Historical Society of Nigeria

THE DEVELOPMENT OF WAGE LABOUR IN AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN YORUBALAND 1900—1940 Author(s): B. A. Agiri Source: Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (DEC. 1983-JUN. 1984), pp. 95-107 Published by: Historical Society of Nigeria Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41971355 . Accessed: 21/06/2014 19:44 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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1984 Journalof theHistoricalSocietyofNigeria Vol. XII Nos. 1&2 Dec. 1983-Jun THE DEVELOPMENT OF WAGE LABOUR IN AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN YORUB ALAND 1900-1940 B. A. Agiri , ofHistory Department ofLagos Univeristy The introduction of wage labourin agriculture of is yeta neglectedthemein thehistory labour Nigeria.Manyoftheexistingstudiesemphasisea geographical analysisof migrant andmigrant tenantfarmers andtheirroleinruraldevelopment.1 This studyfocuseson the historical evolutionof wage labourin southern Yorubalandi.e. amongtheAworiin Ota theEgba,and IjebuRemoandpartsoftheColonyProvince. district, In 1893thecolonialperiodinYorubalandwas usheredinbya generaldislocationof theruraleconomy.WiththeBritishconquestofIjebu in 1892,ftiany slavesfromthatand otherY orubastatesinthevicinity inthedomestic deserted theirmasters a causing disruption slavesystem onwhichagriculture relied. This intensified as the British extended trend mostly overtheotherY orubastates.EventheEgbaatAbeokuta, their Protectorate whomanagedto obtaina recognition oftheirindependence fromGovernor couldnotstoptheirslaves Carter, fromescaping.Thus,thereoccurreda generalshortageof farmlabourin manypartsof Yorubaland.The bigchiefswhocultivated felttheblow largefarmsforexportproduction morethanthesmall holderfarmers.It is significant thatthe labourshortagereached established a BotanicGardento importance exactlysix yearsaftertheLagos Government distribute inordertorevolutionize local seedlingsandseedsofnewcropstoYorubafarmers agriculture. AdaptationsoftheTraditionalLabour RecruitingSystems Thetransition from theuseofdomestic slavelabourtowagelabouronthefarmswasdifficult andcomplicated. Itinvolvedthefarmers intheadaptations ofthetraditional labourrecruiting After the initial rush of the to freedom between 1892and 1895,theLagos slaves systems. Government realizedthatiftheagricultural cconomywasnottocollapseandthechiefswere nottobe rendered nooneshouldbe compelledtofreeall hisslaves. economically powerless, Y et,itpursueda selfcontradictory on policy theissue.No slavewhoescapedtoLagos under British was punishedorreturned to hismaster.In addition, theLagos Governjurisdiction menthelpedtorecoverdeserting slavesin YorubastateswhereBritish was not jurisdiction involvedbutonlyiftheslavescouldnotprovethattheyhadbeenmaltreated directly bytheir 2towhomtheywerethenreturned. Itwouldnotbe difficult fora slavetoprovethis masters, inordertobe free,andmoreover, no slavewhoreallywantedtogainfreedom wouldallow himself tobe caughtwhilefewmasters wouldliketoappearbeforea courttoarguewiththeir abscondedslaves. In 1901,theLagos Government madethe1874Lagos SlaveryOrdinanceapplicable toYorubaland, itbecameunlawful toretainanyonecontrary tohisownwilltoserve whereby Thisgavelegalsanctiontoleaveforthoseslaveswhostillremained withtheir anymaster.3 To assuagethewoundedfeelings masters. ofthemasters, theBritish agreedwiththeYoruba statesthata slave,on manumission, shouldpay £3.75to his masterbeforea local court4 thiswasnoteffective as itdidnotsupersede theprovisions oftheOrdinance. Howeverr, Many

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of theslaveswhoescapedfromIjebuestablisheda villagecalled Mamuon theboundary betweenIjebuandIbadanterritories.5 Itlaterbecameimportant forcocoa andgbanjakola growing. Since Abeokutawas notdirectly theBritishResident undertheLagos Government, in thetownpersuadedtheEgba NationalCouncil,theexecutiveorganof theEgba United on 2nd August,1901. The firstforbadeslave dealing Kingdom,to pass threeresolutions withintheEgba Kingdom,thesecondfixed£5was themanumission feefora slaveandthe third immediate hadmaltreated freedom toanyslavewhocouldprovethathismaster granted him.6Thus,theEgba Kingdomwas brought in linewithdevelopments on thequestionof thewholeofYorubaland. slaveryandslave tradeas theyaffected Reviewingthegeneralpositionin 1904,GovernorMacGregorwrote: asailinstitution isinanadvanced now state Nochildisborn ofdecrepitude. Slavery a slave.SlaveswhoescapedtoLagosColonybecamefree....Farmers inconseona nowfind labour forcultivation inobtaining quenceofthischange, difficulty that hasmany children is themostcomfortably situated.7 largescale.Thefarmer MacGregorwas rightinhissummary exceptthatthestatusofslaverywas notlegally abolishedin Nigeriauntilin 1916 whenanotherSlaveryOrdinancewas enactedforthat purpose.8 The shortage oflabourdidnotaffect all thefarmers equallysincesomefamiliesstill retained theirdomesticslaves;forexample,theOyedefamily inOtaby1902,hademployed slavelabourtocultivate overtwenty acresofcocoa,coffeeandgbanjakolaatvariouspoints inthesuburbs inEgba-Owodehadbetweenthemsome ofthetown.9Similarly, threefamilies 600 acresofcultivated landby 1910. In contrast, Matanmi,a relationoftheOyedefamily, whofoundedIjokoVillage(a fewkilometres eastofOta) at aboutthesametimepossessed no slavesand,therefore, hadno largefarms.He readillygranted landto immigrant Egba, ofsmallfeesso thatbythe1920*s,hislineagehadonlya fewacres IjebuandOyo forpayment leftto itself.10 oftheinitiallabour farmers thearoandowetosolvetheproblem Generally, employed 1 itwasmost the aro was more used because it is contractual, shortage.1Although frequently in in such a where Remo it best because popular community operates age gradesare a In Ota andEgba Owode,itwas restricted to feature ofthesocialorganization.12 prominent The owe was usedonlywhen members ofthesamelineageortoa smallcircleoffriends.13 14 ofa farm zoneforthemaking a verylargelabourforcewasrequired tocutdowna forest plot. Inmanyofthecases,thelabourconstraint cultivated onlysmall explainedwhyfarmers partly plots. InEgba-OwodeandRemodistricts, worsened between1916and thelaboursituation ofthe 1918whentheBritishcompelledthepeopletosupplyfreelabourintheconstruction their In lost the had areas.15 their roadthatwentthrough 1914, Egba Abeokuta-Ijebu-Ode in of in now also was Abeokuta Resident and theBritish charge Ijebu-Ode, independence betweenthe theResident'smovements sixtymilesaway,so a roadhadtobe builttofacilitate fromthe in demanded the Resident October twotowns.Whentheconstruction 1916, began Alake(ruler)ofAbeokuta,a taskforceof500 mendailyon thesectionoftheroadthrough in somecases,reaching700 a dayto work Egbe-Owode.In 1917,moremenweredrafted, on theroadandwerekeptthereforaboutfourweeks.

