American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Inc.
The Dangers of Automobile Travel: A Reconsideration Author(s): Roger Roots Source: American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 66, No. 5 (Nov., 2007), pp. 959-976 Published by: American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27739679 . Accessed: 18/04/2013 11:21 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
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The
of Automobile
Dangers
Travel
A Reconsideration By Roger America's
Abstract.
are ful
of
of
academics
to life and
dangerous
limb,
resources.
and
space
on
reliance
scorn
the
attracted
automobile
Automobiles,
environmentally
unfriendly,
Moreover,
the
say
and
shatters
the otherwise
This
article
examines
the costs
a historic
and
and waste automobiles
thatbalkanizes
cohesive
nature
benefits
of U.S.
it compares
First,
perspective.
it is said,
critics,
inefficient individualistic social behavior
produce
has
transportation
for decades.
munities
from
Roots*
the
com
of American
life. travel
automobile
safety
of automobile
travelwith the horse and steam-powered travel thatpreceded it. It then in briefly addresses the changes wrought by American automobiles terms
of
their
ecology.
lower
tially
impact
on American
It concludes
driven
than
that on
than
virtually
and
that the other
seriously
a
any
other
of
by
used
of fatalities
popularly
steam
per mile. is safer
travel in U.S.
transportation
and
substan
and
automobile
of automobile
contributions
overlooked
basis,
travel
are
horse-driven
in terms
per-trip
means
mobility,
use
automobile
early
especially
or
per-mile
of by
posed
methods,
social
life, economics,
the dangers
the dangers
transportation
It finds
that
history,
have
been
scholars.
transportation
I Introduction Economists, America's
sociologists, love
affair with
*Dr. Roger Roots, J.D., Ph.D., Las Vegas; University of Nevada, include the sociology of violence,
and the
other
academics
automobile
are as
an
quick
to
extravagant
criticize luxury
at the from the Department of Sociology graduated e-mail
[email protected]. His research interests
the social history of law enforcement, and the historic growth in government regulation since the founding of the United States. His most recent publications in the Seton Hall Constitutional include "Are Cops Constitutional?" Law Journal "Of Prisoners and Plaintiffs' Lawyers: A Tale of Two (11: 685-757), and three entries Litigation Reform Efforts" inWillamette Law Review (38: 210-232), The Encyclopedia (forthcoming, Sage Publications). of Prisons and Corrections American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 66, No. 5 (November, 2007). ? 2007 American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Inc.
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
in
The American fournal
960
of Economics
and Sociology
(Greene, Jones, and Delucchi 1997; Kay 1997; Transportation Research Board 1997; Buel 1972). They accuse the automobile of exacting a heavy toll on human life, as well as being ecologically costly and
inefficient
fostering
and
unsustainable
suburban
environments
(Greene, Jones, and Delucchi 1997; Kay 1997). In June 1995, the Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) of the U.S. Department of Transpor tation brought together a diverse group of academics to measure
attempt
the
Jones, and Delucchi
(Greene,
a wide
produced
costs
"full social
and
on
papers
transportation"
the convocation
1997: 2). Although
of well-researched
variety
and authorities to
of
benefits
the
not
subject,
a single paper found the present benefits of U.S. automobile use to be greater than its long-term costs (Greene, Jones, and Delucchi 1997). An consensus
overwhelming muter
rail,
subway,
other
social
costs
favored
and
bus
massive
systems
associated
with
auto
in com
investments
public
to decrease
traffic
and
fatalities
transportation.
This article offers little critique of this forward-looking evaluation; it casts
instead,
examining transportation academic of
its examination
and
social
actually saved many U.S.
the
upon
it superceded.
options
the
consensus,
safety
back
since
economy
benefits.
has
to the
that, contrary a
been
automobile
Indeed,
history,
in relation to the
It concludes
automobile
of
roadway
the safety impacts of the automobile
godsend
in
terms has
transportation
thousands of lives and added
substantially to the
1900.
II The
Social the
From American
of
Construction moment roadway,
the
as
the Automobile
first
policymakers
horseless
a Public
carriage
expressed
Health
motored
alarm
at
Menace down
its potential
an for
danger. Congressman Robert Cousins of Iowa admonished his fellow members of Congress in 1910 that "horrible and gruesome incidents are
of
almost
daily
occurrence,"
drivers had
and
boulevards
that
with
the
recklessness
of
blood"
auto
"bespattered {Congressional 1910). Princeton University president (and future president of the United States) Woodrow Wilson stated in 1906 that "[o]f all the
Record menaces
(McShane
of
today,
the worst
is the
reckless
driving
of
automobiles"
1994: 179).
