly weathered pegmatite, band 5 centered at 1.51 um (band 5) was rationed to band 7. The Al-OH and Mg-OH rotational effects associated with clay and other hydroxylated minerals result in absorption within Landsat TM band 7 centered at 2.2um (Ayok, 2009). Clay rich zones (weathered feldspars in pegmatite) with absorption features in band 7 and higher reflectance in band 5 show up as bright patches in the ratio image especially around the mining areas of Anorogenic or Younger granite complexes such as the Banke and Daura complexes (between Kaduna, Katsina and Plateau States) and River Bareda (in south Katsina State) in northern Nigeria (Kankara and Magaji, 2008). From the result of specific enhancement procedures the suitability of the areas depend on all the parameters considered such as kaolin enrichment, quartz, rosy-quartz, smoky-quartz, marbles, Amethyst, quartzite, Runic granites (very rear, seen in northern part of Ikara Local Government, Kaduna State) (Kankara and Magaji, 2008) iron enrichment, and any other tectonic imprint in the form of lineament. Along stream channels, there are sufficient enrichment of Cassiterites, Tantalites and Columbites (like in most parts of northern and southern Nigeria). Also, considering the geomorphology of the area, slope aspect of the terrains was also contributing to the spatial distribution of these weathering products, therefore each of the surface cover must not be in isolation. The individual posterity probability for minerals was assessed. They portray the areas that have the highest probability of finding these attributes. It is also clear that there are overlapping areas; hence geological mapping using Remote Sensing provides additional advantage of manipulating geo-spatial data to produce the desired result (Drury, 1991). There is the need to integrate the tectonic information derived from lineament mapping in order to zero in on much promising areas (Ananaba et al, 198 ). Micas, feldspars and ferromagnesia minerals may weather directly to silicate mineral like illite, montmorrilonite and kaolinite. Ground verification confirms that those areas fall at Kilimanjaro and Kuwait. Here in the study area/Nigeria kaolinite can form as a primary mineral or by resilication of Aluminium oxide if the weathering zone is invaded by silica-rich waters (Edett et al., 1994).This is more so when lateritic clays which are almost as a rule in this area useful guides to pegmatite mapping (Jacobson, 1946). The pedogenetic alteration of siliceous and aluminous crystalline rocks produce lateritic clays (quartz, kaolinites, iron and aluminous hydroxides) and this process is further enhanced by the presence of vegetation (Goki, et al,2005) Using the data from remote sensing techniques, the clay deposits in far-northern Nigeria fall within the crystalline Basement complex of Northern Nigeria and are generally milky white to pure white in color, containing little or no impurities (Kankara, 2011). The clays contain between 52% to 98% of less than 2 microns particles size which qualify them as very fine grained earthy substances. The Danmarke reserve alone is more than 34,000,000 tones (Kankara, 2002). In mapping of the mineral deposits of Nigeria, Remote Sensing was used in identifying the exact areas where there are deposits. Co-ordinates were taken and recorded, which included Longitudes and Latitudes. Remote sensing guarantees the availability and speedy access to real time data, geo-

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155 spatial information and availability of relevant infrastructure backbone for information communication. Remote Sensing serves as a tool for environmental mineral resources and monitoring. Remote Sensing has some fundamental advantages at gathering information that make it a veritable tool in mineral deposits monitoring and management. 8. Problems of Natural Resources Exploration In Nigeria The UN Conference on Exploitation of Resources in 1982 held in Vienna, Austria recommended that the UN program should focus its attention, inter alia, on the development of indigenous capabilities in Science and Technology at the local level of natural resources’ exploitations (Abbas and Iguisi, 2003). The UN General Assembly endorsed the recommendation in its resolution 37/90 of 10 December, 1982. As a result, the Federal Government of Nigeria in1999 embarked on some laudable steps at pioneering the development of resources in Africa which eventually led to the launching of Nigeria Sat-l (Fagbami, 1983) and the preparation for the launch of Nigeria Sat-2.Such steps also included the applaudable efforts and leadership in adopting Science and Technology as a tool for Sustainable Environmental resources’ management in Africa. This will also enhance mapping out strategies for mobilizing the African continent to be active participants in the Science and Technology industry to ameliorate problems such as prohibitive costs of image data source and lateness in arrival of such data for near real-time environmental monitoring and resources’ management. Abiodun (2000) observed that "while to the developed world remote sensing is a cost saving method of acquiring raw data to update existing information, for developing countries especially those in Africa like Nigeria, it has provided an opportunity to obtain the first generations of information on some of their earth resources", and Fagbami (1983) noted that: remote sensing is the most important tool for rapid resources inventorying, development and management in developing countries". All of these thus imply that remote sensing technology has today become the defacto data and information gathering and analysis tool for sustainable development and poverty eradication. The greatest problems that (Obba,2003) have perhaps militated against the wholesome acceptance and application of remote sensing technology by most developing countries especially in Africa include lack of understanding of the role of science and technology in the development process; shortage of trained manpower; financially related problems of remote sensing data; inadequate hardware and software facilities for image processing (Abiodun 2000; Fagbami, 1983), and most importantly lack of contributory input to satellite launching and image acquisition processes. 