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Discover American History
QUARTERING ACT
BOSTON
WILLIAMSBURG
DAUGHTERS
OF LIBERTY
PHILADELPHIA
ROAD TAXES PROTEST REBELLION TO PATRIOT REVOLUTION MASSACRE
STAMP
NO TAXATION WITHOUT
CONCORD
ACT
SUGAR
SONS OF
LIBERTY
REPRESENTATION
ACT Those are fighting words!
GREAT
BRITAIN
BOSTON TEA PARTY COMMITTEES
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Discover American History
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A War’s Aftermath
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An Idea Ahead of Its Time
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Breaking Up
Advisory Board
Eric Arnesen, Professor of History The George Washington University Diane L. Brooks, Ed.D., Director (retired) Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources Office California Department of Education
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Ken Burns Florentine Films
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by Kathiann M. Kowalski
by Nancy Norton Mattila
by Mark Clemens
No Taxation Without Representation by Eric B. Schultz
Beth Haverkamp Powers, Teacher Milford, New Hampshire Maryann Manning, Professor School of Education University of Alabama at Birmingham
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Organized Resistance
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Patriot Protest
Alexis O’Neill, Author and Museum Education Consultant Lee Stayer, Teacher Advent Episcopal Day School Birmingham, Alabama Sandra Stotsky, Professor of Education Reform 21st Century Chair in Teacher Quality University of Arkansas
by Andrew Matthews
by Meg Chorlian
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CONSULTING EDITOR Denver Brunsman, professor of history, George Washington University, teaches an annual course, “George Washington and His World,” at George Washington’s Mount Vernon Estate, Museum & Gardens. Brunsman received his Ph.D. from Princeton University. He is the author of The Evil Necessity: British Naval Impressment in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World and an editor of The American Revolution Reader, among other works.
ABOUT THE COVER The road to the American Revolutionary War was paved with many events. Our word-collage cover offers a hint of what you’ll find inside!
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Detested Tea
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Psst! Past It On
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Congress Is in Session
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A C T I V I T I E S
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Massacre in King Street
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A Growing Split Crossword Puzzle by Will Bremen
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DEPARTMENTS
by Andrew Matthews
1 Editor’s Note 24 Did You Know? 40 Going Global
by Andrew Matthews
by Marcia Amidon Lusted
by Denver Brunsman
The Case for Independence by Jerry Miller
42 Your Letters 44 Just for Fun 45 Dr. D’s Mystery Hero 46 48 49
Declaration Quotes
by Dennis Denenberg Spotlight On . . . Say What? Cartoon Connection by K.E. Lewis
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EDITOR’S NOTE
Yes, that was pretty daring of them to destroy the tea.
Boy, those colonists sure got the attention of the British with their tea party in Boston! I just hope no donuts were hurt in the process . . .
How many times have you heard that the Boston Tea Party led to the Revolutionary War? Or that the Boston Massacre was the main cause for the break between Great Britain and the American Colonies? What about the colonists’ cry of “no taxation without representation”? The truth is that many different events occurred before the colonists were convinced that they had to separate from the British Empire. The colonists spent more than a decade trying to persuade King George III and Parliament to see their point of view. Over that time, they began to see themselves less as British subjects and more as Americans. They also stopped thinking of themselves as members of 13 individual—and diverse— colonies. In the end, they decided to risk everything and support one another. This issue takes a look at the events that made up America’s path to revolution.
Editor
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by Kathiann M. Kowalski
A War’s A
O
f all the European nations that sent colonists to North America, England was one of the last to do so. And since England’s leaders faced a lot of internal political turmoil in the 1600s, they left their colonies alone. But the French and Indian War (1754–1763) changed that. During the war, Great Britain and France fought for control of territory in North s a w r America. d Indian Wa ’ he French an rs a e Y When n e v as the Se also known y n a France was m e. It involved . War in Europ ay d defeated, it e th powers of of the major s a surrendered it ften refer to Historians o its possessions r. a bal w the first glo in Canada and the Ohio River valley to the British. The war’s outcome made Great Britain the dominant power in North America, and it marked the beginning of a shift in the relationship between England and its American Colonies. How would Great Britain govern its vast new empire?