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Dangers
Travel Reconsidered
of Automobile
961
The death and destruction wrought by automobile use during the 20th century hardly needs to be restated. Legend holds thatwhen the State of Missouri firstharbored four automobiles, on
a St. Louis
two of them collided
impact to injure both drivers enough in the United States, motor-vehicle (Moynihan 1969: 81). Today cause are of death from unintentional the related injuries leading street with
injury and the greatest killer of children and young adults (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control 1997: 3). At least 2.7 million the
Americans?about
1 percent
of
equivalent
of
the
U.S.
present
"sacrificed on the altar of automobility" during population?have the automobile age (McShane 1994: 173). The mortality attributed to auto travel should be placed in perspec been
tive,
however.
the motor
age
The
world
was
also
and
of horses quite
that existed
wagons to
dangerous
life and
to
prior
limb.
Accidents
involving horses killed thousands of riders and pedestrians during the 19th century (Bettmann 1974: 23). At least two kings of England, as well as many other distinguished persons, lost their lives to horse related accidents prior to the motor age (Hair 1971: 9). One famous early study found that 280 of the Prussian army's finest horse caval
1875 and
rymen died from horse kicks in the 19-year period between 1894 (Preece, Ross, and Kirby 1988). The
absence
struct 20th
U.S.
overall
and
American
are
from
1908 (Crum
bustion
engine
was
by
no
collected
on
data
P. E. H.
the
19th-century nine
least
1913). Reviewing
demographer
in 1971 that the "supercession
at
and
to
prior
from
records
however,
to recon
difficult
travel
horse
precise
systematically
centuries,
previous
from
Kingdom,
municipalities
ties from as early as rates
rates
relatively
the United
it very
makes
records
casualty
There
century.
Germany
consistent
of
traffic
major fatali
British fatality Hair
concluded
of the horse by the internal com
means
the
disaster
in
terms
of
travel
to have been," and suggested that safety it is often supposed an between 1840 and 1900, accidents involving horses produced average yearly mortality rate of about five per 100,000 population (Hair 1971: 8). Figure
1 compares
fatality
rate
estimates
from
horse-drawn
trans
portation in England and New York City prior to the 1920s with U.S. auto
fatality
rates
of
the
latter
20th century.
It shows
that modern
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
rates
The American Journal
962
of Economics
and Sociology
Figure 1 deaths
Highway
per
horses
capita,
with
compared
1270-1997.
autos,
- - Traffic deathsper100,000 per population year(U.S.motor vehicles) -?-~Deathsper100,000 peryear population GreatBritain) (horse-related, - - Deathsper100,000 peryear population NewYork (horse-related, City)_
Year(nottoscale) Sources:
McShane
Hair
(1994);
(1971).
of highway trafficfatalities are about three times higher per capita than the horse-powered
travel
of yesteryear.
Ill Steam A
or
paragraph
railroad
travel
two
transportation for other
as
Versus
be
argue
for
a means
of
reasons
(see,
Auto
the
regarding also
might
experts
portation as
Locomotive
dangers
reducing
e.g.,
Kay
of
Most
appropriate. use
increased
Rates
Fatality
motor
of
Americans
the
actually car
U.S.
passengers
travel
population
and
used on
rail
a per was
employees
was
transportation)
capita
basis.
around
64.4
In
1891,
million,
rail
passenger
public
vehicle
as well
fatalities,
that the rail transportation of the late 1800s (when modern
trans
contemporary
It is noteworthy,
1997).
steam
19th-century
however,
large numbers of
more
than
deadly
for example, 7,029
U.S.
when railroad
lost their lives in rail accidents
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
(U.S.
of Automobile
Dangers
Travel Reconsidered
963
Figure 2 Railroad
1891-1915,
fatalities,
to modern
compared
fatalies.
highway
U.S. railroad fatalities thousand perhundred deathsfrom peryear(includes population highway-rail collisions) carfatalities U.S.passenger perhundred thousand population peryear DU.S. fatalities, allmotor vehicles combined, pc hundred thousand peryear population
1891 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1940 1960 1970 1980 Year(nottoscale) Source:
U.S.
