Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and AntiMormon Literature Author(s): David Brion Davis Source: The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 47, No. 2 (Sep., 1960), pp. 205-224 Published by: Organization of American Historians Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1891707 . Accessed: 15/01/2011 19:40 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=oah. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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SomeThemes ofCounter-Subversion: An ofAnti-Masonic, Analysis Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature BY DAVID BRION DAVIS During the second quarterof the nineteenthcentury,when danger of foreigninvasion appeared increasinglyremote,Americans were told by various respectedleaders that Freemasonshad infiltrated the governmentand had seized controlof the courts,that Mormons were underminingpolitical and economic freedomin the West, and that Roman Catholic priests,receivinginstructions from Rome, hiadmade frighteningprogressin a plot to subject the nation to popish despotism. This fear of internalsubversion was channeled into a number of powerful counter movements which attractedwide public support. The literatureproduced by these movementsevoked images of a great Americanenemythat closely resembledtraditionalEuropean stereotypesof conspiracy and subversion. In Europe, however,the idea of subversionimplied a threatto the establishedorder-to the king, the church, or the rulingaristocracy ratherthan to ideals or a way of life. If free Americans borrowed their images of subversion from frightenedkings and uneasy aristocrats,these images had to be shaped and blended to fitAmericanconditions. The movements would have to come fromthe people, and the themesof countersubversionwould be likely to reflecttheirfears,prejudices,hopes, and perhapseven unconsciousdesires. There are obvious dangers in treatingsuch reactions against imagined subversionas part of a single tendencyor spirit of an age.' Anti-Catholicismwas nourishedby ethnic conflictand un'For an alternative to the method followed in this article, see John Higham's perceptive essay, "Another Look at Nativism," Catholic Historical Review (Wash. ington), XLIV (July, 1958), 147-58. Higham rejects the ideological approach to 205

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easiness over immigrationin the expanding cities of the Northeast; anti-Mormonismarose largely froma contestfor economic and political power between westernsettlersand a group that voluntarily withdrewfrom society and claimed the undivided allegiance of its members.2Anti-Masonry,on the otherhand, was directedagainsta groupthoroughlyintegratedin Americansociety and did not reflecta clear divisionof economic,religious,or political interests.3Moreover,anti-Masonrygained power in the late 1820's and soon spentits energiesas it became absorbedin national politics; anti-Catholicismreached its maximumforce in national politics a full generationlater;4 anti-Mormonism, thoughincreasing in intensityin the 1850's, became an importantnational issue only after the Civil War.5 These movementsseem even more widelyseparatedwhenwe note thatFreemasonrywas traditionally associated with anti-Catholicismand that Mormonismitself absorbed considerableanti-Masonic and anti-Catholicsentiment.6 Despite such obvious differences, therewere certainsimilarities in thesecampaignsagainstsubversion.All threegained widespread supportin thenortheastern stateswithinthe space of a generation; anti-Masonryand anti-Catholicismresultedin the sudden emergenceof separatepoliticalparties; and in 1856 thenew Republican partyexplicitlycondemnedthe Mormons'most controversialinstitution. The movementsof counter-subversion differedmarkedly nativism and stresses the importance of concrete ethnic tensions, "status rivalries," and face-to-faceconflictsin explaining prejudice. Though much can be said for this sociological emphasis,as opposed to a search for irrational mythsand stereotypes,the method suggested by Higham can easily lead to a simple "stimulus-response"view of prejudice. Awareness of actual conflictsin status and self-interestshould not obscure the social and psychological functionsof nativism,nor distract attention from themes that may reflectfundamental tensions within a culture. 2 For a brilliant analysis of Mormon-Gentile conflict,see Thomas F. O'Dea, The Mormons (Chicago, 1958). 3 Freemasons were blamed for various unrelated economic and political grievances, but anti-Masonryshowed no uniformdivision according to class, occupation, or political affiliation. See Charles McCarthy, "The Anti-Masonic Party," American Historical Association,Annual Report for the Year 1902, Vol. I (Washington, 1903), 37073, 406-408. I am also indebted to Lorman A. Ratner, whose "Antimasonryin New York State: A Study in Pre-Civil WVarReform" (M.A. thesis, Cornell University, 1958) substantiates this conclusion. 4 For a detailed analysis of the issues and development of anti-Catholicism,see Ray A. Billington, The Protestant Crusade, 1800-1860 (New York, 1938). 5 It should be noted, however, that national attention was attracted by the Mountain Meadows Massacre and by Albert Sidney Johnston'spunitive expedition to Utah. 6For anti-Catholic referencesin The Book of Mormon, see I Nephi 13:4-9; II Nephi 6:12, 28:18. Parallels between Masons and the "Gadianton robbers" have been frequentlydiscussed.