T
DID YOU KNOW?
PUSHED TO THE LIMIT When the Treaty of Paris was signed formalizing the end of the war, Native Americans in North America found their way of life altered. During the conflict, the British had promised to pull out of frontier areas west of the Appalachian Mountains once the French were defeated. After the fighting ended, however, the British not only remained, but they strengthened their forts. And white settlers started to move west of the mountains, which brought them into conflict with native groups living there. Britain’s native allies were furious with Great Britain’s failure to keep its promises. They had helped the British win the war, but instead of showing
By the end of the French and Indian War, France was forced to give up most of its territory in North America.
appreciation, the British were treating them like a conquered people. Led by Ottawa chief Pontiac, some natives joined together and attacked British forts and frontier settlements in 1763. The British quickly negotiated an end to the fighting in Pontiac’s Rebellion and renewed the promise to keep white settlers east of the mountains.
LOSING CONTROL But Great Britain found it hard to control the situation in North America. When the original colonists from England settled there in the 1600s, the British government had granted each new colony a charter, or written contract. The charters spelled out laws and listed the colonists’ natural rights. For example,
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Virginia’s 1606 charter proclaimed that the colonists “have and enjoy all liberties . . . as if they had been abiding and born in The Appalachian . . . England.” Other charMountains had served ters listed similar rights. as a natural western barrier for the American While nearly every colony Colonies until the desire had a governor appointed for more land and by the British government, opportunities motivated each colony also estabsettlers to cross them. lished a legislative body that gave the colonists a voice in their local affairs. The colonists considered themselves British subjects, but they also had a voice in their own government. By the mid-1700s, however, many of the people living in the Colonies had been born there. Some had never
FAST FACT
England vs. Great Britain
E
ngland and Scotland joined their kingdoms together in 1707 after signing the Acts of Union. That new entity became known as the Kingdom of Great Britain. That’s why we use England during the early colonial period but Great Britain when referring to events after 1707.
When the British failed to live up to their promises to restrict white settlers, Native Americans began to attack frontier settlements.
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After the war was over, about 10,000 British soldiers remained in Canada and at some western forts. Some soldiers stayed in eastern cities, too, where the colonial governments were ordered to provide for their food and lodging. The colonists hated the soldiers’ presence and the financial burden they represented. It seemed like the British were not so much protecting the Colonies as policing them. Feelings of ill will grew.
TAXES, TAXES, TAXES
These maps show the dramatic territory changes in North America before and after the French and Indian War.
traveled to England. Their homes, families, and businesses—everything that was familiar—were in the Colonies. And this generation of British citizens expected a certain level of self-governance and independence. The French and Indian War brought soldiers from Great Britain and the Colonies in contact with one another. About 25,000 American colonists served alongside British regulars to fight for their king and country. But Americans got little respect from the British troops. British regulars Regulars are soldiers thought that the colonial soldiers who belong to a nation’s permanent lacked discipline. Americans army. resented such treatment.
When the war ended, most colonists were eager to build their economy and to make a good living. But the years of conflict had nearly doubled Great Britain’s national debt. It was expensive to maintain troops in North America, first to fight the French and then to enforce the peace with the Native Americans. To raise money, Britain increased trade duties on the Colonies and stepped up enforcement of tax collection laws. Most people don’t realize that the colonists’ growing anger in the 1760s was not about being taxed. The colonists had been paying taxes for years. But their taxes had been levied and collected by their colonial governments. GREAT Britain had BRITAIN collected money by regulating the trade AMERICAN of the COLONIES ATLANTIC colonists OCEAN but had left their internal affairs alone. In the mid1760s, however, Great Britain began to tax products inside the Colonies for the first time. The money raised by these new taxes was supposed to go directly back to London. The idea that the colonists would not be represented or even have a say in the process alarmed many colonial leaders, and they protested Great Britain’s efforts to assert its authority. But even when
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An Idea Ahead of Its Time by Nancy Norton Mattila
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British officials fail to appreciate the value of the American Colonies in this editorial cartoon. They would rather destroy the Colonies (the goose) than benefit from what they can produce (golden eggs).