Census
Bureau
Bureau of the Census of
1.4
1961: Table Q
the current
times
(1961).
rate
fatality
141-152), the statistical equivalent for U.S.
car
passenger
travel
of Transportation Statistics 2001: Table 2-1). in 1907, when 11,839 Americans Railroad fatalities peaked
(U.S.
Bureau
in
died
rail accidents (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1961: Table Q 141-152). After 1918, railroad fatalities plummeted along with the numbers of pas sengers using rail transportation, and since I960 less than 3,000 persons
have
Transportation fatality fatality
rates
annually from railway travel (U.S. Bureau of Statistics 2001: Table 2-1). Figure 2 illustrates railroad
died
to contemporary
compared
and
highway
passenger
car
rates.
Further details regarding traffic mortality trends could be obtained by breaking fatalities,
down ox
contemporary cart
fatalities,
mortality frommodern juxtaposed
against
auto and
so
automobiles
overall
mortality
fatalities on.
But
in relation to
place
to early the
comparative
in proper perspective, rates
from
the
streetcar
entire
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
itmust be gamut
of
methods
transportation one
from
bination
of
another.
universal
1910?not
Americans system
and
train,
and Sociology
before
transportation steam
to near
means),
or
mode
a multimode
horse-drawn,
as other
used
commonly
transportation from
switched
well
of Economics
The American fournal
964
streetcar
after
have, (relying
on
all,
a com
transportation,
on motor
reliance
rates
merely
vehicles
as for
travel (Kay 1997). Today, motor vehicle traffic accounts formore than 88 percent of all passenger miles (U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics 2001: Table 1-3D and 99 percent of all vehicle miles traveled (U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics 2001: intermediate-distance
Table the
combination
complete
travel in major
automobile of
lethality
(McShane
modern
When
1-29).
latter-20th-century
mortality of
rates streetcar,
are
compared
horse-drawn,
to rates
from
and
early
cities at the turn of the 20th century, the automobile
travel
appears
quite
mild
1994: 175). Figure 3 shows that the full distribution of traffic
Figure 3 New mortality
York
City
traffic fatalities: with
(1987-1998)
Comparing
mortality
from
modern streetcars,
motor
vehicle
horse-drawn,
and
horseless vehicles (1902-1915).
1987 19881997 1998 19021903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 19091910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 Year(Not To Scale) - - Motor NewYork 1987-98 Vehicle Fatalities. City, - -TotalTraffic NewYork Fatalities andHorse Drawn Vehicles Automobiles, (Streetcars, Combined), City.1902-15 Motor Vehicle for(1910)Population_ Fatalities, Contemporary Controlling Sources:
McShane
(1994);
Crum
(1913).
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of Automobile
Dangers
Travel Reconsidered
965
deaths inNew York City between 1902 and 1915 was as great or greater than the totalmotor vehicle fatalities inNew York City from automobiles alone in the late 1980s and 1990s. Interestingly,New York City's annual number
before
of
street
fatalities
1904. When
around 4.8 million relative
safety
of
now
has
to
decreased
levels
not
seen
since
one considers
that its population increased from more in 1910 to than 8 million in 2000, the greater
the automobile
becomes
clear.
New York City is used as an illustration merely because itmain tained records of horse-related fatalities during the late 19thcentury, data not recorded for the nation generally. If national figures were available, as
a similar picture would
a whole.
4
Figure
shows
likely emerge for the United States
annual
U.S.
fatality
rates
from
railroad
travel (data kept by the U.S. Census Bureau since 189D combined with horse-related fatality rates extrapolated from the New York City data.1
Note
that
the
combined
death
preautomobile
rate
from
these
two
common
is slightly higher for the year 1900 than
travel methods
Figure 4 Contemporary
U.S.
motor and
vehicle
steam-train
fatalit?s fatalities,
compared
to combined
horse
1891-1900.
O U.S.motor vehicle fatalities perhundred thousand auto, peryear(combined population truck, bus,etc.) fatalities thousand U.S. railroad perhundred peryear population Horse-related fatalities thousand perhundred from NewYork peryear(extrapolated Citydata)
1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1940 1960 1970 1980 19902000 Year(not to scale) Source:
U.S.
Bureau
of the Census
(1961).
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
of Economics
The American fournal
966
and Sociology
the total U.S. highway fatality rate for the year 2000. Also note that Figure 4 does not include fatalities from early streetcar transportation streetcar use was
(as did Figure 3) because at
environments
urban
turn of
the
the
to
confined
generally
20th century.