9. Nigeriasat-1 and Its Benefit Fifteen Nigeriasat-1 data set have been found to be very reliable in natural resources’ study; fire scare mapping and monitoring; coastal erosion mapping; gully erosion mapping monitoring; identification and mapping of minerals; major roads and water bodies; disaster monitoring etc (NASRDA, 2007). Nigeriasat-1 can generate a maximum of 236,00 236,000 images over its designed life span of five years. The Landsat-5 with similar capabilities, but higher revisit time is said to have the capabilities to raise an estimated 200 2 m 200 million US dollars yearly (Obba, 2003) which means it has the capability of generating income within that range. The DMC satellites with their shorter revisit time are expected to stimulate the market for images and information for remote sensing and generate even more money which can be used to support future mineral or other natural resources’ explorations and exploitations. Nigeriasat-1 has the advantage of frequent revisits and being locally available and free of foreign transaction problems (Obba, 2003) It will also provide a service that will greatly improve monitoring and the management and mitigation of resources wherever and whenever they occur. 10. Conclusion The important role of monitoring of natural resources by remote sensing technique in Nigeria has been explained. One conclusion is that the welfare of the country can be improved if the minerals are monitored effectively using the modern ways of obtaining data and information. The exploration and exploitation of minerals in other countries, like the Republic of South Africa, Congo etc, have brought a lot of income and profit to the countries. Thus, the mineral resources of this country are not developed and are thus poorly studied (Ajibade, 1976). One relative issue about the mineral deposits in Nigeria is that the occurrence of minerals has helped many participating miners in improving their standard of living. But in general, on the government side the people's adjustment to living aimed at arresting the economic hardship has not put minerals into considerations. All over Nigeria only few factories were established with the view to developing them. Of the many mineral deposits present, only pharmaceutical and Ceramic grades were constructed and Quarries and brick industry was established in most northern Nigerian States to process the economic deposits. The Federal government itself have not invested and exploited the resources as expected, sales them to medium investors so as to provide minimum discount in bulk purchase. More investment will require more remote sensing investigations. The Government has not intensified the market information/marketing research system so that modern wider coverage of the resources can be maintained. The state government did not care to set aside enough funds to monopolize market and dominate other competitors within and outside the study area (Kankara, 2010). The applicability of remote sensing and especially Landsat 5 TM data (Goki et al, 2005; Ayok, 2009) in this research helped in mineral exploration by providing protracted land cover information about mineral mapping. The spectral properties of soil cover have proven extremely useful in delineating the buried minerals in the study area. The tectonic information brought about by the distribution of the lineaments complemented the selection of the promising areas for detailed mapping. The benefits of geospatial technology especially remote sensing, both direct and indirect, have introduced new dimensions into the study and understanding of earth's processes and even vegetations which bear direct relationships with the deposits (Barret et al, 1976). An essential pre-requisite to partaking in these opportunities is the building of various indigenous capacities and capabilities for the development and utilization of science and technology (ARCSSTE-E 2007). From the Nigerian example, one can see that with good policy and commitment, it is possible to build not only remote sensing capabilities but science and technology as a whole for sustainable development and having basic idea of where the resources are found. Following field mapping on mine sites, a