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conspiracy in historical origin,butas theimageof an un-American exposes,in thecounttookformin thenativistpress,in sensational the lines criminality, less fantasiesof treasonand mysterious separatingMason, Catholic,and Mormonbecamealmostindistinguishable. The similarpatternof Masonic,Catholic,and Mormonsubnoticedby alarmistwriters.The Antiversionwas frequently its readersin 1829 that whetherone MasonicReview informed thepower, lookedat Jesuitism "theorganization, or Freemasonry, is Freemasonry same; except that are the and thesecretoperation, muchthe moresecretand complicatedof the two."7 William comparedthe Hogan, an ex-priestand vitriolicanti-Catholic, menaceof Catholicism withthatof Mormonism!Andmanylater writersagreed with Josiah Strongthat Brigham anti-Mormon Young "out-popesthe Roman" and describedthe Mormonhierarchyas beingsimilarto theCatholic. It was probablynot accidentalthatSamuelF. B. MorseanalyzedtheCatholicconspiracy in essentially thesametermshis fatherhad used in exposingthe Societyof the Illuminati,supposedlya radicalbranchof Freeof sensationalfictionin the 1840's and or thatwriters masonry,9 1850's depictedan atheisticand unprincipled CatholicChurch obviouslymodeledon CharlesBrockdenBrown'searlierfictional versionof theIlluminati."0 A Snti-Masonic Review and Magazine (New York), II (October, 1829), 225-34. It was even claimed that Jesuits had been protected by Frederick the Great because they were mostly Freemasons and shared the same diabolical designs. See Free Masonry: A Poem, In Three Cantos, Accompanied with Notes, Illustrative of the History, Policy, Principles, Oc. of the Masonic Institution; Shewing the Coincidence of Its Spirit and Design' with Ancient Jesuitism . . . By a Citizen of Massachusetts (Leicester, Mass., 1830), 134. 8 William Hogan, Popery! As It Was and as It Is: Also, Auricular Confession: and Popish Nunneries, two books in one edition (Hartford, 1855), 32-33. 9 Jedidiah Morse, A Sermon Preached at Charleston, November 29, 1798, on the Anniversary Thanksgiving in Massachusetts (Boston, 1799); Vernon Stauffer, The New England Clergy and the Bavarian Illuminati (New York, 1918), 98-99, 233, 246-48. 10 In Ned Buntline's The G'hals of New York (New York, 1850) the Jesuits seem to be connectedwith all secretconspiracies,and theirAmerican leader, Father Kerwin, is probably modeled on Brown's Carwin. George Lippard admired Brown, dedicated a novel to him, and was also fascinated by secret societies and diabolical plots to enslave America. In New York: Its Upper Ten and Lower Million (New York, 1853), the Catholic leaders are Illuminati-like atheists who plan revolutions,manipulate public opinion, and stop at no crime in their lust for wealth and power. These amoral supermen were clearly inspired by such characters as Brown's Ormond, as well as by the anti-Catholic writingsof Eugene Sue and others.

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If Masons,Catholics,and Mormonsborelittleresemblance to one anotherin actuality,as imaginedenemiestheymergedintoa nearlycommonstereotype. Behindspeciousprofessions of philan" thropyor religioussentiment, nativists discerneda groupof unscrupulous leadersplottingto subverttheAmerican socialorder. Thoughrank-and-file memberswerenot individuallyevil, they wereblindedand corrupted by a persuasiveideologythatjustified treasonandgrossimmorality in theinterest of thesubversive group. Trappedin themeshesof a machine-like organization, deludedby a falsesenseof loyaltyand moralobligation, thesedupesfollowed orderslikeprofessional soldiersandlaboredunknowingly to abolish freesociety,to enslavetheirfellowmen,and to overthrow divine of law principles and justice. Should an occasionalmemberfree himselffrombondageto superstition and fraudulent authority, he couldstillbe disciplined bythethreatofdeathordreadfultortures. Therewereno limitsto theambitiousdesignsof leadersequipped withsuchorganizations. According to nativistprophets, theychose to subvert American societybecausecontrolof Americameantcontrolof theworld'sdestiny. Some of thesebeliefswerecommonin earlierand laterEuropean interpretations of conspiracy.Americanimagesof Masonic, Catholic,and Mormonsubversion wereno doubta compoundof traditionalmythsconcerning Jacobiteagents,schemingJesuits, and fanaticalheretics,and of dark legendsinvolvingthe Holy Vehm and Rosicrucians.What distinguished the stereotypes of Mason, Catholic,and Mormonwas the way in whichtheywere seentoembodythosetraitsthatwerepreciseantitheses ofAmerican ideals. The subversive groupwas essentially an invertedimageof Jacksonian and thecult of the commonman; as such democracy it not onlychallengedthe dominantvalues but stimulatedthose needsand yearnings that are unfulfilled in a mobile, suppressed andindividualistic bothfrightenrootless, society.It was therefore ingand fascinating. It is well knownthatexpansionand materialprogressin the and thatnationalists beJacksonian era evokeda fervidoptimism withvisionsof America'smillennialglory.The cameintoxicated 11Though the term "nativist" is usually limited to opponents of immigration,it is used here to include anti-Masons and anti-Mormons. This seems justified in view of the fact that these alarmists saw themselves as defenders of native traditions and identifiedMasonry and Mormonism with forces alien to American life.

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simultaneous growthof prosperity and social democracyseemed to provethatProvidencewould bless a nationthatallowed her citizensmaximumliberty.When each individualwas left free to pursuehappinessin his own way,unhampered by the tyranny of customor specialprivilege, justiceand well-being wouldineviseemed Butifa doctrine oflaissez-faire individualism tablyemerge. to promisematerialexpansionand prosperity, it also -raiseddisturbing problems.As one earlyanti-Mormon writerexpressedit: What was to preventlibertyand popularsovereignty fromsweepingaway "theold landmarks of Christendom, and thegloriousold ? How was theindividualto preserve common law of ourfathers" a senseofcontinuity withthepast,or identify himself witha given causeor tradition?What,indeed,was to insurea commonloyalty and a fundamental unityamongthepeople? Such questionsacquireda specialurgencyas economicgrowth intensified mobility, destroyed old waysof life,and transformed traditionalsymbolsof statusand prestige.ThoughmostAmericans tookpridein theirmaterialprogress, theyalso expresseda for unityin some cause yearningfor reassuranceand security, individualself-interest. This need for meaningful transcending groupactivitywasfilledin partbyreligious revivals,reform moveof fraternal ordersand associations.In ments,and a proliferation politicsAmericans tendedto assumethepostureof whatMarvin Meyershas termed"venturesome conservatives," their mitigating acquisitiveimpulsesby an appeal for unityagainstextraneous forcesthat allegedlythreatened a noble heritageof republican ideals. Withoutabandoninga beliefin progressthroughlaissezfaireindividualism, theJacksonians achieveda senseof unityand righteousness bystylingthemselves as restorers of tradition."2 Perhapsno themeis so evidentin theJacksonian era as the strained attemptto provideAmericawitha gloriousheritageand a noble destiny.With only a loose and oftenephemeralattachment to places and institutions, manyAmericansfelt a compellingneed to articulate theirloyalties, to provetheirfaith,and to demonstrate theirallegianceto certainidealsand institutions. By so doingthey and personaldirection acquireda senseof self-identity in an otherwiserootlessand shifting environment. 12 For a lucid and provocative discussion of this "restoration theme," see Marvin Meyers, The Jacksonian Persuasion (Stanford, 1957), 162-64.