the British Parliament repealed an offending tax, it still asserted its right to rule the Colonies. The colonists felt like second-class citizens. To complicate matters, traveling by ship across the Atlantic Ocean between England and the Colonies took months. Communication was slow. Governing and being governed grew difficult, particularly when each side felt strongly about its position. The American colonists cherished the personal freedoms that came with being British subjects. They wanted to have a say in their role within the British Empire. Instead of opening discussions, though, the British government imposed restrictions. Unable to find diplomatic solutions, the two sides inched toward war.
he Albany Congress of 1754 offered a historic opportunity for the American colonists. The meeting brought together representatives of the seven colonies north of the Potomac River and 150 members of the Six Nations of the Iroquois League. Fighting in the French and Indian War (1754–1763) had begun in North America, and King George II of England wanted his subjects to find ways to work together. He also wanted to make alliances with the Native Americans in the area. The delegates were expected to discuss ideas for their mutual defense against France. At the gathering, Benjamin Franklin proposed a “Plan of Union” to encourage cooperation among the colonies. The meeting was a success, and the delegates voted to support a revised version of Franklin’s “Plan of Union.” It called for creating a president general appointed by the king and a grand council elected by the colonies. The Albany Congress marked the first time that representatives from different colonies came together to consider some kind of formal union. Upon their return home, however, the delegates could not convince their individual colonial assemblies to approve the plan. In 1754, the colonists were not ready to put aside local interests in favor of the larger general good—nor was Great Britain prepared to support a situation that put more power into the hands of the colonists. Another 20 years passed before the idea to organize a unified colonial defense gained momentum. The “Plan of Union” eventually provided a framework for both the Articles of Confederation and the U.S. Constitution.
Benjamin Franklin used a snake separated into sections to drive home his message to the colonists about the importance of joining together in 1754.
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Kathiann M. Kowalski is the author of a dozen books for young people and writes often for COBBLESTONE and ODYSSEY.
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ere’s a time line of major events that led to the split between the American Colonies and Great Britain.
1651–1696 NAVIGATION ACTS This series of laws restricts foreign trade by the Colonies so that it is favorable to England: Traders have to use English ships, crews on ships have to be mostly English sailors, and foreign goods have to be shipped first to England before continuing to the Colonies.
1763 ROYAL PROCLAMATION Following the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British government decrees that the western boundary line for British colonists is the east side of the Appalachian Mountains. Colonists who already have started moving into the new frontier and have made claims to that western land are upset.
April 5 SUGAR ACT
1764
This indirect tax reinforces the Molasses Act of 1733, which required a payment of 6 pence per gallon on imported molasses. The colonists mostly avoided paying that tax by smuggling. The new act drops the tax to 3 pence, but British officials take steps to enforce it.
September 1 CURRENCY ACT Parliament takes control of the colonial currency system, which includes a variety of paper bills and credits and lacks any standard value. This leads to a shortage of hard currency and financial difficulties for the Colonies.
March 22 STAMP ACT
1765
This law is the first direct tax imposed on the American Colonies. Its purpose is to raise money for the military defense of the Colonies. It requires that all paper products (newspapers, legal documents, advertisements, almanacs, licenses, and even cards and dice) in the Colonies bear a stamp. The colonists are angered by this “taxation without representation” in Parliament. They form the Stamp Act Congress in October to resist the law. It is repealed in 1766.
March 24 QUARTERING ACT This act requires colonists to provide food and lodging (in unoccupied buildings) for British soldiers who
by Mark Clemens
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are stationed in America. Colonists resist attempts to make them take on this expense. They also question the need for a standing army during a time of peace.
PATRICK HENRY by Marcia Amidon Lusted illustrated by Zach Franzen
1766
March 18 DECLARATORY ACT
Parliament repeals the Stamp Act, but it passes this act, which states that the British government has authority over the Colonies “in all cases whatsoever.” Although the act does not use the word “tax,” members of Parliament believe that this power is included in the act.