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156 conclusion is here by drawn that digital image processing can be applied in exploring weathered terrains and the contribution of clay minerals and oxides of iron are useful pointers to geologic studies in the Nigerian region. Recommendations New approaches needs to be investigated, other actions/methods need to be incorporated in the existing work method of monitoring of natural resources. From the vast experience of the past, a solution for the future planning methods has to be put in place. This research will focus on remote sensing application on planning and development of resources in Nigeria that has given way to their planning process. Nigeria and perhaps underdeveloped nations need to improve on their future funding for science and technology through increase and steady budget allocation of monitoring of resources every year. The African Union (the then OAU) at its 1980 Lagos plan of Action has recommended a minimum allocation of 1 % of GDP to Research and Development of resources in Science and technology. Nigeria and the rest of under developed nations, as a matter of urgency need to embrace the resources programs as contained in the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) agenda. Nigeria and other underdeveloped nations also need to develop a sound and workable national space policy that will be followed to achieve the required level in their resources development (Odeyemi et al, 1999). This policy should also be implemented and not just be kept somewhere. Nigeria should also be lobbied to assist underdeveloped nations in whatever capacity to ensure that mineral resources grow and well-nurtured through training, collaboration etc (Barret et al, 1976). Due to low technology in data gathering about the resources there were only few private organizations in exploiting the minerals, and are under funded because of low expectations, like the Sierra Leone Diamond Company that visited Kafur area in northern Nigeria in 1961. Policies exist about mapping and development of minerals, but the level at which the policy assist in lawful exploitation was without remote sensing technique. This therefore recorded low profit from sales, high percentage of cost of transportation and poor market positioning. These are some of the negative factors in the development of those resources. Acknowledgment The support of Ministry of Solid Mineral Development, Kaduna state, in collaboration with CACEEM Nig. Ltd with whom we mapped and carried out the Mineral Resources survey of north Kaduna state from which the satellite Imagery of Kaduna state and later this paper was produced is acknowledged. Mapping of Mineral deposits of south Katsina state as part of my Ph.D. work assisted by my supervisors, Professors M.I. Ogunbajo and P. I. Olashehinde (2007-2011; Federal University of Technology, Minna) is also greatly acknowledged. References Abbas, I. and Iguisi, E. (2003): Building Remote Sensing Capabilities in Africa: The Nigerian Example, Department of Geography, Ahmadu BelloUniversity, Zaria, Nigeria. Abiodun, A.A (2000)- Development and Utilization of Remote Sensing Technology on Africa's Development, OAU/ECA experts Group meeting, Mbabane. Swaziland. Ananaba, S.E. and Ajakaiye, D.E.(1987): Evidence of Tectonic Control of Mineralization in Nigeria from Lineament Density Analyses . Intl. Journal of Remote Sensing, vol.8 No. 10,1445-1453 Ayok, J. (2009): Digital Lithological Mapping of The Eastern Gongola Basin, northeastern Nigeria, from Landsat 7. Dept. of Geology, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria-Nigeria. Bala, A. E.(1997): Remote Sensed Groundwater Potential of The Basement Complex Around Dutsinma, Katsina state, Nigeria. Unpublished MSc. Theses, Inter University Program in water Resources Engineering, Vrije Universiteit, Brussels, 70pp Bala, A. E., Batelaan, O. and De Smedt, F. (2000a): Using Landsat 5 Imagery in The Assessment of Groundwater Resources In The Crystalline Rocks Around Dutsin-ma, northwestern Nigeria. Journal of Mining And Geology, 36(1). 85-92 Bala, A. E., Batelaan, O. and De Smedt, F. (2000b): An Appraisal of Remote Sensed Natural Resources Around Dutsin-ma, northwestern Nigeria. J. Sc. Engr. Tech. 7, No 4. Pp2860-2869 Barret, E.C and Curtis, L.F (1976)- Introduction to Environmental Remote Sensing, Chapman and Hall. Drury, (1991): Image Interpretation in Geology, Second Edition. Chapman and Hall, London. 283pp Edett, A. E.,Teme, S.C., Okereke, C.S. and Esu, E.O.(1994): Lineament Analysis for Groundwater Exploration in Precambrian Oban Massif and Obudu Plateau, SE Nigeria. Journal of Mining and Geology, 30(1), 87-95 Fagbami, A (1983) Remote Sensing in Land Resources Surveys and Development: Nigeria, Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol 1, April, 1993. Goki N. G., Oha, I.A., Ike, E.C. and Bala, E.A. (2005): The Use of Digitally Processed Landsat 5 T TM Imagery To Map mineralized Pegmatites Around Nassarawa, Central Nigeria. First international Workshop on Geodesy and Geodynamics in Toro, Bauchi State. Jacobson R., Web, J.S. (1946): The Pegmatites of Central Nigeria. GSN Bulletin No. 17 Kankara, I.A. (2002): Solid Minerals Development in Katsina State: Constraints and Prospects: An unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Geography Department, Bayero University Kano. Kankara, I.A. and Magaji, S. S. (2008): Solid Mineral Survey of north Kaduna state, In collaboration with CACEEM Nig. Ltd. Kankara, I.A. (2011): Geology and Geochemistry of Rocks in Funtua NE, Sheet 78, Scale 1:50,000, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Federal University of Technology, Mina. Obba, K. O. (2003) Nigeriasat-1: The full story, Apco and Associates Ltd, Lagos. Odeyemi, I.B., Anifowose, Y.B. and Asiwaju Y. A.(1999): Multi-Technique Graphical Analysis of Fractures from Remote Sensing Images of Basement Regions of Nigeria. Journal of Mining and Geology, 33(1), Sodangi, A.(2009): GIS As Tools for Monitoring the Urban Development in Metropolitan Katsina, A Bachelor of Science Degree Project, Department of Geography Umaru Musa Yar'adua University Katsina, November 2009.

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