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thatonly TheEgba bitterly resented thesituation, especiallywhentheyremembered about in 1904,theirowngovernment hademployedpaidlabourmostlyHausa,toconstruct thelabourrequisition 16 In addition, 80 milesofroadinthetownanditssuburbs. seriously disruptedtheirfarmingactivitiesand theyfearedthismightlead to a famine.These wereattherootoftheAdubiRisingin 1918inwhichthepeoplekilledoneofthe grievances hadtosend ofGovernment officials.TheLagos Government chiefs,theOsile,anda number in troopstoquashtherebellion.17 dramatize theirresentment TheRemopeopleon theirpartdidnotovertly againstthe some veryrecentcases of Britishmilitary Britishpolicybecause theystillremembered Afteran initialdelayin obtaininglabourbecausethenew in theiraffairs.18. intervention hadstilltofindhisfeetin theadministration and Remodistrict of Akarigbo(ruler) Sagamu taskforceforsuchassignments, ofthedistrict, thetraditional theagegradesoftheyoungmen, were mobilizedand the workwenton apparently smoothly.Some of the youngmen, and wereleftunattended fledtoLagos andmanyfarmsinsomepartsofthedistrict however, foodhadto be imported fromneighbouring districts.19 intheir thetraditonal creditsystem»20 farmers resorted tothelwofasystem, Futhermore, efforts to resolve the problemof labourshortagebecause theybelieved it was more labourwhichat thetimewas scarceand unsteady.Underthis dependablethanmigrant in lieuofinterest on theloan,servedthelenderon hisfarmor inany theborrower, system, ofhoursperdayora specifiednumberofdaysper otherassignment fora specifiednumber hisson he lookedfora substitute, week.Ifhe couldnotrendertheserviceactivelyhimself, ordaughter, nepheworniece.The debtorpaidbacktheloanin fullwhenhe was able todo scarce of thetwo mostimportant so. In thepast,thissystemensureda freecirculation cash andlabour. resources, It wouldappearthatthesystemwas morewidespreadin manypartsof Yorubaland J.A.OtunbaPayneclaimedin after1892following theescapeofslavesfromtheirmasters. in Ijebu areabefore1892 whilein Ibadanby 1910,an estimated 1898thatitwas unknown in 1903,theBritishCommissioner laid InAbeokuta, 10,000peoplewereunderthesystem.21 downguidelinesfortheAlaketoprotectchildrenservingunderitand suggestedthatthey whoill-treated them.In thatcase, thelenderlosthis interest shouldnotserveanycreditor payment.22 Chiefsand thesystemfavouredtherichratherthanthepoorfarmers. By itsnature, or from other even otherswhohadaccumulated sources, trading capitalthrough including foundthesystemconvenient.Theygaveout andwishedtoinvestitinfarming, agriculture, theservicesofboysmostlyofabouttenyearsto work loansandobtainedinlieuofinterest, on theirfarms.Mr.Sobola theBaale ofEgba-Owodementioned abouta dozencases inEgba ofEgba chiefsandrichmenwhomaintained theirfarmsinthisway.23Chief Owode district a maninhisownvillagealso inthedistrict Delanoalsoremembered whoownedforty ormore 24 somerichmenand iwofaaround1917 Thus,as inthecase ofthedomesticslavesystem, intheIwofaprincipally toobtainlabourfor,still,atthattime,a man'swealth chiefsinvested butalso bythemanpowerhe had on his farm. was measurednotonlybythegold standard had servedas iwofa in their In Ota district, mostlyimmigrants, manyfarmers, farmers eitherwerepart-time whoproliferated childhoodandadolescence.25Theirmasters locationsin the who ownedseveralfarmsat different farmers in Ijoko area or full-time TheIwofastystemwas them.26 a dependablelabourtomaintain andrequired neighbourhood ofOtaregarded itas a form becausetheindigenes elements totheimmigrant restricted largely