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to reassurea nation But was abstractnationalismsufficient numberof dividedby an increasing strainedby sectionalconflict, conseby the unexpected and perplexed sectsand associations, quencesof rapidgrowth?One mightdesireto protecttheRepubof the lic againstherenemies,to preservethe glorioustraditions expansionand prosperity, Founders,and to help insurecontinued suban enemybydistinguishing todiscover butfirst itwasnecessary seemedto predomiversionfromsimplediversity.If Freemasons nate in theeconomicand politicallife of a givenarea,was one's or a betrayalof republican joiningthemshrewdbusinessjudgment 13 ShouldMarylandcitizens of antiheedthewarnings tradition? Masonic itinerants, or concludethat anti-Masonry was itselfa Yankees?'4 Were RomanCathohatchedby scheming conspiracy lics plottingto destroypublicschoolsand a freepress,the twin or weretheyexercising demoguardiansof Americandemocracy, 15 Did equality craticrights of self-expression and self-protection? and equalitybeforethe law meanthatAmericans of opportunity shouldacceptthe land claimsof Mormonsor tolerateas jurors miraclesand supernatural menwho"swearthattheyhavewrought ? cures" Or shouldone agreewiththeReverendFinis Ewingthat "the 'Mormons'are the commonenemiesof mankindand ought ? to be destroyed"

16

of conscience beliefsin freedom traditional Few menquestioned and therightof association.Yet whatwas to prevent"all theeroftheOld World,ofschisms in theearlv rorsandwornouttheories period,"fromflourage and therationalistic Church,themonkish air?17 Nativistsoftenpraisedtheworkof ishingin suchsalubrious but theyweredisturbed by the thoughtthat societies, benevolent 13 Hiram B. Hopkins, Renunciation of Free Masonry (Boston, 1830), 4-7. 14Jacob Lefever of Hagerstown appealed to regional loyalty and urged citizens

of Maryland to forget their differencesand unite against "foreign influence"from an area notorious for its "tricks and frauds." Free-MasonryUnmasked: or Minutesof

the Trial of a Suit in the Courtof CommonPleas of Adams County,WhereinThad1835), and JacobLefever,Defendant(Gettysburg, deus Stevens,Esq. Was Plaintiff,

pp. xiii-xiv. 15 The Cloven Foot: or Popery Aimingat Political Supremacyin the United

States,By theRectorof Oldenwold(New York, 1855), 170-79. 16

William Mulder and A. Russell Mortensen (eds.), Among the Mormons: His-

Observers(New York, 1958),76-79. The quotation toricAccountsby Contemporary

is from the minutes of an anti-Mormon meeting in Jackson County, Missouri, July 20, 1833. 17John H. Beadle, Life in Utah: or, the Mysteriesand Crimesof Mormonism (Philadelphia, [1872]), 5.

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monstrousconspiraciesmightalso "show kindnessand patriotism, when it is necessaryfor theirbetterconcealment;and oftentimes do muchgood forthe sole purposeof gettinga betteropportunityto d'o evil." 18 When confrontedby so many sects and associations, how was the patriotto distinguishthe loyal fromthe disloyal? It was clear thatmeredisagreementover theologyor economicpolicy was invalid as a test,sincehonestmendisputedoverthesignificance of baptismor the wisdomof protectivetariffs.But neithercould one relyon expressionsof allegiance to commondemocraticprinciples,sincesubversiveswould cunninglyprofessto believe in freedom and tolerationof dissentas long as theyremaineda powerless minority. As nativistsstudiedthistroublingquestion,theydiscoveredthat mostgroupsand denominationsclaimedonly a partial loyaltyfrom theirmembers,freelysubordinatingthemselvesto the higherand moreabstractdemandsof theConstitution, and AmerChristianity, ican public opinion. Moreover,theyopenly exposed theirobjects and activitiesto public scrutinyand exercisedlittle discrimination in enlistingmembers..Some groups,however,dominateda larger portionof theirmembers'lives,demandedunlimitedallegianceas a conditionof membership, and excluded certainactivitiesfromthe gaze of a curiouspublic. Of all governments, said Richard Rush, ours was the one with mostto fear fromsecretsocieties,since popular sovereigntyby its verynature requiredperfectfreedomof public inquiryand judgment.'9In a virtuousrepublicwhyshould anyonefearpublicityor desire to conceal activities,unless those activitieswere somehow contraryto the public interest? When no one could be quite sure whatthepublic interestwas, and whenno one could takeforgranted a secureand well-defined place in thesocial order,it was mostdifficult to acknowledgelegitimatespheresof privacy. Most Americans of the Jacksonianera appeared willing to toleratediversityand even eccentricity, but whentheysaw themselvesexcluded and even barredfromwitnessingcertainproceedings,theyimagineda "mystic power" conspiringto enslave them. Readersmightbe amusedby thefirstexposuresof Masonic ritual, 18Anti-Masonic Review,I (December,1828),3-4.

19Letterof May 4, 1831,printedin The Anti-Masonic Almanac,for the Year 1832, ed. by Edward Giddins(Utica, 1831),29-30.