IV
Auto Safety by the Mile relative
Mortality story. large now
to
are much
Americans
to their
due
part
population
travel
regularly
figures
more
than
personal
motor as
distances
substantial
a
only
mobile
on
reliance
tells
small were
they
in
the in
1900,
Americans
vehicles.
a matter
of
part
of
their
culture
and livelihood (Horrath 1974). Thus, fatalities per unit of travel (e.g., or per
per mile
trip rather
than
per
are
capita)
of describing the real risks of use. When are
Americans
by modern
for, we
accounted
the most
accurate
the longer distances see
way
traveled
that motor
vehicle
steadily declining since the 1920s. Rates of death are now less than 2per 100 million miles of travel from auto accidents
fatalities have been
annually (Figure 5). In
see
5 we
Figure
the
that
to
relative
automobile,
unit.
mileage tion
occurred
than
from
estimates great
Indeed, at
motor
rate more in
vehicles
in per-mile
in infrastructure
conceded
than
from 15
2000
and
that modern
locomotion
over
noteworthy
that
car
distances horse-riding
be
may care is a
driving than
using
per
of
substantially
its preindustrial
accidents
continue
1775
conservative
of this
much to
attributed
trauma
in
mile
very
fatalities).2While
fatalities medical
greater
safer per transporta
horse-powered
times (even
for per-mile horse-related
decrease
ments
a
rates
fatality
horse
the
drawn transportation of 1900 and before, is generally much
victims, safer
improve itmust
counterparts. to cause
be
means
high
of It
is
rates
of injury, even though horse riding has become increasingly rare in the United States. The Centers for Disease Control estimate that the injury per number of riding hours continues to be for horseback riders than for motorcyclists and competitive higher automobile racers (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control 1996: 162). rate of serious
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Dangers
of Automobile
967
Travel Reconsidered
Figure 5 Deaths
per mile:
Horses
with
compared
automobiles.
Deaths British horse ; miles. per100million 1575-1903 travel, Deathsper100million New York miles. City horsetravel. 1880-1900 Deathsper100million U.S.auto miles, 1925-1997 travel,
Year(nottoscale) Sources:
McShane
This
(1994);
Hair
(1971);
between
comparison
per-mile
author's
calculations.
auto
modern
travel
and
horse
powered travel is possible because the automobile virtually displaced the horse between 1900 and 1925. The relationship between modern auto travel and the steam-rail travel of 1880 to 1920 is not nearly so clear. Although Americans interstate
locomotive use,
popular
they
long-distance century's
some
have
continued
transportation explosion
account
did slowly abandon
passenger
in auto
needs use,
as
travel using
however,
Americans
continue
to
travel
into
of
the present
day.
The
20th
has
trips
by
train
for less than 1 percent of all passenger
5 million
came some
railways
through
their reliance upon
automobiles
by
for
made
trips, even train
annually
their
though (U.S.
Bureau
of Transportation Statistics 2001: Table 1-33). Although rail roads have greatly improved the safety of their passenger delivery
since
1918,
railroad
transportation
continues
to be more
than
twice
as
deadly per mile of travel as auto travel (Table 22-32). In any case, it is likely that the tens of thousands of annual railroad fatalities caused
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The American fournal
968 train
by
accidents
Taking
and
the nation's
by
displaced
the per-mile
only
in
vehicles
safety
the end
lives by per-mile
Figure 5, we
miles
of
obtain
horse
we
ifmodern
these lives
travel.
vehicle
100 million miles. use
to automobile
adapted
(about 2.75 trillionmiles Statistics 2001: Table 1-29)) deaths
517,000
expect
save
cost
annual
fatalities the
conjecture,
annually.
the lives of half of
would
average
to such
According
in
registered
distances
injuries
current
the
for saving
responsible since 1950.
never
would
horse-related
than
and British
the motor
for
is 8.1 deaths per
treatment could
medical
casualties, more
vehicle
we
the U.S.
rate
of Transportation
vehicles,
of
thousands
many
the years
for
the
contrast,
traveled modern
horse-drawn
cars
modern
fatality rate of 18.8 per 100 million
that Americans
(U.S. Bureau
annually
estimated
1925 and 2000
to assume
but nonetheless
Even
In
largely
transportation.
