Two Wings The Bahá’í Faith and the Advancement of Women

Feminist Perspectives on Conflict and Development PS 5120 Dr. Niamh Reilly

Saskia Frischmann ID No. 0404047 M.A. in Peace and Development Studies [email protected]

Content

Page 1.

Introduction

1

2.

Equality from the Bahá’í Perspective

3

3.

Community Developments from a Historical Perspective

4

4.

Activities for the Advancement of Women

6

4.1

Principles and Objectives of Bahá’í Initiatives

6

4.2

Bahá’í Institutions working for the Advancement of Women

7

5.

Basic Principles for achieving the Advancement of Women

9

5.1

Education and the Responsibility of Women

9

5.2

Building Partnerships

10

5.3

Feminine Qualities

11

5.4

Changing Power Structures

13

6.

Conclusion

14

2

1. Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to give an introduction into the Bahá’í concept for the advancement of women and to discuss possible differences to other movements working for this cause. Since religion has so often contributed to the suppression of women, the specific work of Bahá’ís for this objective, their motivation and basic principles is thus worth exploring, especially in regard to their effect on women.

In the first section an introduction into the Faith’s values and notions concerning equality will be given. In the following, the position of women in the community shall be discussed from a historical perspective and consequently approaches and institutions for the advancement of women will be presented. The last section shows the major assumptions and objectives of the Bahá’í concept and the prerequisites that are needed for its implementation. Throughout the paper a critical comparison shall be drawn with other approaches to equality.

2. Equality from the Bahá’í Perspective The Bahá’í Faith considers the establishment of the full equality between men and women, to be one of the pivotal social laws of God for society today. It’s establishment is thus a priority for Bahá’ís all around the world. Bahá’u’lláh, the founder of the Faith declared many times 1

that: "Women and men, have been and will always be equal in the sight of God." His son and authorized successor ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stated: “He has endowed both sexes with perfections

and intelligence, given them physical members and organs of sense, without differentiation or distinction as to superiority;[…]. He has created them equal.”2 As a consequence the status of women in society must be equal, since, if there is no distinction, “Why then should one sex

assert the inferiority of the other, withholding just rights and privileges as though God had given His authority for such a course of action?”3 Different from many women’s movements Bahá’ís don’t see equality of men and women as an end in itself. It is more the destined way mankind must take in order to fulfill its potential and reach perfection. The world of mankind is seen as bird with two wings. Unless both wings are equally developed and strong the bird is not able to fulfill its real potential and fly.

1

Baha'i International Community (1995a), Section V) Abdu'l-Baha (1982), From a talk given in 1912, p. 174 3 Abdu'l-Baha (1995), From a Talk given in 1911, p. 161 2

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Likewise: “Until womankind reaches the same degree as man, until she enjoys the same arena

of activity, extraordinary attainment for humanity will not be realized. When the two wings or parts become equivalent in strength, enjoying the same prerogatives, the flight of mankind will be exceedingly lofty and extraordinary.”4

This potential and destiny of mankind includes the attainment of world peace and prosperity for all peoples of the earth. It is about building a just world order that brings these positive changes about. Thus, Bahá’ís understand equality as one crucial part of a broader concept, namely the achievement of the ‘oneness of humanity’.

The broad vision of a better society benefiting all people creates the motivation necessary for changes in individual behavior, interpersonal relations and organizational structures and it demands the commitment to the all values such a society must logically be based on. This goes fully in line with the changes the Beijing Platform for Action (PFA) and other instruments call for.5

Seeing equality not only as end to itself, but as a means to achieve an overall transformation of society might disturb groups that also work for the advancement of women, and criticism might arise that equality is secondary to other goals.6 This needs to be considered by the community, and it needs to be assured that women’s issues are not sidelined by, for example, issues of international relations. On the contrary it should build the basis for all community activities, since only then the desired objective of men and women contributing equally to positive societal change in all areas can be realized.