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citizens,who had sincetheylearnedthatpompousand dignified withallusionstohighdegreesand elabonceimpressed non-Masons orateceremonies, had in actualitybeenforcedto standblindfolded garb,witha longropenoosedaroundtheir and clad in ridiculous werenotcontentwithsimpleridinecks.But genuineanti-Masons of menhad beenmembers cule. Sinceintelligent and distinguished something morethanthe thefraternity, "it musthavein itsinterior ofitsmysteries declare."20 Surelyleadingcitizens usualrevelatons wouldnot meetat nightand undergodegradingand humiliating ofWilinitiations justforthesakeofnovelty.The allegedmurder public furorbecauseit supliam Morganraisedan astonishing by a Perverted posedlyrevealedtheinnersecretof Freemasonry. all obligationsto the genfalseideology,Masonshad renounced eral public,to thelaws of theland,and evento thecommandof or a party'sprogram nota particular God. Hence theythreatened denomination's creed,but stoodopposedto all justice,democracy, and religion.' The distinguishing markof Masonic, Catholic,and Mormon unconditional thatcloakedthemembers' conspiracies was a secrecy had corbody. Since theorganizations loyaltyto an autonomous Americans ruptedtheprivatemoraljudgmentof theirmembers, forcesofprogress to spreadtruthand couldnotrelyon theordinary of suchorganitheir the affairs among ranks.Yet enlightenment of democratic government, zationswerenotoutsidethejurisdiction forno bodypoliticcouldbe askedto toleratea powerthatwas deit.22Oncethetruenatureofsubversive groupswas signedtodestroy the alternatives wereas clear as life and understood, thoroughly andCatholicism death.How coulddemocracy coexistwhen,as EdwardBeecherwarned,"The systems arediametrically opposed:one ' 23 BecauseFreemasons theother" mustand will exterminate had stateand nationalgovernments, so deeplypenetrated onlydrastic And remedies could restorethenationto its democratic purity.24 Masonry 20Anti-Masonic Review, I (December,1828), 6-7; Lebbeus Armstrong, Proved to Be a Workof Darkness,Repugnantto the ChristianReligion; and Inimical to a RepublicanGovernment (New York, 1830), 16. 21 The Anti-Masonic for the Year 1828: Calculatedfor theHorizon of Almanack, Rochester,N.Y. by Edward Giddins (Rochester,1827), entryfor Novemberand December,1828; Armstrong, Masonry,14. 22 Hogan, Popery,32-33. 23 Edward Beecher,The Papal Conspiracy Exposed,and Protestantism Defended, in the Light of Reason,History,and Scripture(Boston,1855),29. 24Anti-Masonic Review,I (February,1829),71.

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conflict"withMormonism, later,Americansfaced an "irrepressible for it was said that eitherfree institutionsor Mormon despotism mustultimatelyannihilatethe other.25 We may well ask why nativistsmagnifiedthe divisionbetween unpopular minoritiesand the Americanpublic, so that Masons, Catholics,and Mormonsseemedso menacingthattheycould not be accordedtheusual rightsand privilegesof a freesociety. Obviously reflectedconcreterivalriesand the literatureof counter-subversion conflictsof interestbetweencompetinggroups,but it is important to note that the subversivebore no racial or ethnicstigmaand was not even accused of inherentdepravity.26Since groupmembership was a matterof intellectualand emotionalloyalty,no physicalbarrier preventeda Mason, Catholic, or Mormon fromapostatizing and joining the dominantin-group,providingalways that he escaped assassinationfromhis previousmasters. This suggeststhat was morethan a rationaleforgrouprivalryand counter-subversion was relatedto thegeneralproblemof ideologicalunityand diversity in a freesociety. When a "systemof delusion" insulatedmembers of a groupfromthe unifyingand discipliningforceof public opinion, therewas no authorityto commandan allegiance to common principles. This was why oaths of loyalty assumed great importancefornativists. Though the ex-CatholicWilliam Hogan stated repeatedlythat Jesuitspies respectedno oaths except those to the Church,he inconsistently told Masons and Odd Fellows that they could preventinfiltration by requiringnew membersto swear they werenot Catholics.27 It was preciselythe absence of distinguishing outwardtraitsthatmade the enemyso dangerous,and trueloyalty so difficult to prove. When the imagesof different enemiesconformto a similarpat25

Mulder and Mortensen (eds.), Among the Mormons, 407; Jennie Anderson

Froiseth(ed.), The Womenof Mormonism:or, the Storyof Polygamyas Told by

the Victims Themselves (Detroit, 1881-1882), 367-68. 26 It is true that anti-Catholics sometimes stressed the inferiorityof lower-class immigrantsand that anti-Mormons occasionally claimed that Mormon converts were made among the most degraded and ignorantclasses of Europe. This theme increased in importancetoward the end of the century,but it seldom implied that Catholics and Mormons were physically incapable of being liberated and joined to the dominant group. Racism was not an original or an essential part of the counter-subversive's ideology. Even when Mormons were attacked for coarseness,credulity,and vulgarity, these traits were usually thought to be the product of their beliefs and institutions. See Mrs. B. G. Ferris, "Life among the Mormons," Putnam's Monthly Magazine (New York), VI (August, October, 1855), 144, 376-77. 27 Hogan, Popery, 35.

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tern,it is highlyprobablethatthispatternreflects important tensions withina givenculture.The themesof nativistliterature suggestthatits authorssimplified problemsof personalinsecurity and adjustmentto bewildering social changeby tryingto unite Americansof diversepolitical,religious,and economicinterests againsta commonenemy.Justas revivalists soughtto stimulate Christianfellowship by awakeningmen to the horrors of sin, so nativists usedapocalyptic imagesto ignitehumanpassions,destroy selfish indifference, andjoinpatriots ina cohesivebrotherhood. Such themeswereonlyfaintlysecularized.When God saw his "lov'd Columbia"imperiled by thehideousmonster of Freemasonry, He realizedthatonlya martyr's blood could rousethe heartsof the peopleand savethemfrombondageto thePrinceof Darkness.By havingGod will Morgan'sdeath,thisanti-Masonshowedhe was withnationalvirtueand unitythan withFreemoreconcerned masonry,whichwas only a providentialinstrument for testing republican strength.28 "thisbrilliantnew world"was Similarly,fortheanti-Catholic once"youngand beautiful;it aboundedin all theluxuriesof naall thatwas desirableto man." But theRoman ture;it promised Church, seeing"theseirresistible withavarice temptations, thirsting and yearning forthereestablishment of herfallinggreatness, soon commenced pouringin amongits unsuspecting peoplehoardesof Jesuitsand otherfriars."If Americans wereto continuetheirnarrowpursuitof self-interest, obliviousto the"Popishcolleges,and and monasticinstitutions," indifferent nunneries, to manifoldsigns and decay,how could the nationexpect"that the of corruption moralbreezesofheavenshouldbreatheuponher,and restore to her andhealthyconstitution, whichherancestors againthatstrong have ' sons" of to The theme an Adamic fall 29 left her fromparadise but it was used to inspiredetermined was horrifying, actionand were"criminally indifferent" to theMorthusunity.If Methodists soullesscorporations, monquestion,and if "avariciousmerchants, and a subsidizedpress"ignoredMormoniniquities,therewas all themorereasonthatthe"will of thepeoplemustprevail."80 of laissez-faire inWithoutexplicitlyrejectingthephilosophy 28

Free Masonry: A Poem,55-58. AuricularConfession, 264-65. Froiseth(ed.), Womenof Mormonism, 285-87,291-92.