between
saved
century
the average
travel.
years between Were
fatalities
were
it is likely that the switch to
of the century. Averaging
horse-related
age
to auto
comparison
20th
early
auto
movement
into account,
the
and Sociology
the early
during
popular
19th-century horses
motor
by
to and
prior
of Economics
at
least
200,000 motor
from
automobile
be
may
the lives of at least 10 million
Americans
Contrary to the car's negative press (both today and at the end of the horse age) auto driving is among the safest of all means of moving from point A to point B ever invented by mankind. Data compiled
Society for the Prevention
by the British Royal
indicate
dents
cars
that
cause
fewer
fatalities
per
bicycle, or even foot transportation (Fasten Your than
transit
either
tout
sociologists
tute: Table
or
bus as
safe
in
safer
is also
travel commuter
alternatives
6). Commutes also
probably
car
passenger
Interestingly,
behind
terms
of
rail
trip
Safety Belts safer
substantially which
travel,
(Victoria
Transport
the wheel
protection
of Acci
than
boat,
1997). mile
per
urban
many
Insti
Policy
of an automobile
from
crime
and
are
violence
traveling (Chasin 1997: 82).3 In addition, costs per crash are lower for passenger cars than for any other type of vehicle (Victoria is also safer Transport Policy Institute: Table 2). The automobile
while
than
the
airplane
(Greenspun 2002).
in
terms
of
both
per-hour
2002), although air travel ismuch
and
per-trip
fatalities
safer per mile (Honstein
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of Automobile
Dangers
Travel Reconsidered
969
V The The
Economic
Automobile's has
automobile
contributed
Contributions
greatly
to
the
U.S.
national
economy and possibly national health and welfare. The International Chamber of Commerce (1925: 3) reported that individual automotive transportation had already added "billions of dollars of wealth to the nation's
resources"
by
1925.
The
also
report
found
that
automo
the
bile had greatly reduced transit time and cut in half the actual cost of highway transportation (1925: 4). By 1930, national income had and
tripled,
more Census
the
real
country's
gross
domestic
private
was
product
than 150 percent of the figure in 1910 (U.S. Bureau of the 1961: Table 1-11, Table W 1-11). By the end of the 20th it is safe
century, formed
the nation
society
accustomed
throughout
to say into to
nation
the
that motor a
vehicle economic
dynamic a
and
diversity
power, tastes
of
a mobile
fueling
and
trans
had
transportation
from
products
world.
VI Environmental
Impacts
costs of automobiles (which are quite high)4 need also to be placed in perspective. At the turn of the 20th century, farmers dedicated more than one-third of the cropland in the United States to raising hay to fuel the nation's horses (McShane 1994: 45). Horses
The ecological
used
in heavy
transportation
collapsed
to
the
ground
an
average
of
once every 96 miles traveled and had an average life expectancy of only four years (McShane 1994: 45, 48). Urban environments were choked with their detritus. New York City had to remove 15,000 horse carcasses from the streets annually (McShane 1994: 48-49). Each of New York City's 150,000 horses produced between 20 and 25 of manure
pounds
per
day,
attracting
swarms
of
flies
and
creating
a
powerful stench (Bettmann 1974: 3). The pounding hoof trafficcrushed the manure to dust during dry spells, which hovered in the city air and covered clothes, hair, and furniture (1974: 3). By 1900, commen tators
envisioned
Pompeii,
that American
cities
only under layers of manure
would
disappear
like
ancient
rather than ashes (1974: 3). In
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
970
The American Journal
contrast,
the automobile
sanitary vehicle The
arrival
of
of Economics
and Sociology
in the streets"
and was
that travelled] on the public ways"
(Huddy
left "no filth
the automobile
saved
American
cities
"the most
1909: 35).
from
the endess
need of keeping large street cleaning crews and actually led people to hope that the age of dusty and polluted air was coming to an end (Bettmann 1974: 3; Horrath 1974). Although modern foul
fumes
mobile
has
and not
is some
smoke,
there
actually
cleaned
the
question air
critics decry cars' the
cities
substantially.
as motor
The death rate from lung-related ailments declined markedly cars
ended
the
environmental
eased
in many
congestion
than the horse-drawn
space 35).
traffic
Horse-drawn
cities
vehicles
often
wagons
brought
on
airborne
by
horse
1994: 52). Ironically, the auto may have
(McShane
dung particulates even
hazard
auto
of whether
of major
it required
because
that preceded traffic
up
jammed
it (Huddy for miles,
to die while
equestrians thirsty and malnourished streets (McShane 1994: 48-50).
less
1909: leaving
harnessed
in the
VII The The
Automobile's
personal
autonomy
to Lomansky much drive
of today
fostered
by private
is itself a valuable
(1997),
American
inventiveness,
(1997:
to American
Contributions
7-8).