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to theirstatusin thecommunity. of slaverywhichwas derogatory In IjebuRemo,theprevalence ofthearo system oflabourrecruitment seemedtohave of childlabourin theIwofasystemas onlya fewcases of discouragedtheemployment wereknownbyfarmers interviewed.27 as earlyas 1915, Furthermore, pawningofchildren withthemoney-lending theIwofasystemappearedtohavecomeinconflict businessoftwo meninthearea,whodemandednotlabouras interest butmoretangible payment prominent objectssuchas theproduceofcoca andgbanjakolafarmsthatcouldbe reducedquicklyand businesshadreplacedtheIwofasystem easilyto cash.28By the1940s,themoney-lending in agriculture butloans werehardlygivenforinvestments or anyotherincomeyielding but rather for rituals and festivities. pursuits TheIwofasystemwas opento abusebothbythecreditor andthedebtor.The lender the he ill-treat child since had the him in to right employ might anyservicehewished.Insome the debtor would not redeem the child until cases, adolescence,forexample,girlswereknown to have been redeemedonlywhentheyreachedwomanhood,and, then,by theirfuture concernedtheuse oftheborrowed husbands.A commoncriticism capital.Manystillthink thatsuchloanswerenormally thanonincomeproducing ventures. expendedonritualsrather WhiletheChurchMissionarySocietywas vehemently opposedto thepracticefrom administrators weremoregradualintheirapproachtoitsultimate theearly1900's,29British extinction.30 of Statefewthe However,in 1926,theofficialaxe fellon it The Secretary thatseveraloftheofficialannualreports ColoniesinLondonwas distressed fromdifferent thatthepawningofchildren Nigeriamentioned (a practicethatheregarded partsofsouthern as slavery)stillcontinued As a resultof thisofficialquery,the amongmanycommunities. forbadetheemployment ofchildlabourinthecontract butpermitted that Lagos Government ofadults.31. inEgba Owode whohadinvestedintheIwofacontract Some farmers tosupplement found thenewrulingverydisquieting. Threeyearsaftertheofficials axe fell, labour, migrant theycomplainedto a DistrictOfficerabouttherefusalof theiriwofawardsto workon the farm.Theywereina helplesssituation becausetheycouldnotseekredressfromtheAlake and theEgba NativeAuthority.32 In Ota,a manofsubstancewhowas severelyaffected by therulingtookhisdebtorstocourtdemanding ofhismoney.Thosewhocouldnot repayment suchas cocoa andgbanja kola farm.33 pay gave himfreshsecurities, the the Iwofa andwas widespread Despite ruling, systemcontinued duringtheworld in 1 trade between 193 and 1933 when there a was deflation and lesscurrency in depression circulation. Parentsstilloffered their children as iwofabuttherewasnowa written agreement betweenthelenderandtheix>rrower inwhichtherewasnomention oftheuseofchildlabour as interest labourhadbecomeavailabletoevery Thus,after1920whenmigrant payment34 theIwofasystemcontinuedto supnlement theemployment of labourersbecauseit farmer, was moredependable. The GrowthofWage Labour in Agriculture Ideasaboutwagelabourinagriculture Theearliestandperhapsthe spreadfromthreecenters. mostimportant forOta district weretheCokerfarmsat Agege.JacobKehindeCoker,the ownerof the2000 acre farm,had started as earlyas 1904 employing about200 unskilled Yorubalabourersannually,withsix or sevenheadmen.Theselabourerscultivated cocoa, coffeeandgbanjakolaandmaizeforexportMostofthemenwereresident on thefarmand werepaidona monthly oryearlybasis.Thoseonannualpayments receiveda portion oftheir

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tomeetimmediate domestic Thispracticewassoonwidespread wagesmonthly requirements. notonlyinOta,butalso inRemoandEgbaOwodedistricts. ThesociallifeontheCokerfarms was dominated whoplayedtheroleof thepatriarch lookingafterthe bytheplanter-owner ofthelabourers. A branchoftheAfricanChurchwas built material andspiritual well-being on thefarmto introduce themento Christianity and to literacyin Yorubaand Englishas well.35 was a comMr.Oguntolu,thefirstplanterof cocoa and gbanja kola in Ota district associatedwiththeAfricanChurch.He establisheda panionofJ.K.Cokerand intimately farminOtaalongthesamelinesandprovidedthelinkforthespreadofwagelabourintothe townanditsenvirons.36 Furthermore, Agegeis onlytenmilesfromOta,anditstoodonwhat 1 on whichsomeOta villageswerelocated.Therewas land before 833 wasrecognized as Ota a constant flowof menand ideasbetweenthetwoareas. ofThe IlaroRubberandProduceEstateLimitedlocatedatOke Odan The influence it theCompanywas shortlived, to thewestern was restricted partsofOta district. Although the the new to and use of labour coins that British were the introduced wage popularized by thatithadno difficulty inrecruiting some200 replacethecowries.In 1901, itwas reported labourers and laterin thedecade ithadover1,500labourersin variousduties.37 Some cultivatedand tappedtherubbertrees,otherserectedbuildingsforthefactory and residential whileanother ferried the to Badagry rubber slabs adjoinedtotheplantation quarters group forexporttoEurope.The workersalso cultivated oil palm,rice,maizeand yamsforlocal andforexport.Inaddition, theplantation soldvariousEuropeangoods,cloths, consumption to theworkersandneighbouring drinks,kerosine,saltand farmimplements people.38 recruited The plantation labourfroma verywidearea,fromtheadjoiningBadagry andEgbadoDivisiontoFrenchDahomeyanduptoAbeokutaareas. Afteritsdemise district in 1914,severalof itsEgba workers movedtoAtanandsomeothervillageswestofOta in searchofwage employment. untiltheywereable to Theyreadilyworkedforotherfarmers establishtheirown farms.3* The RickettsIndustrialSchool at Agbowa had a greatinfluenceon Remo and adjoiningareas.A fewmenfromSagamuandotherRemotownsworkedas labourersin its gbanja kola, cocoa, Sugar Factorywhileotherswereemployedon its farmscultivating theSchoolprovidednoresidenceforitsworkers coffee,cassavaandsugarcane. Although it nonetheless (theyhadtoliveeitherinAgbowaor Ikosi)norsoldEuropeanmanufactures, in distances about planting cultivatingthe crops and above all, it taughtthe people in labour agriculture.40 popularizedwage effecton its At thetimetheprojectendedaround1907,ithad had a demonstration in Planters Ibefun their and farmsby a immediateneighbourhood. Iganke,enlarged of labourers. thenew their ideas about continuous ManyRemo people got employment and the of these of farm from methods cultivation labourers employment villages.41 theCokerfarms FarmersinEgba Owode knewofwagelabourinagriculture through oftheEgbaGovernment theactivities atAgegeandthrough whichhadbegunas earlyas 1900 on roadwork.Butno one wouldworkas a labourerfortheother toemploypaid labourers becauseitcarriedthestigmaofdomesticservitude.42. in hisowndistrict labour.The factorinmakingfarmers Thisrefusalis a veryimportant relyon migrant between AworiwelcomedthelargeinflowoftheEgba andtheOyo-Yoraba intoOta district 1900 and 1920 as did thepeopleof Egba Owode and Ijebu Remo on thearrivalof many intheirdistricts after1920.Everywhere, labourers theeventremovedthebottleneck migrant