29 Hogan, Popery,7-8; 30

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dividualism,with its tolerationof dissentand innovation,nativist literatureconveyeda sense of commondedicationto a noble cause and sacredtradition.Though the nationhad begun withthe blessings of God and with the noblest institutionsknown to man, the people had somehowbecome selfishand complacent,divided by pettydisputes,and insensitiveto signs of danger. In his sermons to public concerns, such indifference attackingsuch self-interest, and such a lack of devotionto commonideals and sentiments,the nativistrevealedthe truesourceof his anguish. Indeed, he seemed side to subversiveorganiat timesto recognizean almostbeneficent zations,since theyjoined the nation in a gloriouscrusadeand thus keptit frommoral and social disintegration. The exposureof subversionwas a meansof promotingunity,but it also servedto clarifynational values and providethe individual ego witha senseof highmoral sanctionand imputedrighteousness. Nativistsidentifiedthemselvesrepeatedlywitha strangelyincoherent traditionin whichimagesof Pilgrims,Minute Men, Founding Fathers,and trueChristiansappeared in a confusingmontage. Opposed to thisheritageof stabilityand perfectintegrity,to this societyfoundedon the highestprinciplesof divine and natural law, were organizationsformedby the grossestfrauds and impostures, and based on the wickedestimpulsesof humannature. BitterlyrefutingMasonic claims to ancienttraditionand Christiansanction, anti-MasonschargedthattheOrderwas of recentorigin,thatit was shapedby Jews,Jesuits,and Frenchatheistsas an engineforspreading infidelity, and that it was employedby kingsand aristocratsto underminerepublicaninstitutions.3'If the illustriousFranklinand Washingtonhad been duped by Masonry, this only proved how treacherouswas its appeal and how subtlypersuasivewere its pretensions." Though the CatholicChurchhad an undeniableclaim to 81Free Masonry: A Poem, 29-37; Anti-Masonic Review, I (June, 1829), 203-207. The charge was often repeated that higher degrees of Freemasonry were created by the "school of Voltaire" and introduced to America by Jewish immigrants. Masonry was also seen as an "auxiliary to British foreign policy." 32 This question was most troubling to anti-Masons. Though some tried to side-step the issue by quoting Washington against "self-created societies," as if he had been referringto the Masons, others flatlydeclared that Washington had been hoodwinked, just as distinguished jurists had once been deluded by a belief in witchcraft. Of course Washington had been unaware of Masonic iniquities,but he had lent his name to the cause and had thus served as a decoy for the ensnarementof others. See Free

Masonry: A Poem,38; Anti-MasonicReview,I (January,1829),49, 54; The AntiEra 1830 (Rochester,1829),32. MasonicAlmanac,for the Year of the Christian

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tradition, nativistsarguedthat it had originatedin stupendous fraudsand forgeries "in comparison withwhichthe forgeries of Mormonism are completely throwninto the shade."3 Yet antiMormons sawan evenmoresinister basedon the"shrewd conspiracy cunning"of JosephSmith,who convincedgulliblesouls thathe conversedwith angels and receiveddirectrevelationsfromthe Lord."4 By emphasizingthe fraudulentcharacterof theiropponents' claims,nativists soughtto establishthelegitimacy and just authorityofAmerican Masonicrituals,RomanCatholicsacinstitutions. raments, andMormonrevelations hoaxesusedto werepreposterous deludenaiveorsuperstitious minds;butpublicschools,a freepress, andjurytrialswereeternally fora freeand virvalidprerequisites tuoussociety. thefinest valuesof an enlightened nationstoodoutin Moreover, bold reliefwhencontrasted withthecorrupting tendencies of subofthesexualinstinct versivegroups.Perversion seemedinevitably to error."5 accompany religious Deprivedofthetender affections ofnormal married love,shutofffromtheelevatingsentiments of fatherhood,Catholicpriestslookedon womenonlyas insensitive objects of theirfrustrated forthegratification desires.36 In similarfashion struckat theheartof a morality polygamy basedon theinspiring ofwoman'saffections: influence "It renders mancoarse,tyrannical, brutal,and heartless.It dealsdeathto all sentiments of truemanhood. It enslavesand ruinswoman. It crucifies everyGod-given feelingofhernature."3 Someanti-Mormons concludedthatplural marriagecould onlyhave beenestablishedamongforeigners who had neverlearnedto respectwomen.But themorecommonexplanationwas thatthefalseideologyofMormonism had deadenedthe moralsenseand liberatedman'swildsexualimpulsefromthenorofcivilization.Suchdegradation mal restraints of womenand corthe importance of democratic ruptionof man servedto highlight 33Beecher,Papal ConspiracyExposed, 391. 34 Beadle, Life in Utah,30-34.

35 Ibid., 332-33. According to Beadle, religious error and sexual perversion were related "because the same constitutionof mind and temperamentwhich gives rise to one, powerfully predisposes toward the other."

36ClovenFoot, 294-95.

-37Froiseth (ed.), Women of Mormonism, 113.