Because
automobile
use,
their
cars,
according
that accounts
public good and
entrepreneurial
Americans
can
dynamism, of
Dynamism
for
choose
they live and work more than any other people inworld history (1997: 15), and can "more easily avail [themselves] of near and distant pleasures, at a schedule tailored to individual preference" (1997: 15).
where
Americans straints
can
also
choose
of geographical
their
proximity
friends and
and
depend
associates less on
without
con
the concurrence
of others in their principal life choices (1997: 15). Automobiles shattered the grip of railroad "robber barrons" like no
act of Congress ever could, completely destroying the profitability of some rail routes entirely (Goddard 1994V In a classic example of
price
responses
to
competition,
rail
and
streetcar
rates
were
forced
dramatically lower formuch of the United States (Goddard 1994: 86). Railroads were also forced to become more efficient, doubling their output per man-hour
between
1916 and
1941 (U.S. Bureau
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
of the
ofAutomobile
Dangers Census
1961: Table W in
operators
Travel Reconsidered interestwas
39-47). Renewed their
improving
and
equipment
971
paid by railroad a
infrastructure,
source
of considerable mortality during the second half of the 19th century (Dornstein 1998: 219-222; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1961: Table Q 106-116).6 In many
enriched
the automobile
ways,
the
inner
cities
as much
as
the suburbs, bringing the "choicest perishable fruits and vegetables" into the city from distant truck farms for the first time (Walsh 1902).
consumers food prices for neighborhood contact in farmers with simultaneously bringing higher-paying distant markets, destroying the historic isolation of the farm and
Motor
cars forced down
while
"town
bringing
and
country
into
closer
touch"
auto
Moreover,
workers
brought
production
great
Chamber
(International
1925: 4). Access to hospitals, medicine, as a matter of course (1925: 4). improved
of Commerce
and books even
benefits
to the
also auto
"Most of the employees [were] skilled, most of in modern, wholesome factories, and all [were] well
themselves.
them work[ed]
paid," wrote one observer in 1902 (Towie [1902] 1989: 235). According to Lomansky (1997), nothing approaches the automobile as a means of social and economic emancipation (1997: 16). "[Widespread auto
dramatically extended the geographical radius of possible employment venues" (1997: 17). Thus, the horrors decried by Karl Marx and other critics of industrialization in the late 19thcentury?
mobile
ownership
into
entrapment
dead-end
to entrenched
enslavement
positions business
towns
in company interests?were
and
virtual
defeated
or
at
choices for indi by greater scope of occupational "Detroit has done more for the liberation and dignity of labor
least undermined viduals.
than all the Socialist Internationals combined"
(1997:
17).
VIII Conclusion The
advent
of
automobile
use
in the early
20th century
brought
about
a measurable
rise in total numbers of highway deaths and injuries 1 and 2). However, the automobile's toll on human life and (Figures was limb probably not extravagantly greater than the toll exacted
by
the
combination
of
steam-
and
horse-driven
travel
methods
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
it
The American Journal
972
are
travel
tion
mobile
of
and
been
greatly
saved
driving has probably
great
and
speeds
automobile's
reputa auto
In fact,
overstated.
on
travel
if not
the lives of thousands,
of Americans.
millions,
The final determination of the automobile's to be made.
the
But
renunciations
popular
America's
switch
19th century
to auto
premature. in
the the
travelers,
of automobile
steam-train
considering
auto
to have
and Sociology
the dangers
horse
When
by modern seems
for danger
those
bases.
per-mile
attained
distances
to
compared
or
per-trip
true when
is especially
This
displaced.
of Economics
certainly lifted American nation's
rise
from horse
and
status
to superpower
appear
steam-train in the
transportation
economic
costs and benefits has yet
the auto
of
to have
been
transportation almost
20th century
fortunes and contributed
in the
by midcentury.