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in laboursupplyon thefarmsand facilitated of somelargefarms. theestablishment The Egba werethefirstgroupof migrants intoOta district buttheycameas settlers rather thanas labourers.Manyofthemrepresented thefloating populationattheendofthe Yorubawars.Somemayhavebeendomesticslavestrying tofinda newplacetosettlewhere theirantecedents but as would remainunknown.In fact,theybehavednotas strangers in conquerors basingtheirclaimson their1841defeatofOta. One oftheEgba settlements Ota district theEgba observedthecustomary was Iju whichhas an Egba as Baale. Atfirst, grantsof landfromtheAwoributby 1926,theyhadstoppedpaying practicesin obtaining theannualtraditional conditionof thetraditional farmtenancy.Their gifts,an important refusalreceivedthesupportof Ladapo AdemolaII, theAlake of Abeokutaand theSole fortheEgba Division.43 NativeAuthority In 1936,theyhadbecomeihe largestsinglegroup inOta district, of tenantfarmers theirhostsin theruraldistricts in theratio out-numbering of threeto one and exceedingthemby about600 people in thetotalpopulationforthe district.44 NextcamesomeOyo-Yoruba,also earlyinthe1900's aroundthesametimeas most ofthe-Egba Settlers. They,too,weredrawnfromthefloating populationafterthewars.The moreadventurous them had leftforthe between 1893and1897toworkthere.45 Congo among In 1901,afterdomesticservitude was madeillegal,another13,000YorubawenttotheGold Coact to workon therailwayconstruction thereand formedthenucleusof theYourba in that others laterjoined themas news of theeconomic country.46. Many population reached there Nigeria. opportunities Those who remainedbehindin Nigeriain manycases beganlifeas longdistance saltandotherEuropeancommodities fromIkoroduorLagos intothe carriers, head-loading fromabout189347.The paywas much fortheEuropeanand Africanmerchants hinterland higherthanthatforanyotherjob at thattime.A carrierreceivedbetween£0.05and £0.062 labourinGovernment was £0.05 employment payforunskilled perdaywhereasdiehighest 48 perdaywhichwas also therateon theNigerianRailwaybefore190C The lucrative soon to be job as a carrierwas highlyvulnerableto thecompetition offered bytheopeningof therailwayandmotorroads.In 1900,therailwayreachedIbadan wascompletedand fromLagos; 1907,theIbadan-Osogboline openedandin 1908ithadbeen 49 extendedto Ofa Thus as earlyas 1900,thecarriersbeganto driftintoothertypesof employment ofthe200 labourers themajority Thisgrouppossiblyformed employedannuallyfrom toLagos and itsenvirons 1904 byCoker.50Theyweresoonjoinedbyotherswhomigrated as moderncommunication reachedtheirtownor passedclose to it.For examplewiththe of a lorryserviceon itbythe the openingof Ibadan-Oyomotorroadand theinauguration in Lagos Government 1906.,manyOyo andOgbomosopeoplejourneyedtoLagos insearch ofwageemployment.51. as from1908,therailwayfacilitated from Furthermore, emigration Iree and Eripa,(all townsin thederivedsavannahand hillyregionsto the Osogbo,Ikirun, oftheWesternStateofNigeria)as wellas fromOgbagba,Ile-Igboand north andnorth-east wereknownas "Ikirunnatives",and Kula villagesaroundIwo.52In thesouth,themigrants a groupsolidarity them.53 developedamong ThetriptoLagos fortheearlymigrant wasfullofhazards.Eventhough labourers only a fewhadthemoneyin thenewcoinstopayfortherailwayfare,a smallproportion found itnecessarytoactuallytrecktoLagos. Someboardedthetrainwithout a ticketand obtaining eitherhidawayfromthetrainofficialsorgottheirhelpbydoingsomeoddjobs. Otherswent

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tothenearest bigtown,IbadanorOsogbo,workedthereuntiltheyearnedtheirfareandthen tookthetrainto Lagos. The majority begantheirlives inLagosas part-time portersat the Station and from here went to or Ota district.54 Railway they Agege Economicmotivespredominated amongthereasonsthatforcedmanyto leave their homeareas.ManyIkirunpeoplewereluredbytheopportunity toearnmoneymorequickly thantheywouldat home.55 In OgbagbavillageinIwo district, somefledtoAgegetoescape theironruleoftheirfathers butagain,themajority wentforeconomicreasons.Around1910, a number ofhousesinthevillagewerestruck andburntdown.Notonlydidthe bylightning almosttotallossoftheir buttheyalso hadtopayhugefinesimposed villagerssuffer property, uponthemby theSango priests.Therefore, manyfamilieswereheavilyin debtand the menwentouttoLagos and suburbstoworkformoneytorepaythedebts.Others, younger wentbecausetheyrequired In short, severalofthepeople however, moneyfora newbride.56 fromOgbagbavillageweretarget homeaftertheyhadachievedtheir workers whoreturned goals. Fromthe1920'sthestream becamea rush.Thenewsoftheboomintradeandthehigh commodities suchas cocoa andgbanjakolaexcitedmanyOyo-Yoruba pricesforagricultural to thesouth.J.K.Cokerin Agegeand someotherplantersin Ota district toemigrate were activeinspreading theinformation theirrecruiting through systems.Headmenon thefarms of his annual encouragedeverylabourerwho was goinghomeon leave at theexpiration contract topersuadesomepeoplefromhishomeareatojointhelabourforceon thefarm. For thelabourer received£0.025commission whenhe resumeddutyandthe everynewrecruit, headmanofhisgang,£0.05.Two of theheadmen,one Ali fromOsogbo whoworkedfora inIjokoinOtadistrict farmer IreeontheCokerfarmswerenotedrecruiting andoneJohnfrom agents.57. In 1922 someOyo-YorubamostlyfromIkirunand itsvicinity, who hadcompleted their annualcontract andwantedtobecometenant farmers foundedAgannaOlorundainOta district. Theyhadobtainedlandfromone Oloyede,an Ilogbo man.The firstBaale of the was SalamiOmidinafromIkirun.58 village fromitspopulationwhichremained AgannaOlorundadidnotderiveitsimportance butfromthefactthatfromabout1930,itwas theheadquarters foralmosteveryOyosmall,59 Yorubalabourer and was oriented tothelifeofthe comingtothesouth.Herehe first stayed thensetofftohisnewlocationeitherinoroutsideofOta district as directedbythe district, Baale whoactedas a recruiting around.® agentformanyfarmers Themostprominent aftertheOyo-YorubaweretheHausawhowerefoundinOtaand Inadditiontoserving as carriers, EgbaOwodedistricts. theyworkedon thecocoa andgbanja kolafarms from toOctoberandusedthemoneyearnedfromtheirvariousjobs tobuy January hometosellthenuts,returning thenext gbanjakolanuts.Theythentravelled againinJanuary yeartobeginanother cycle.61NextcamesomeBini,EkitiandIsan in the1920's,theIgbira intheearly1930's andtheAgatuandIdomalateinthe1940's.62Except theIgbirawhowere said to havefledfromthepoliticalpersecution and economicexploitation of theirruler,63 thesegroupswerealso largelymotivated byeconomicdesires.Forexample,theEkitileftfor theirhomeareaafter1930whenthecultivation ofcocoa andgbanjakolabeganthere.64. The home in 1936 whenthecultivationof oil palm and rubberwas reBini, too, returned introduced there.65. The impactofthevariousgroupsonagricultural variedaccordingtothe development their rated their In usefulness. all of the theOyo-Yorubawere way employers districts, were to be farmers who worked hard preferred. underverylittle They reputed good