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marriage,a respectfor women,and carefulcultivationof the finer sensibilities.38

But if nativistliteraturewas a mediumforarticulatingcommon values and exhortingindividualsto transcendself-interest and join in a dedicated union against evil, it also performeda more subtle function. Why, we may ask, did nativistliteraturedwell so persistentlyon themesof brutalsadism and sexual immorality?Why did its authorsdescribesin in such minutedetails, endowingeven the worstoffensesof theirenemieswith a certainfascinatingappeal'? Freemasons,it was said, could commitany crimeand indulgeany passion when"upon the square," and Catholicsand Mormonswere even less inhibitedby internalmoral restraints.Nativistsexpressed horroroverthisfreedomfromconscienceand conventionalmorality, but theycould not conceal a throbbingnote of envy. What was it like to be a memberof a cohesivebrotherhoodthat casually abrogated thelaws of God and man,enforcingunityand obediencewith dark and mysteriouspowers? As nativistsspeculatedon this question, theyprojectedtheirown fears and desiresinto a fantasyof licentiousorgies and fearfulpunishments. Such a projectionof forbiddendesirescan be seen in the exaggerationof thestereotyped enemy'spowers,whichmade himappear at timesas a virtualsuperman.Catholic and Mormonleaders,never hinderedby conscienceor respectfortraditionalmorality,werecuriouslysuperiorto ordinaryAmericansin cunning,in exercisingpower over others,and especiallyin captivatinggullible women.39It was an ancientthemeof anti-Catholicliteraturethat friarsand priests were somehowmore potent and sexually attractivethan married laymen, and were thus astonishinglysuccessfulat seducing supposedlyvirtuouswives.40Americanswerecautionedrepeatedlythat 8 8Though Horace Greeley was moderate in his judgment of Mormonism, he wrote: "I joyfully trustthat the genius of the Nineteenth Century tends to a solution of the problem of Woman's sphere and destiny radically differentfrom this." Quoted in Mulder and Mortensen (eds.), Among the Mormons, 328. 59 It should be noted that Freemasons were rarely accused of sexual crimes, owing perhaps to their greater degree of integrationwithin American society, and to their conformityto the dominant pattern of monogamy. They were sometimes attacked, however, for excluding women from their Order, and for swearing not to violate the chastityof wives, sisters,and daughters of fellow Masons. Why, anti-Masons asked, was such an oath not extended to include all women? David Bernard, Liqht on

Masonry: A Collectionof all theMost ImportantDocumentson the Subject (Utica, 1829), 62 n.

40AnthonyGavin, A Master-Keyto Popery,Givinga Full Accountof All the Customsof thePriestsand Friars,and theRites and Ceremonies of Popish Religion

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no priestrecognizedProtestantmarriagesas valid, and mightconsiderany wifelegitimateprey.4' Furthermore, priestshad access to thepornographic of teachings Dens and Liguori,sinisternamesthat aroused the curiosityof anti-Catholics,and hence learned subtle techniquesof seductionperfectedover thecenturies.Speaking with the authorityof an ex-priest,William Hogan describedthe shocking result: "I have seen husbands unsuspiciouslyand hospitably entertainingthe verypriestwho seduced theirwives in the confessional, and was the parentof some of the childrenwho sat at the same table withthem,each of the wives unconsciousof the other's guilt,and thehusbandsof both,not even suspectingthem."42 Such blatant immoralitywas horrifying, but everyonewas apparently happy in this domesticscene,and we may suspectthat the image was not entirelyrepugnantto husbandswho, despite theirrespect for the Lord's Commandments,occasionally coveted their neighbors' wives. The literatureof counter-subversion could also embodythe somewhat different projectivefantasiesof women. Ann Eliza Young dramatizedher seductionby the Prophet Brigham,whose almost superhumanpowersenchantedherand paralyzed herwill. Though she submittedfinallyonlybecause herparentswerein dangerof being ruinedby the Church,she clearlyindicatedthat it was an excitingprivilegeto be pursuedby a Great Man.43 When Anti-Mormons claimed that Joseph Smith and otherprominentSaints knew the mysteriesof Animal Magnetism,or wereendowedwith the highest degreeof "amativeness"in theirphrenologicalmakeup,thisdid not detractfromtheircovertappeal.44 In a ridiculousfantasywritten by Maria Ward, suchalluringqualitieswereextendedeven to Mormon women. Many bold-heartedgirls could doubtless identify themselveswith Anna Bradish, a fearlessAmazon of a creature, who rodelike a man; killed withoutcompunction,and had no pity forweak womenwho failed to look out for themselves.Tall, ele(n.p., 1812), 70-72. Such traditional works of European anti-Catholicism were frequently reprintedand imitated in America. 41 Cloven Foot, 224. The Mormons were also alleged to regard the wives of infidels "lawful prey to any believer who can win them." Beadle, Life in Utah, 233. 42Hogan, Auricular Confession,289. 43Ann Eliza Young, Wife No. 19: or, the Storyof a Life in Bondage,Being a Complete Expose of Mormonism (Hartford, 1875), 433, 440-41, 453.

44Maria Ward, Female Life amongthe Mormons: A Narrativeof Many Years' PersonalExperience,By the Wifeof a MormonElder,RecentlyReturnedfromUtah (New York, 1857), 24; Beadle, Life in Utah, 339.