3. Community Developments from a Historical Perspective

From the earliest days of the Faith particular women played an outstanding role. The first to be mentioned was Tahirih who gained popularity by being the first women in the Middle East to reportedly take off the veil during a conference of the Faith in Iran in 1848, and, being motivated by the religion’s revolutionary thoughts, to demand the emancipation of women. After many deeds carried out for the Faith she was seized and finally killed by officials of the

4

Abdu'l-Baha(1982), From a talk given in 1912, p. 375 Bahá’í International Community (1995c) 6 See for example a citicism on the Culture of Iran Homepage: “The [...]Baha’i women’s movements were genuine, dynamic, progressive and emancipated the female supporters“ of the faith. “However they[...] were secondary to the principal doctrines of the faith.“ 5

4

Islamic regime.7 Before her martyrdom she said: "You can kill me as soon as you like, but you cannot stop the emancipation of women."8 With her actions she received much attention, mainly from Western scholars and her story is widely known among feminists that focus on women in Muslim countries.

The appreciation of the role women play in the Faith becomes obvious considering the permanent encouragement on the part of the central figures Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá for women of their respective times. Both directly addressed particular women in many tablets, speaking with the outmost love and respect and asking them to become scholars and act for the promotion of principles. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s high opinion about his contemporary women is expressed in the following words:

“Today among the Bahá’ís of Persia there are many women who are the very pride and envy of the men. They are imbued with all the virtues and excellences of humanity. They are eloquent; they are poets and scholars and embody the quintessence of humility. In political ability and acumen they have been able to cope and compete with representative men. They have consecrated their lives and forfeited their possessions in martyrdom for the sake of humanity, and the traces of their glory will last forever. The pages of the history of Persia are illumined by the lives and records of these women.”9

The implementation of Bahá’u’lláh’s principles on the part of the community lead to social and economic development that distinguished members of the Faith from the rest of the Iranian population. For example, one effect was that while the national literacy rate among women in Iran in 1973 was less than 20 %, women in the Bahá’í community under the age of forty had achieved a 100 % literacy rate.10

One of the beliefs of the Bahá’í Faith is that individuals and mankind as a whole develop through learning processes over time and the community is very conscious about these processes. It is seen that humanity goes through a learning process and that we are now about to enter maturity, and learn to develop and apply social laws that benefit everybody. The same applies to the community and the implementation and internalization of laws over the last 160 years. In the early twentieth century male believers were complaining about the great influence women have in the Faith. The August 1910 issue of the Bahá’í news states that “nine-tenth of the active workers in the Cause in the West are women.”11 Men were frustrated by these developments and wanted to confine women to the realm of teaching

7

Culture of Iran Homepage, A brief History of Women’s Movements in Iran 1850-2001 Effendi(1944), p.75 9 Abdu'l-Baha(1982), From a talk given in 1912, p. 136 10 OSED(), p.3 11 Martin (2002) 8

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activities, leaving the administration exclusively to men. Only repeated efforts of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and later Shoghi Effendi lead to a betterment with slowly more and more women being elected to Spiritual Assemblies12 and being supported by their husbands in community activities. Some outstanding women, such as Lua Getsinger and Dorothy Baker traveled in these early days of the faith all over the world, promoting Bahá’í principles, meeting with government officials and carrying out other important tasks for the Faith. Another one of them was the journalist Martha Root, which Shoghi Effendi called the “foremost Hand raised by Bahá’u’lláh since the passing of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá”.13

Ever since women actively participated in community affairs and the promotion of its interests. In 1995 the ration of women in Spiritual Assemblies was 30 % at national14 and almost 50 % at local level. The first figure is especially striking considering the average of 10% representation of women in developed nations parliaments.15

4. Activities for the Advancement of Women

4.1. Principles and Objectives of Bahá’í Initiatives

Although differences in approaches to the advancement of women in developed and developing countries are considered, it is assumed that women across nations suffer from the same difficulty of not being able to act outside traditionally accepted arenas.16 The Bahá’í Faith sees deep-rooted prejudice against women as the bases for subordination and the denial of access to education. Thus, the majority of activities is directed at awareness raising and changing attitudes among men and women alike.17 Both are educated on the issues of equality and how it can be implemented in the family, the community and the professional arena. As an example, through a project of this kind in Cameroon the number of girls attending school increased to 90 % and domestic violence decreased.18 For women initiatives include capacity building so that they can more effectively participate in their communities and skill-based training to build up independent small-scale businesses.