1767
New York’s assembly is suspended for its refusal to obey the Quartering Act and provide housing for more than 1,000 British soldiers in 1766. The Quartering Act expires in March.
July 2 TOWNSHEND ACTS Named for British statesman Charles Townshend, these acts attempt to collect duties on items—such as glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea—coming into the Colonies from Great Britain in order to help finance the cost of administrating the Colonies. Boston merchants refuse to pay the tax and establish nonimportation agreements that spread to other colonies. By 1770, most of the acts, except for the tax on tea, are repealed.
October
1768
“I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!”
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awyer and patriot Patrick Henry was a participant in nearly every aspect of America’s founding. His speech against the Stamp Act in Virginia’s House of Burgesses made some listeners cry “treason!” But others were motivated to join his cause. Some historians argue that his Stamp Act Resolutions began the Revolutionary War. Henry participated in every protest against British tyranny and for colonial rights. His most famous words (above) were spoken in March 1775, during a speech calling on Virginia to raise a militia to oppose the British.
Duties are taxes on imports that are charged by a government.
British troops arrive in Boston to keep order and enforce the Townshend Acts.
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1770
March 5 BOSTON MASSACRE
The presence of British regulars in Boston pushes residents to a boiling point. Confronted by an angry and aggressive crowd, British soldiers fire on the mob and kill five colonists. Although a jury finds that the soldiers fired in self-defense, publicity efforts turn it into the “Boston Massacre.”
May 10 TEA ACT
1773
This law attempts to save the financially strained British East India Company. It gives the company a monopoly on the sale of tea in the Colonies. It allows the company to export the tea directly to the Colonies instead of going to Great Britain first. It also is an attempt by Great Britain to show that it can tax the Colonies without their consent. The colonists refuse to support the tax and organize boycotts.
December 16 BOSTON TEA PARTY After a number of the Colonies resist efforts by Great Britain to enforce the Tea Act, Boston takes dramatic action: A group of Boston men seize and destroy the cargoes of tea on three ships in Boston Harbor.
March 28 COERCIVE ACTS
1774
Known in the Colonies as the Intolerable Acts, these laws are meant to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. Boston Harbor is closed to all trade, and the colony’s right to self-government is abolished. The people of Massachusetts are forced to provide lodging for British troops in private homes, if necessary. In addition, cases between the colonists and royal officials are to be tried in Great Britain or another British colony.
June 22 QUEBEC ACT This act outlines the steps for the permanent administration of British Canada (the territory that Great Britain won after the French and Indian War). Among other things, it puts the land between the Ohio River and the Mississippi River under the control of Quebec’s government. The American colonists view this as an attempt to restrict their growth. The act also affirms the right of former French Canadians to practice Roman Catholicism, which is a cause of concern to the mostly Protestant American colonists.
WOW! Freedom took a long time.
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September 5 to October 26 FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS The treatment of Boston under the Coercive Acts motivates colonial leaders to meet and form a plan of action. Delegates from all the Colonies except Georgia meet in Philadelphia.
1775
April 19 BATTLES OF LEXINGTON AND CONCORD The first shots in the Revolutionary War are fired in Massachusetts, as British soldiers move to seize stores of ammunition, and militiamen move to hide the ammunition and stop them.
May SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS Shortly after the Second Continental Congress convenes, news arrives of the Battles of Lexington
and Concord. The congress apppoints George Washington commander in chief of the Continental Army in June. The congress also sends the Olive Branch Petition to King George III in July, seeking a way to reconcile and avoid conflict.
August 23 After news of the fighting at Breed’s Hill in Massachusetts reaches England, King George III issues a proclamation. It declares the American Colonies in “open and avowed rebellion.” The king refuses to receive the Olive Branch Petition, making some colonists more independence-minded.
1776
July 2–4
Delegates to the Second Continental Congress finalize and adopt the Declaration of Independence. The Colonies and Great Britain are officially at war.
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Fighting began in Massachusetts in 1775—before the colonists officially declared their independence from Great Britain.