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gant, and "intellectual,"Anna was attractiveenoughto arouse the insatiabledesiresof BrighamYoung, thoughsheultimatelyrejected him and renouncedMormonism.4" While nativists affirmedtheir faith in Protestantmonogamy, theyobviouslytookpleasure in imaginingthe varietyof sexual experiencesupposedlyavailable to theirenemies. By picturingthemselves exposed to similar temptations,they assumed they could know how priestsand Mormons actually sinned.46Imagine, said innumerableanti-Catholicwriters,a beautifulyoungwomankneeling beforean ardentyoungpriestin a desertedroom. As she confesses,he leans over, looking into her eyes, until theirheads are nearlytouching. Day afterday she reveals to him her innermost secrets,secretsshe would not thinkof unveilingto herparents,her dearestfriends,or evenhersuitor. By skillfulquestioningthepriest fills her mind with immodestand even sensual ideas, "until this wretchhas workedup herpassionsto a tensionalmostsnapping,and thenbecomeshis easy prey." How could any man resistsuch provocative temptations,and how could any girl's virtue withstand such a test'?4 We should recall that this literaturewas writtenin a period of increasinganxiety and uncertaintyover sexual values and the properrole of woman. As ministersand journalistspointed with alarm at the spread of prostitution,the incidenceof divorce,and thelax and hypocriticalmoralityof the growingcities,a discussion of licentioussubversivesoffereda convenientmeans forthe projectionof guilt as well as desire. The sinsof individuals,or of the nationas a whole,could be pushedoffupon theshouldersof theenemy and therepunishedin righteousanger."4 Specificinstancesof suchprojectionare not difficult to find.John C. Bennett,whomthe Mormonsexpelled fromthe Churchas a resultof his flagrantsexual immorality, inventedthe fantasyof "The Mormon Seraglio" whichpersistedin later anti-Mormonwritings. Accordingto Bennett,the Mormons maintained secretorders of 45Ward, Female Life among the Mormons, 68, 106, 374. 46 The Mormons, for instance,were imagined to engage in the most licentious prac. ticesin the Endowment House ceremonies. See Nelson W. Green (ed.), Fifteen Years among the Mormons: Being the Narrative of Mrs. Mary Ettie V. Smith (New York, 1857), 44-51. 47 Hogan, Auricular Confession, 254-55; Cloven Foot, 301-304. 48 This point is ably discussed by Kimball Young, Isn't One Wife Enouzgh? (New York, 1954), 26-27.

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beautifulprostitutes whoweremostlyreserved forvariousofficials of theChurch.He claimed,moreover, thatany wiferefusing to acceptpolygamy mightbe forcedto join thelowestorderand thus becomeavailableto anyMormonwhodesiredher.49 Anotherexampleof projectioncan be seen in the lettersof a younglieutenant whostoppedin Utah in 1854on hiswayto California.ConvincedthatMormonwomencould be easilyseduced, ofhisamorousadventures thelieutenant wrotefrankly witha marriedwoman."Everybody hasgotone,"hewrotewithobviouspride, "excepttheColonelandMajor. The Doctorhasgotthree- mother and twodaughters.The mothercooksforhimand thedaughters sleepwithhim." But thoughhe describedUtah as "a greatcountry,"thelieutenant waxedindignant overpolygamy, whichhe condemnedas self-righteously as anyanti-Mormon minister:"To see onemanopenlyparadinghalfa dozenormorewomento church... is thedevilaccording tomyideasofmorality virtueanddecency." If theconsciences ofmanyAmericans weretroubled bythegrowth inmajorcities,theycoulddiverttheirattention ofredlightdistricts to the"legalizedbrothels"callednunneries, forwhichno one was Catholic If responsible butlecherous priests. othersweredisturbed by themoralimplications of divorce,theycouldpointin horrorat theMormonelderwhotookhisquotaof wivesall at once. The litcould thusservethedoublepurpose eratureof counter-subversion of vicariously fulfilling repressed desires,and of releasingthetension and guilt arisingfromrapid social changeand conflicting values. Thoughtheenemy'ssexualfreedom mightat firstseementicing, withperit was alwaysmaderepugnant in theendby associations versionor brutalcruelty.Both Catholicsand Mormonswereaccusedof practicing nearlyeveryformof incest.5'The persistent emphasison thisthememightindicatedeep-rooted feelingsof fear andguilt,butit also helpeddemonstrate, on a moreobjectivelevel, of unrestrained lust. Sheerbrutality the loathsomeconsequences and a delightinhumansuffering weresupposedtobe theevenmore 49Ibid., 311. 50Quoted in Mulder and Mortensen (eds.), Among the Mormons, 274-78. 51 George Bourne, Lorette: The History of Louise, Daughter of a Canadian Nun, Exhibiting the Interior of Female Convents (New York, 1834), 176-77; Hogan, Auricular Confession, 271; Frances Stenhouse, A Lady's Life among the Mormons: A Record of Personal Experience as One of the Wives of a Mormon Elder (New York, 1872), 77.

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horrible resultsof sexualdepravity.Masonsdisemboweled or slit thethroats oftheirvictims;Catholicscutunborninfantsfromtheir mothers' wombsand threwthemto thedogsbeforetheirparents' orsearedtheir eyes;Mormonsrapedandlashedrecalcitrant women, mouthswithred-hot irons.52 This obsessionwithdetailsof sadism, whichreachedpathologicalproportions in muchof theliterature, showeda furiousdetermination to purgethe enemyof everyadmirablequality.The imagined as an outenemymightserveat first letforforbidden butnativistauthorsescapedfromguiltby desires, finallymakinghiman agentof unmitigated aggression.In sucha rolethesubversive seemedto deservebothrighteous angerand the mostterrible punishments. The nativistescapefromguiltwas moreclearlyrevealedin the themesof confession and conversion.For mostAmericanProtestantsthecrucialstepin anyone'slifewas a profession of truefaith froma genuinereligiousexperience.Only whena man resulting becameconsciousof his innerguilt,whenhe struggled againstthe of Satan,couldhe preparehis soul fortheinfusion temptations of the regenerative spirit.Those mostdeeplyinvolvedin sin often madethemostdramaticconversions. It is notsurprising thatconversiontonativism followedthesamepattern, sincenativists sought unityand moralcertainty in theregenerative spiritof nationalism. Men whohad beenassociatedin somewaywithun-American conspiracieswerenotonlycapableof spectacular confessions of guilt, butwerebestequippedto exposetheinsidiousworkof supposedly harmlessorganizations.Even thosewho lackedsuch an exciting ofcorruption history usuallymadesomeconfession ofguilt,though it mightinvolveonlya previousindifference to subversive groups. Like ardentChristians, nativistssearchedin theirownexperiences forthemeanings ofsin,delusion,awakening to truth, and liberation fromspiritual bondage.Thesepersonalconfessions provedthatone had recognized and conquered evil,and also servedas ritualcleansingspreparatory to fullacceptance in a groupof dedicatedpatriots. Anti-Masonswereperhapsthe ones mostgivento confessions of guiltand mostalertto subtledistinctions of loyaltyand disloyalty.Manyleadersofthismovement, expressing guiltovertheir 52Anti-Masonic Review, I (December, 1828), 24 ff.; Cloven Foot, 325-42, 357-58; Froiseth (ed.), Women of Mormonism, 317-18; Ward, Female Life among the Morrnons,428-29.