12

Spiritual Assemblies are the institutions that administer affairs of the community at national and local level. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as quoted in Khan (1998), p. 132 14 Generally higher in developed countries and lower in countries with a strong patriarchical structure, that are in the learning process. 15 Statistics reported to the 4th Women Forum Beijing, qutoted in: Monakhova (2000) 16 Bahá’í Frauen Forum (1998) 17 OSED(2000), p.17 18 Bahá’í Frauen Forum (1998) 13

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Initiatives in all countries generally address the following specific topics. First of all, the eradication of violence against women and girls through legal and structural means and the attitudinal change of men towards women. Secondly, the recognition of the family as the basic building block of society, and a transformation towards equality, loving relationships and unity among its members. Thirdly, the special importance of education of girls and women in development initiatives, since experience has shown that this investment yields the highest return concerning social development, reduction of poverty and progress of the community.19 The latter is confirmed by experiences in the Micro-credit field, where women with the same amount of money generally achieve more for herself and people in her environment, than men.

4.2. Bahá’í Institutions working for the Advancement of Women

The Bahá’í International Community (BIC) is a registered NGO with the United Nations since 1948 and is granted special consultative status with the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and UNICEF, and upholds close working relationships with UNDP, WHO and UNIFEM. It promotes the principles on which lasting peace can be build, one of which is the equality of men and women: “The emancipation of women is a prerequisite for peace.

Indeed, only as women are welcomed into full partnership with men in all fields of human endeavor will the moral and psychological climate be created in which international peace can emerge.”20 The representative of the Bahá’í International Community is a woman at present, her name is Bani Dugal. In 1992 the BIC founded the Office for the Advancement of Women with the purpose of promoting the principle of equality as a prerequisite for the well being of humanity. The Office issues publications, participates in UN sessions on the status of women and, as mentioned above, designs projects aiming at their advancement.21

19

Bahá’í International Community (1995b), Section IV. C Bahá’í International Community(1999) 21 Bahá’í Frauen Forum (1998) 20

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The BIC issued 184 statements on or related to the advancement of women since 1947. The following chart shows some of the specific topics that were addressed.

Chart 122

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Topic

Year

Elimination of Discrimination against Women

1974

Equality of Men and Women a new Reality

1975

Universal Values for the Advancement of Women

1980

Preparation for Life in Peace The Contribution of Women

1985

Rural Women

1988

Strategies for the Advancement of Women in Africa

1989

Food Security

1990

Equality in Political Participation and Decision-Making

1990

The Girl-Child

1991

Men Improving Lives for Women

1993

Educating Girls and Women

1995

The Greatness which might be Theirs: Creating Legal and Institutional Structures for Gender Equality

1995

Ending Violence against Women

1995

Empowering Girls

1998

HIV/Aids and Gender Equality, Transforming Attitudes and Behavior

2001

The Impact of Racism on Women

2001

The Role of Men and Boys in Achieving Gender Equality

2004

The full list of statements can be found at: www.un-bic.bahai.org

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In addition to these global activities, different local and regional women’s associations all over the world, such as the European Task Force for women, hold seminars to change attitudes and promote the basic principle of equality and necessary related values. Topics address, for example, partnerships, family, professional issues, violence and education and aim at changing the social environment, strengthening the role of women, giving encouragement and creating opportunities for active participation in the design of society.23

5. Basic Principles for achieving the Advancement of Women

5.1. Education and the Responsibility of Women

Unlike many discourses the old as well as the newer Bahá’í writings ask women to seize responsibility for their own development. They are neither put in the position of victims that need to be helped from the outside, nor are they expressively called to fight against unjust structures and thus cause controversy24 and dissension. The writings rather speak about the duty of women to educate themselves and get involved in public affairs so that men acknowledge their obvious equality and capacity of attainment. This shows the faith in the equal ability of women and respects her self-determination by taking responsibility for her own development.