Notes 1. It is conceded that New York City horse-related fatality rates may not rates for the United reflect overall horse-related death States as a accurately are whole. the inclusion of British rates (which than However, slightly higher to add some New York City rates on average) is meant small semblance of to this extrapolation. validity a rough one only, intended
Readers
should
be warned
that this estimation
is
as part of a thought experiment. merely are as follows. Approximately 2. Calculations horses 1.5 million probably in the British existed Isles at the turn of the 20th century (Hair 1971: 7 n.19). carts and wagons at a pace traveled of two miles per generally at which to operate itwas the speed horse-drawn and vehicles, cheapest costs rapidly increased" "above which distances 1993: 188). Average (Gerhold
Horse-drawn hour,
traveled
daily
by
these
1 million
(International
hauling freight when (Earl carrying riders assume that all 1.5 million weeks
per year
(260
days
overestimation). billion
According total miles of horse
Dividing 1901 miles.
the number
from 10 miles when probably ranged of Commerce 1925: 4) to 30 miles
horses Chamber
1989:
I the purposes of this analysis in use 5 days per week, 52 at 20 miles per day (no doubt an extreme
473).
British
per year) to this liberal travel per
of British
(1,824) by this figure yields is a wildly conservative This
For
were
horses
estimate, Britain produced at around that time.
some
7.8
year
horse-related 23-38
deaths
fatalities per
in Great
100 million
in
Britain
annual
fatality rate, but substantially higher recorded for auto travel. Extrapolating
horse than
ever rates per mile the highest from estimates Hair's national and of British horse (1971) regional populations and horse-related 1874, 1840, 1805, 1775, and 1575 fatality rates for the years I arrive at 1,300 deaths (1881) estimates, along with Watford's population
This content downloaded from 192.80.65.116 on Thu, 18 Apr 2013 11:21:37 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ofAutomobile
Dangers a horse
among
of 1.4 million population in 1.2 million around
of
Travel Reconsidered in 1874,
1,000 deaths
a horse
among a
horse 1,026 in 1805, and of 1 million about 1,321 deaths among 900,000 population to these estimates, in 1775. According horses horse-related accidents pro duced of 17.86, 16, 19-7, and 28.2 deaths per 100 million miles approximately travel for the respective years 1874, 1840, 1805, and 1775. population
New
annual million 1880,
1840,
among
horses around 1900 (Bettman 3). 1974: 150,00 City harbored in 1900 was not extravagantly its horse population different from a citywide in 1875, 1880, 1885, and so on, I calculate population
York
Assuming the same horse
deaths
973
to 200 deaths of 780 million miles. With related mileage approximately a rate of 25.64 deaths travel in 1900, New York City produced per 100 It also had 80 such deaths in miles. in 1890 and 70.3 horse-powered to deaths
corresponding
respectively. 3. Commuters to leave
warned
who
boarded
their purses
100 million
per
miles
streetcars
horse-drawn
and watches
horse
behind
in the
were
1800s
"carry bowie Chasin (1997)
9,
knives
and
out, points for many
of danger
that the cost that motor vehicle showing at is cents six least from of every gallon society notes that the 251). He (1994: substantially higher
cites
(1994)
and
10.26
and
for protection 1974: 20). As (Bettmann derringers" to be places stations continue bus stops and subway women modern and the poor. commuters, especially 4. Goddard
of
research
inflicts on American
pollution
and
gasoline American
may
be
"estimates that Americans' of gas fumes Lung Association breathing costs forty to fifty cents per gallon inmedical (1994: 251). These expenditures" tons of carbon costs from the 350 million estimated released into the atmo sphere
disposing battery
from motor vehicle travel are in addition annually of 200 million and tires, 8 million junked vehicles, lead each year (1994: 251).
to the U.S. 5. According revenues for U.S.
Census
1920
(Table
Q
106-116).
Bureau,
railroads
operating
This
materials
the costs
of
tons of
138,000
to
the ratio of operating expenses in 1900 to 94.36 from 64.65
in
increased
latter figure means that for everyjdollar in 1920, some 94 cents were invested, an
railroad firms by American low profit margin for the industry. rail companies 6. Nineteenth-century "the worst
to
built
available"
their bridges
lumber) (mostly cheap of more than 10,000 deaths
and
(Dornstein
earned all-time
trestles 1998:
out 221),
to an average between 1904 contributing annually and 1916 (Table Q this annual death toll fell to 141-152). 1950, however, By less than 3,500 victims and by the 1990s, less than 1,000.
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