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own "shamefulexperienceand knowledge"of Masonry,felta compelling obligationto exhorttheirformerassociates to "come out, and be separatefrommasonicabominations." Even whenan antiMason could say with John Quincy Adams that "I am not, never was, and nevershall be a Freemason,"he would oftenadmit that he had once admiredtheOrder,or had even consideredapplyingfor admission.54 Since a willingnessto sacrificeoneselfwas an unmistakablesign of loyaltyand virtue,ex-Masons gloried in exaggeratingthe dangerstheyfaced and the harmthat theirrevelationssupposedlyinflictedon the enemy. In contrastto hardened Freemasons,who refusedto answerquestionsin courtconcerningtheirfraternalassociations,the secedersclaimed to reveal the inmostsecretsof the Order,and by so doingto riskproperty,reputation,and life."5Once the ex-Mason had dared to speak the truth,his characterwould surelybe maligned,his motivesimpugned,and his life threatened. But, he declared,even if he sharedthe fate of the illustriousMorgan, he would die knowingthat he had done his duty. reachedextravagantheightsin the rantSuch self-dramatization ing confessionsof many apostate Catholics and Mormons. Maria Monk and hervariousimitatorstold of shockingencounterswithsin in its most sensationalforms,of bondage to vice and superstition, and of melodramaticescapesfrompopish despotism.A hostof "exMormon wives" described their gradual recognitionof Mormon fraudsand iniquities,the anguish and miseryof plural marriage, and theirbreath-taking flightsover desertsor mountains. The female apostate was especially vulnerable to vengeful retaliation, since she could easily be kidnappedby craftypriestsand nuns, or dreadfullypunishedby BrighamYoung's DestroyingAngels."6At theveryleast,herreputationcould be smirchedby foul lies and insinuations. But her willingnessto riskhonorand life for the sake of her countryand for the dignityof all womankindwas eloquent proofof herredemption.What man could be assuredof so noble a role? The apostate's pose sometimesassumed paranoid dimensions. 6

53Armstrong,Masonry,22. 64Free Masonry: A Poem,p. iv.

55 Ibid.,pp. iii, 51; Hopkins,Renunciation. of Free Masonry,5, 9-11; Anti-Masonic Almanac,1830,pp. 28-29; Bernard,Lighton Masonry,p. iii. 66 Stenhouse, Lady's Life amongthe Mormons,142-43.

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WilliamHogan warnedthatonlytheformer priestcouldproperly gaugetheCatholicthreatto American libertiesand saw himselfas providentially appointedto save his Protestant "For countrymen. twenty danyears,"he wrote,"I havewarnedthemof approaching ger,buttheirpoliticians weredeaf,andtheirProtestant theologians remainedreligiously coiledup in fanciedsecurity, their overrating ownpowersand undervaluing thatof Papists." Pursuedby vengefulJesuits,denouncedand calumniated forallegedcrimes, Hogan picturedhimselfsingle-handedly defendingAmericanfreedom: "No one,beforeme,daredto encounter theirscurrilous abuse. I resolvedto silencethem;and I have done so. The verymention of mynameis a terrorto themnow." Aftersurviving the worst of Catholicpersecution, Hogan claimedto haveat last arousedhis and to havereducedthehierarchy countrymen to abjectterror.57 As thenativistsearchedforparticipation in a noblecause,for unityin a groupsanctioned and authority, heprofessed bytradition a beliefindemocracy andequal rights.Yet inhisveryzeal forfreedomhe curiously assumedmanyof thecharacteristics of theimagined enemy.By condemning thesubversive's fanaticalallegiance to an ideology,he affirmed a similarlyuncriticalacceptanceof a different ideology;by attacking thesubversive's of disintolerance sent,he workedto eliminatedissentand diversity of opinion;by the subversive forallegedlicentiousness, censuring he engagedin sensualfantasies;bycriticizing thesubversive's loyaltyto an organization,he soughtto provehis unconditional loyaltyto theestablishedorder.The nativistmovedevenfarther in thedirection of hisenemieswhenhe formed tightly-knit societiesand partieswhich wereoftensecretand whichsubordinated the individualto the singlepurposeof thegroup.Thoughthenativistsgenerally agreed thattheworstevil of subversives was theirsubordination of means to ends,theythemselves recommended themostradicalmeansto purgethenationoftroublesome groupsand to enforce unquestioned loyaltyto thestate. In hisimageof an evilgroupconspiring againstthenation'swelfare,and in his visionof a gloriousmillennium thatwas to dawn aftertheenemy'sdefeat,thenativistfoundsatisfaction formany desires.His owninterests becamelegitimate anddignified byfusion withthenationalinterest, and variousopponentsbecameloosely H7Hogan,Auicular Confession, 226-29,233, 296-97.

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associatedwiththe un-Americanconspiracy.Thus Freemasonryin New York State was linkedin thenativistmindwitheconomicand political intereststhat werethoughtto discriminateagainst certain groups and regions;southernersimagineda union of abolitionists and Catholicsto promoteunrestand rebellionamongslaves; gentile businessmenin Utah mergedanti-Mormonismwith plans for exploitingminesand lands. Then too thenativistcould stylehimselfas a restorer of thepast, as a defenderof a stable orderagainst disturbingchanges,and at the same time proclaimhis faith in futureprogress. By focusing his attentionon the imaginarythreatof a secret conspiracy,he foundan outletformanyirrationalimpulses,yet professedhis loyalty to theideals of equal rightsand government by law. He paid lip serviceto the doctrineof laissez-faireindividualism,but preached selflessdedicationto a transcendent cause. The imposingthreatof subversionjustifieda grouployaltyand subordinationof the individual that would otherwisehave been unacceptable. In a rootless shakenby bewilderingsocial changethenativistfound environment unityand meaningby conspiringagainst imaginaryconspiracies.