“But while this principle of equality is true, it is likewise true that woman must prove her capacity and aptitude, must show forth the evidences of equality. […] and prove by her accomplishments that her abilities and powers have merely been latent.”25 According to Bahá’í law, if financial resources are scarce in a family, the parents are asked to first provide girls with education.26 Education is seen as key to equality, since distinctions in abilities between men and women in the past were solely the result of the denial of education to women.27 When women are granted equal opportunities, distinctions in the professional and political area will vanish over time. Bahá’ís thus focus on the one hand on the encouragement of women to get educated and on the other hand work on changing social structures so that external barriers to equal opportunities to education will cease as will be discussed in the next chapters.

23

See for example the statement of the Bahá’í Frauen Forum Germany (1998) As ’Abdu’l-Baha stated in 1912: „Demonstrations of force, such as are now taking place in England, are neither becoming nor effective in the cause of womanhood and equality.” ‘Abdu’l-Baha(1982), p.283 25 ‘Abdu’l-Baha(1982), p.283 26 Bahá’u’lláh and Explanations by Shoghi Effendi, in: Bahá’u’lláh (2000), p. 153, p. 228 27 ‘Abdu’l-Baha(1995), p. 161 24

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5.2. Building Partnerships

The Bahá’í approach distinguishes itself from the majority of movements working for equality, through its emphasis on the establishment of cooperative partnerships between men and women in initiatives for social progress.28 This is based on the belief in the oneness of humankind and in the mutual complement of men and women in skills and abilities. Sustainable and effective change can only come through cooperation, if both assume the responsibility for change. Men must use their influence at all levels to promote the inclusion of women. Women should let go of attachment to guilt and blame, seize opportunities for education and get engaged into all arenas of human activity, contributing their special skills, qualities and experiences. Together they must work for global peace and sustainable development.29

The Bahá’í Faith offers with its values concerning interpersonal relationships a model of partnership between men and women. Unity instead of controversy is the guiding principle for all actions, combined with equality and participation these standards are directed at finding solutions that benefit all. 30

Men and boys must be integrated in programs; their education on matters of equality is crucial to achieve a change of social structures. As Bani Dugal points out: ”As long as men

and boys approve of laws and practices, which discriminate against their daughters, sisters, wives and mothers, nothing will change.” 31 Old stereotypes must be eliminated and cooperation must lead to the recognition of each other’s needs and interests. Relationships signed by domination will thus be replaced by the sharing of resources and equal participation in decision-making. Only then both, men and women, can develop and bring in their potential to the full extent.32

At present, controversy is still prevalent in the general discourse of the advancement of women and for this model of cooperation to be adopted; attitudinal changes are required from all that are participating in it; male policy-makers as well as many feminist movements.

28

OSED(2000), p. 17 Bahá’í International Community(1995c) 30 Bahá’í International Community (2004) 31 Bani Dugal on the occasion of the 49th seccion of the Commission on the Status of women, UN Press Release (2005) 32 Bahá’í International Community (2004) 29