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Agiri,The DevelopmentofWage Labourin Agriculture

In fact,all farmers interviewed hademployedsomeof them.TheEkitiranked supervision. nexttothem.66 TheIgbira,AgatuandIdomaontheotherhand,werevaluedmostinfoodcrop sincetheycomefromthesavannahregionandworkbestinthefallowplotsthat production aredevotedtothecultivation ofsuchcropsbytheYoruba.Furthermore, someofthemeasily and quicklyadaptedto therequirements In contrast, of cocoa andgbanjakola farming.67 areas,theydidnotadapteasilytococoa and althoughtheBiniandIsancamefromtheforest Theirquick temperand arrogancemade farmersdislikethem,in gbanja kola farming. in Ota district.68 particular In addition,theinflowof migrant labourersintothehostarea is determined by the conditions wenttoOta district becauseofitsrelaxedtenurial existingthere.Manymigrants Whileservinga master, a labourerwasoftenallowedtofarma plotforhisownfood system. Ifhedesiredtosettlepermanently heeithercouldobtain as a tenant farmer, cropproduction. a grantoflandforthatpurposefromanyoftheAworilandlordsormarry intoan important Aworifamilyin thelocality.Ifhe wantedto havedirectfreehold thenhe movedto rights, forsale as earlyas the1920's. Afterworkingforsome Ijoko wherelandwas beingoffered labourers sealed as tenantfarmers. Andby 1936they time,manyofthemigrant eventually weremorenumerousthantheirAworihostsin theruraldistricts.69. werelackingbothinEgba-OwodeandRemodistricts Theseopportunities wherethe their over inhabitants land. No land strictly guarded rights stranger enjoyedany grantexcept forplanting annualcrops. As a result,fewermigrant labourersstayedon there.In 1929,it inEgba Owodeincontrast was reported to3 19reported thattherewereonly52 labourers for in 1927.70Although areavailableforRemodistrict Ota district no figures this during time, "Thestringency atOde-Lemoadmitted. theywerelikelytohavebeenlowas ChiefAbraham of ourlandtenuresystemdid notencouragemanymigrant labourersto stayforlongwith thegoalofthemigrant us/'71As a resultofthecontrasting Otaremained labourers situations, untiltheearly1940*s whentheAworibeganto realizethedangersof and tenantfarmers in theirmidst;inparticular, as theEgba, themostvocal among havingtoomanymigrants them,wereclaimingextensivepoliticalrights.72. The labourerswereemployedundertwotypesofcontract, theannualandthepiece work.Theannualcontract, as describedearlier,was developedon theCokerfarmsandwas so readilyadoptedeverywhere in theperiodbeforethe1920's.The thatitwas predominant totheother.In the1920's inOta district, itwas £1.25 monthly wagevariedfromonedistrict In Egba Owode itvariedfrom£1.0 to£1.25 all excludingan extra£0.25as pocketmoney.73 was usuallyforan inclusivewhilein Ijebu Remo,itwas £1.0orevenless.74The contract initialone yearor twoand theperiodcouldbe extendedbymutualagreement. Withthesettlement ofAgannaOlorunda,itis saidthatpieceworkgradually replaced The labourersmovedaroundingangsof tenor fewermenandeach theannualcontract.75 was led by a headmanwho negotiatedall thecontracts.The priceforeach piece work andthisis illustrated bythehigherratesperdaythat dependedonhisskillas a hardbargainer obtainedunderthissystem.In 1927inOta district, theleastwagecameto£0.62perdayper worker theemployer and,inaddition, providedfoodfortheworkerbutinEgba-Owodeand in 1929 to 1930,thatsame wage appliedand itincludedtheallowancefor Remo districts food.76. An unexpected resultofthetradedepressionof 1931 to 1933was theentrenchment fellverylow to between£0.016and of thepiece workcontract. Wages underthecontract in stable.77 remainedsurprisingly annual contract £0.025perday whilethemonthly wages