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5.3. Feminine Qualities

The highest governing body of the Bahá’ís, the Universal House of Justice said: “Equality

between men and women does not, indeed physiologically it cannot, mean identity of functions.” This distinction is hard to relate to by feminists that see any difference made between women and men, as a potential argument for the suppression of women, as has often happened in the past. And for sure, in the implementation of this aspect lies a big challenge for the Bahá’í community. The Universal House goes on: “In some things women

excel men, for others men are better fitted than women, while in very many things the difference of sex is of no effect at all.”33 The aspects in which women excel men are related to why Bahá’ís believe that the equality of men and women will lead to world peace and prosperity. The authoritative writings and those of Bahá’í scholars ascribe special qualities to women that would be conducive to these achievements. Examples are qualities related to: nurturance, responsibility for others, cooperative forms of human existence34 and violent-free ways of conflict resolution, in which women gained experience, also due to their position in history. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that

“their hearts are more tender and susceptible […], that they are more philanthropic and responsive toward the needy and suffering.” Furthermore, considering these qualities he declares, “a real evidence of woman's superiority will be her service and efficiency in the

establishment of universal peace.” 35 The increased introduction of these values into policy-making through the equal participation of women will thus lead to positive changes in the social, political and economic environment. Eventually even war will cease, according to the Bahá’í writings, since it is not compatible with these values that throughout history have been determined as feminine.

"The world in the past has been ruled by force, and man has dominated over woman by reason of his more forceful and aggressive qualities both of body and mind. But the balance is already shifting -- force is losing its weight and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities of love and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining ascendancy. Hence the new age will be an age less masculine, and more permeated with the feminine ideals -- or, to speak more exactly, will be an age in which the masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly balanced."36

33

Kahn; Kahn (1998), p. 97 Ala’i: Women and Peace, in: Davidson; Tidman (1992), p. 235 35 Abdu’l-Baha(1982), From a talk given in 1912, p.284 36 `Abdu'l-Baha, quoted in Baha'i International Community (1995b), Section IV. C 34

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In the past women generally had to adopt masculine characteristics in order to be successful, a fact which will change, if these observations prove to be right. The recognition of this required shift is slowly gaining ground and women naturally achieve influence when their attitudes and qualities are sought for in problem-solving and sustainable development.37

The engagement of women in the public sphere goes along with high responsibilities in the private area. The comprehensive education of children is an obligation for both parents, and a father who neglects this duty will lose all rights to fatherhood.38 Nevertheless, the mother is seen as the first educator in the early years of a child and this function is assigned a high importance by the central figures of the Bahá’í faith.39

This opinion differs especially from that of many Western feminist scholars. It assigns a special role to women, which in the past has often lead to their confinement to the household. Feminist demands such as the state-provision of day-care for babies and programs that see equality as the freedom to be treated without regard to gender, such as liberal feminism, can, according to Schweitz, have a negative impact on the interests of women related to motherhood, and thus conflict with the Bahá’í standpoint.40

From the Bahá’í perspective the principles mentioned contribute to the functioning of the family and the best education of children. However there need to be changes in society in order for this principle to function. Practical questions need to be addressed, like the ensured re-entry of women into business after a few years.

The possibility of combination of public and private engagement is an aspect that needs to be solved for women and men alike, since both share the responsibility for education of their children and both are asked to work equally in all departments of society. Overall the appreciation of the value of the education of children by their parents needs to increase and state policies and company attitudes need to be developed that support the protection of the family as cornerstone of society. Maximum work-hours per week, flexible schedules and working from home are issues that are to be addressed accordingly.

37

Ala’i: Women and Peace, in: Davidson; Tidman (1992), p. 235 Bahá’u’lláh and Explanations by Shoghi Effendi, in: Bahá’u’lláh (2000), p. 153, p. 228 39 The Universal House of Justice, 23.08.1984, quoted in: Khan; Kahn(1998), p. 78 40 Schweitz, Martha, Statement of the BIC(1995d) 38

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5.4. Changing Power Structures

The Universal House of Justice stated in 1985 that power-structures that deny equality to one half of the world’s population, further promote in men harmful attitudes and habits that impact all levels of society, namely the family, the workplace, political life and eventually international relations.41 This is expressed in violence and subordination in the homes, exclusion, sexual harassment and structural violence in the public arena. Thus gradual equality is seen as the factor that evokes a change in the moral and psychological climate in all human relationships.