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inOta whohademployedlabouron theannualcontract Some farmers hadtopledgepartof inAgege, their interest as to raise to the Furthermore, produce payment money pay wages.78 itwas reported thatduringthefirstninemonthsof 1934,60 labourersobtainedjudgement forthenon-payment oftheirsalaries.7^Manyfarmers, therefore, againstfarmers preferred thepieceworkcontract or madea greateruse of theirownlabourand thatof theirchildren in ordertocutdowncosts.80 The tradedepressionalso compelledsomeOyo-Yorubatenantfarmers and migrant labourers tomoveintonewareas,especiallyinOndoprovince, whichwerethenbeingopened to cocoa cultivation. Theretheyobtainednewplotsof landand becametenantfarmers or workedas migrant labourers.Theircontribution in Ondo to theeconomicdevelopment provinceis well-established byavailabledata.By 1939,Ondo hadalmost300,000acresof cocoa whileIbadan,itsnearestrivalhad200,000.81Ataboutthesametime,somereturned hometocultivatetheirown farms.82 The feedbacktothesourceareasdidnotjuststartinthe1930's. Itwentbackto 1914 inthecase ofOgbagbavillage. The outbursts ofviolenceinAbeokutain 1914,and in 1918 combinedwiththerecruitment ofNigeriansintothecolonialarmytofight intheFirstWorld Warfrightened someOgbagbamen,whohadbeenservingas farmlabourers, back to their as consmopolites intoChristianity andtaught village.Theyreturned havingbeenconverted howto readin Englishand in Yorubaat Agege. Theyinfluenced thelifein thevillageat almosteveryimportant thecultivation turn.Theypopularized ofcocoa andgbanjakolatrees. In addition,theyencouragedtheChurchMissionary Societytostarta churchin thevillage. The factthattheyhadbeenconverted Churchhadverylittleweighton their bytheAfrican tobelongtotheChurchMissionary mindsas itwasconsidered fashionable Society.In 1930, a groupbrokeawayfromtheSocietyfollowing itsrefusaltobaptizea convertwhohadmore thanone wife. The AfricanChilrchwas invitedandsoonout-paceditsoldercompetitor in theraceforconverts.It is thedominant churchin Ogbagbatoday.As a corollaryof their thereturnees theintroduction ofwestern education spear-headed acceptanceofChristianity, intothevillage.83 The migrant labourershave hada similarimpacton Ikirun.The AfricanChurchis inthetownduetotheirefforts. dominant inOtadistrict, andtheytook Manywereconverted thefaithback totheirtown.Theyalso spear-headed thecultivation ofcocoa andgbanjakola farmsin Ikirundistrict and thepresentrulerofthetownbelongsto thisgroup. The migrant laboursystemalso encouragedthegreateruse ofthenewBritishcoins. inthenewcoins,someofwhichwereinturnsenthome hadtopaylabourers Theemployers topaytax,outstanding theuse ofthecowrieswas debts,orforsomeceremonies.Thereby, morefreely.Furthermore, thecultivation quicklyreplacedas thenewcoinswerecirculated ofgbanjakolaandcocoa inthesourceareassoonbrought somewealthtothesedistricts and graduallyreducedtheoutflowof farmlabourers. Conclusions Thepattern ofwagelabourinSouthern ofdevelopment Yorubalandwas replicatedmoreor lessinotherpartsofYorubaland boomof 1893duringthesameperiod.InIbadan,therubber 1904 introduced However,theexmanyIbadanpeople to wage labourin agriculture.84 wasdependent toa verylargeextenton pansionofcocoa,gbanjakolaandcoffeecultivation theuseoftenant labourderivedfrom To supplement thisform amongtheIbadanthemselves. of labour,resortwas had to theiwofasystem,85a situationthatwas comparableto what Yorubafarmers. Itwas notuntilthe1920sthatmigrant obtainedamohgtheSouthern labour

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ofWage Labourin Agriculture Agiri,The Development

predominated mostlyfromOsogbo,IkirunandothertownsinpresentdayOgunnorth-east in Ibadanarea.Withtheestablishment ofextensivecocoa and gbanja kola farmsin Ondo Stateduring The the1930s,wagelabourbecameadominantfeatureofagricultureofthearea. in kola the cocoa and Idoma and not farms were butqlso gbanja Igbirra, Agatu employed only was eitherby to producethemuchneededfoodcrops,In almostall thecases,thecontract As themigrant labourers pieceworkcontracts pieceworkorannualcontracts. predominated, becametheorderofthedayespeciallyfromthe1940s.86An important consequenceofthe in the of colonial labour Yoruba development wage during periodwas thatit agriculture the cash without of the of a number of cultivation spread knowledge crops anyincentives fromthecolonial authorities a greatdeal to ruraldevelopment and thereby contributed generally. FOOTNOTES 1. SeeUdo,R.K.,Migrant AGeographical TenantFarmers ofRuralMigrations Study ofNigeria: inNigeria, Universities asCatalysts O.,"Rural Press, 1975;alsoOtite, Migrants Lagos:African in RuralDevelopment" at SmallUrbanCentresin RuralDevelopment paperpresented Madison 1978. Conference, Wisconsin, 9-11,November, 2. 2CO 147/104 Carter toChmaberlain, 6 February, 1896. 3. E.A.A.Oroge,"TheInstitution of Slaveryin Yorubaland tothe Reference withParticular Nineteenth Ph.D.Thesis,University ofBirmingham, 1971,p. 399. Century" 4. Oroge,Op¿it„p. 383. 5. R.Galletti, K.D.S.Baldwin andI.O.Dina,TheNigerian London1956p.xxvL CocoaFarmers, Thetranslation ofthenameofthevillageis"Do notrecover Mr. him,i.e.theslave".Interview, IsaacFatungase, liara,April,1970. 6. AbeProf.8/3,"Report Bookrelating toEgbaaffairs, 1901-1904". No. 12,July 7. W. MacGregor. andtheAlake".Journal ofAfrican Society, "Lagos,Abeokuta 1904,pp.472-474. 8. VideNigerian Gazette 1916. , 15June, 9. Interview, Prince Oyede,Ota;March1970. 10. Interview, Nathaniel Sokanbi, Ijoko;March1970. 11. Forfurther detailsonthearoandowe,seeN.A.Fadipe,TheSociology ,Ibadan, oftheYoruba 1970,p. 150. Mr.Awonuyi, 12. Interview, Irolu,April1970. TheLateChiefAzeezAdalemo, 13. Interview, Oraba,Ota;March1970.By1930'stheage-grade wasrapidly indecline; seeSpottiswoode, Ota,1935",para.18.Interview, "Intelligence Report, Mr.SalamiOgunsina, SomekeVillage,EgbaOwodeDistrict, Sept,1970.Mr.Joyce Cary found thesystem OwodeDistrict, stillfunctioning in 1919,see Cary,"Assessment Report, Abeokuta Province, 1929",paras.71-80. 14. Interview, Mr.JosiahLadipo,Sango-Ota,April1970:Cary,Op.cit.,para.208. 5A. "Abeokuta-Ijebu-Ode 15 Forfurther and239/1 seeAbeProf.2/3,FilesNos.239/15 details, oC. Road,1915-1918"AbeProf. Road,Construction 2/4,FileNo. 518/1916, "Ajura-Owode uRt>a andAbe Prof.2/5,FileNo. 107/1917. ds. FreeLabouron 1915-1917", 1915-1916", N.N.A.,Ibadan. 16. MacGregor, Op. citMp.477. SeeI.O.Delano, 17. Foranunofficial oftheevent. TheSouiofNigeria, reminiscences London, 1937, 89-90. pp. theRemoandBritish-Hausa in ColonialArmy there wereskirmishes 18. Forexample, between whointervened ina local tokilltheDistrict Officer 1905to1906whentheRemoattempted Mr.SaliuAkerele, 1970. Interview, dispute. Sagamu, September Mr.Awonuyi, 19. Interview, Irolu,April1970.