Accordingly, the BIC made an appeal to the UN in 1996 to use its influence in the international arena and other organizations to systematically include women in all processes, for example, by setting standards for countries’ delegations.42 Bani Dugal stresses that governments are the primary bearers of responsibilities for change, which have been articulated in global action plans, such as the Beijing PFA. She calls the continuing discrimination against women “an affront to human dignity and a disavowal of the very principles of the United Nations.”43 Other efforts include the promotion of a reformation of the legal system in order to change political and economic structures,44 and the transformation of the economic sector towards new values, such as just markets and unbiased employment and the consideration of the importance of the family and community and their protection.45

Thus, Bahá’ís work on changing long-standing structures that perpetuate the subordination of women.46 This objective corresponds with those of many feminist movements that aim at changing power structures signed by patriarchy. For example, Betty McLellan, a radical feminist and founding member of the Townsville Feminist Collective stated in this respect: “It was very interesting to hear the Bahá’í teachings about peace and social justice […]. It was very close to radical feminism.”47 Both might differ in their approach though, since Bahá’ís work through the promotion of new values and try to avoid dissension.

41

The Universal House of Justice(1985), p. 21 Bahá’í International Community (1995b), Section IV. C 43 Bani Dugal on the occasion of the 49th session of the Commission on the Status of women, UN Press Release (2005) 44 Schweitz, Martha, Statement of the Bahá’í International Community (1995d) 45 Bahá’í International Community (1995a), Section V 46 Bahá’í International Community (1995d) 47 Dr. Betty McLellan in an informal interview, quoted in: Frazer (2002) 42

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6. Conclusion

The advancement of women is, in the Bahá’í concept, embedded in a broader vision of the betterment of society, overall peace and prosperity. On one hand this is positive since it leads to a comprehensive and sustainable approach to equality. On the other hand this demands the permanent attention that women’s issues are not sidelined, but build the basis of activities all areas. The community has at least two advantages for effective work. First of all, the diversity with active members from over 2.100 ethnic and cultural backgrounds provides the knowledge base for the consideration of internationally differing interests of women. Secondly, Bahá’ís are involved at all levels, from the grassroots to international affairs, not only by giving theoretical advice, but also through the implementation of projects.

In comparison with feminism one can find similarities, as well as distinctions with the respective streams. The assumption that there are general feminine qualities across race, culture and history, which women posses and men don’t, is similar to the view of radical feminism and could be interpreted as generalization. Here it is important to look at the qualities society needs today, which throughout history have been determined as feminine, and women as well as men should try to integrate them. With liberal feminism Bahá’ís find common ground in the objective of access to education and in integrating values that are similar to affirmative action.48 On the other hand the demand for equal treatment inflicts with the special role Bahá’ís give to women as mothers. Equality is not seen as sameness and a few distinctions are made in functions between women and men. The focus on the protection of the family and women’s role in the early education of infants seems to be conservative, but is from the Faith’s perspective necessary to build prosperous families.

Bahá’u’lláh established with His laws and standards the prerequisites for the equal status of women in society. For His time the thoughts were revolutionary and they still are today. Women are asked to further their education and be actively engaged in all departments of society. This should happen in partnership with men to achieve fundamental and sustainable change. For Him equality was unquestionably linked to the introduction of new values into society on the part of women, and that these values will lead to responsible policy-making, poverty-reduction and eventually peace. The advancement and equality of woman that she will mostly bring about by herself, is seen as a prerequisite for peace and prosperity. This shows the crucial responsibility that has been assigned to women in the Bahá’í Faith.

48

One example is the law to first educate girls, if resources are scarce. Also, Shoghi Effendi repeatedly called for the voting of formarly excluded members of society into spiritual assemblies, because he was convinced that this will lead to the reduction of prejudices and the improvement of a groups status in society.

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