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JournaloftheHistoricalSocietyofNigeria. oftheIwofasystem seeTheOniofIfe,"Iwofa", 20. Forfurther Odu,No.3, 1956,pp. description 16-18. 4 June1898Conf.,and toChamberlain, ofJ.A.O.Payneenei.Denton Evidence 21. CO 147/133, Church Gleaner, 1910,p. 74.TheChurch Societywasaninterested Missionary Missionary thehabit more that insisted onliquor TheMission inthecontroversy encouraged drinking. party Thefigure tobe akintoslavery. a practice which itconsidered casesofpawning, givenwasto anditwasexaggerated itsaudience bordering verymuchonshareguesswork. impress Minute inAbeProf. 1903byCyril Punch dated20and28January 22. Minutes 9/3,"Administrative Ibadan. N.N.A., 1900-1904", 225-227, Book,EgbaAffairs, pp. 1970. Mr.Sobola,Owode,September. 23. Interview, 24. I.O. Delano,op.cit.,p. 71. ofthem camefrom 25. Themajority Atan,Iju andIjoko. Mr.AdisaAkanni, 26. Interview, Ijoko,May1970. Mr.Awonuyi, 27. Interview, Irolu,April,1970. CourtRecords1925,Volume. NativeAuthority 28. RemoDivisional 29. EvidenceofBishopOluwole(Questions 1637-1643, 1651),Rev.E.W. George(Questions Kuti(Questions 6841,6842,and6844,Archdeacon 6646,6647and6649),Rev.J.Ransome 8425)before MelvilleJones (Question 8364,8365and8367)andBishopJohnson (Questions 1909. in Southern the into , TheCommittee Nigeria LiquorTraffic ofInquiry 1651byCaptain 30. Question Ibadan,Ibid. Elgee,Resident, ofChildren" FileNo.8/27, 31. IjebuProf3/11,Confidential Secretary (1) Savingrams "Pawning ofProclamation ofStatefortheColoniestoGovernor by Clifford, LagosJune1926(2) Draft for Governor inF.H.R.Buxton's(Lieutenant included W.A.Ross,Resident, OyoProvince 1926.N.N.A.,Ibadan. draft of1 November, Southern Provinces) 32. Cary,op.cit.paras.274-275. Mr.Sokanbi, 33. Interview, Ijoko,March1970. 34. Delano,op.cit.,p. 72. 4The Pro1901-1920". Church andtheAfrican 35. J.B.Webster, Conference AgegePlantations March 1962. Economic and of Social Institute Ibadan, Research, Nigerian ceedings, cousin. Prince 36. Interview, Oyedeis Oguntolu's Oyede,Ota,March1970.Prince cit.p. 278. Infra, 37. Annual Lagos1900-01.p.45,andAsiwaju, Reports, AComparative 1889-1945: Under Yorubaland Western 38. A.I.Asiwaju, Analysis EuropeanRule, NewJersey andBritish 1976,p. 168. Colonialism, ofFrench Mr.Isiyemi, 39. Interview, Bale,AtanVillage,Otadistrict, May1970. 1970. OdeLemo,September ChiefAbraham, 40. Interview, atIbefun. served atIgnakevillagewhileMr.Awosile'sfather worked father 41. ChiefAbraham's Ode Lemo,September ChiefAbraham, 1970;MrAwosile,Sagamu,September Interviews, 1970. 1970. Somkeke Mr.SabiuOgunsina, 42. Interview, September Egba-Owode, village, Nathaniel 43. Interview, Sokanbi, LadipoSango,Ota,March April1970andJoseph Ijoko-Ota, 1970. before 1894,found 44. H. Spottiswoode, especially op.cit., para.9,ManyoftheearlyEgbasettlers thattown between ofboundaries thedemarcation after inthe1900's inIfodistrict themselves andOta. APoliticalandSocial 1842-1914: onModern TheMissionary 45. E.A.Ayandele, Nigeria, Impact Oni(Trader) ofClaudiusAyodele Evidence 1966.p.339;alsoCO 147/133. ,London, Analysis 4 June, DentontoChamberlain, 1898,Conf. enclosure LabourintheNigerian ofIndigenous "A History 46. J.O.Oyemakinde, Railway,1895-1945, Ph.D.Thesis,Ibadan,1970,p. 225. in Ogbomos,1850-1950, M.A. Thesis, of Local Government 47. B.A. Agiri,"Development Ibadan,1966,p. 131.

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ofWage Labourin Agriculture Agiri,The Development

48. C 147/133 Evidence ofWilliam totheLagosGovernment enclosure Gee,Engineer Railway, inDenton toChmaberlain, 4 June, 1898,Conf. 49. J.O.Oyemakinde, op.cit.,p. 25; Geary, op.cit.,pp.142and144. 50. Interview, Mr.OluboCoker, 1970. Ifako,Agege,December 51. Fora description oftheeconomic conditions inOgbomoso between 1900and1980,seeAgiri, "Chief N.D.Oyerinde andthepolitical, socialandeconomic ofOgbomoso, 1916development Vol.X.,No. 1,December, 1951",Journal 1979,pp.103oftheHistorical Society ofNigeria, 105. 52. Interviews, Mr.Joshua 1970,andMr.IyiolaAremu, native Awodele, Ogbagba village, August ofKuta;Atanvillage, Ota,May1970. 53. Interview, Mr.IyiolaAremu, Atanvillage, Ota,May1970. 54. Interviews, Mr.IyiolaAremu, May1970,Mr.Abatan, Agege,March1970;andMr.Olubo 1970. Coker,Agege,December, 55. Interview, Mr.OsuolaleIyanda, Olorunda Village,Ota,May1970. 56. Interviews, Mr.Gabriel theOunsa,Ogbagba andMr.Emmanuel Akindele, Akinyode, Ogbagba, 1970. August 57. Interviews, Mr.Joshua Awodele, Ogbagba, August1970,andMr.OluboCoker,December 1970. 58. Interviews, Mr.OsuolaleIyanda, Olorounda Ota,May1970andMr.Joshua Awodele, Village, 1970. Ogbagba, August, 59. In 1927,estimated ofAgaima Olorunda was69 outofwhich27 wereadultmales. population In1936,estimated increased to 1 93 malesandin1952,population 79adult population including was390,adultmales,15years numbered 107.Royce, upwards, op.cit.,appendix, "Population A,"Listofvillages", figures; Spottiswoode, op.cit.,appendix cjidWesternNigerian Population Census1952,Bulletin, No. 8,p. 16. 60. Interview, Mr.OsuolaleIyanda, Olorunda village, May1970. 61. Royce,op.cit.,para327.Interview, DanLadi,Owode,September 1970. 62. Interview, Mr.SalamiAjayi,Bale,Sango-Ota, Bendel May1970.TheBiniandIsanarefrom OndoState,theIgbirafrom KwaraStateandtheAgatuandIdomafrom State,theEkitifrom BenueState. 63. Joseph "RoleofIgbira Tenant Farmers intheFoodcropProduction inOwo OlaleyeAdewale, IfeUniversity, June1968,p. 20. District", Original Essay,B.A.Geography, 64. cf.MichaelA. Aina,"Migrant LabourinIjeroDistrict", Ife Original Essay,B.A.Geography, 1969,p.2 University, 65. Interview, ChiefAzeezAdalemo, Ota,March1970. 66. Interviews, Mr.RasakiAdebiyi, Someke 1970.Mr.Isiyemi, Owode,September Atan, Village, OtaDistrict, Irolu,March1970. May1970andMr.Awoniyi, 67. Interviews, Mr.Awosile, 1970;Josiah Sagamu, September Ladipo,Sango-Ota, April1970;cf. Adewale, op.cit.pp.23-26. 68. Interview, Prince Oyede,Ota,March1970. Mr.Iyanda,Olorunda 69. Interviews, Otodistrict, Sokanbi, Villages, May1970;Mr.Nathaniel Ijoko,April1970.Spottiswoode, op.cit.,para.9. 70. Cary,op.cit.,Appendix A andRoyce,op.cit.,Appendix. 71. Interview, ChiefAbraham, OdelLemo,September 1970. 72. Interview, ChiefAzeezAdalemo, detailsof thepolitical tussle Ota,March1970.Further between theAworiandtheEgbaaregiveninAbeProf.5,FileNo.ED 491,"OtaIntelligence andReorganisation 1940,"N.N.A.,Ibadan. Report 73. Royce,op.cit.,para326. 74. Cary,op.cit.para.272;andinterview, Mr.Awosile, 1970. Sagamu, September, 75. Interview, Mr.Iyanda, Olorunda 1970. Village,September 76. Royce, Mr.Awosile, op.cit.,para.326;Cary, op.cit.,para.271; Interview, September Sagamu,

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1970. 77. Interviews, Mr.SalamiAdekunle, BaleOrileImo,October 1970andMr.Ladipo,SangoOta, March1970.AbeProf.5, FileNo. ED/11,"AnnualReports on theSocialandEconomic ofthePeopleofNigeria, District Abeokuta Officer, Province, 1932-1940", Progress Egba DivisiontoResident Abeokuta 16December 1932. Province, 78. Evidencein SuitNo. 15/47SuberuGisanyavs. SadikuDurojaiye, Court "OtaCustomary RecordBook,1947Volume". 79. R.L.Wilkes, ontheIkejaDistrict oftheColony, National 1934",Nigerian "Intelligence Report Archives, Ibadan,para.83. 80. Interview, Mr.Iyanda, Olorunda contract Village, May1970.Thecostoflabourfortheannual wentupin1934to£3to£4whilepieceworkwasbetween£1.5s and£1.10s.AbeProf.5,File No. ED/11,op. cit.,District Abeokuta 17 Officer, Province, Egba Divisionto Resident, 1934. November, 81. I.O. Ogunkua, intheWestern fortheDevelopment ofCocoaProduction Stateof "Programme March1970,p. 2. Nigeria", 82. Interview, Mr.Iyanda, Olorunda village.May1970. 83. Interview, Messrs.Akinyode andAkindele, Ogbagbavillage,August1970. 84. Fordetailssee O. Omosini, Journal 'The rubber tradeinIbadan,1893-1904", ofthe export Historical Vol.X,No. 1,December 1979,pp.21-46. Society ofNigeria, 85. See footnotes 29 and30 above. 86. See J.O.Adewale, op.cit.,andMichaelA. Aina,op.cit.,alsoOgunkua, op.cit.

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