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No n o i t a x Ta by Eric B. Schultz
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t did not take long for Great Britain to realize that winning the French and Indian War came at a cost: Britain’s national debt had nearly doubled. King George III and Parliament needed additional revenue to pay off the debt. One solution was to impose new taxes on the American Colonies. After all, the members of Parliament reasoned, hadn’t the colonists benefited from Britain’s success in the war? In 1764, Parliament passed the Sugar Act. It authorized stiff penalties for the smuggling of sugar and molasses. British merchants had lost a lot of revenue because colonial merchants had found ways to smuggle in products and thus avoid paying taxes on goods. Dozens of new customs collectors began to carefully inspect American cargoes and enforce the law. Parliament wanted to ensure that British merchants regained a monopoly on colonial trade. What Parliament did not fully appreciate, however, was that the American Colonies were experiencing economic hardships, too. Trade was declining just as customs enforcement grew. Individual colonies had taken on their own substantial debt to finance the French and Indian War. Local taxes remained high. And then Parliament demanded that the American colonists quarter and feed the British troops stationed in North America as part of their contribution to the empire. The Americans grumbled about Parliament’s sudden attempts to tightly govern them, but the most crushing blow was still to come. In March 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act. This new act decreed that most documents, such as wills, mortgages, newspapers,
ed ment was surpris The British govern e th to angry reaction by the colonists’ . Stamp Act of 1765
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The colonists wan ted their interests to be re presented in Britain’s Parliam ent.
calendars, and playing cards, bear a stamp that had to be purchased by the colonists. This type of tax was common in Great Britain, and Parliament intended it to be used entirely to support British troops defending North America. As one member of Parliament said, “If America looks to Great Britain for protection, she must enable [us] to protect her. If she expects our fleets, she must assist our revenue.” Reaction in America, however, was immediate and unexpected. For the first time in 150 years, colonists found themselves being taxed directly instead of paying an indirect tax on trade goods. This was the first “internal tax,” which, some colonists believed, could open the door to far worse taxes and even political oppression. Boston lawyer James Otis declared it “absolutely irreconcilable” with the colonists’ rights as British subjects. His use of the fiery slogan “no taxation without representation” resonated with other colonial leaders. In May 1765, Patrick Henry introduced a series of resolutions in Virginia’s House of Burgesses saying that only a colony’s general assembly had the power to lay taxes. When some members shouted “treason,” Patrick ended by saying, “If this be treason, make the most of it!” Mobs formed, and rioting broke out in several colonies. At a town meeting in Boston, Samuel Adams
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offered resolutions denying that Parliament had the right to tax the Colonies without their consent. These were sent to other colonies with the call for united action. In October 1765, 27 delegates from nine colonies met in New York as the Stamp Act Congress. Petitioning the king for repeal of the act, the delegates also encouraged colonists to boycott British goods, especially clothing. It soon became a sign of resistance in America to wear only rough, homespun clothing. Before the congress met, Dr. Joseph Warren of Massachusetts wrote that the various colonies were “foolishly jealous of each other. Now,” he concluded, “they are . . . united.” Some members of Parliament were furious when they heard of the colonists’ reactions. They were eager to use force to show support for the act. Others, however, supported the American point of view. Former prime minister William Pitt saw signs of England’s own revolutionary past. He said, “I rejoice that America has resisted” and called the act “oppressive and unconstitutional.” Pitt believed that the American Colonies already enriched Britain through trade monopolies. The colonists’ efforts to boycott the Stamp Act King George III ha s a bad reputatio were successful. When the Stamp Act took effect on n in the United States for hi s role in the Revo November 1, 1765, there was nobody to enforce it. The lutionary War, but he ruled Grea t Britain for 59 ye
ars.
men appointed to collect the stamp revenues were persuaded, sometimes forcefully, to resign from their appointments. In March 1766, the House of Commons repealed the act. Most members still believed the act to be constitutional, but few wished to further injure British merchants who saw their businesses suffer and their profits disappear. In America, angry mobs turned to joyous celebrations. People on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean agreed that amazing things were happening. Nobody could be sure what it might mean for the future. However, patriot John Adams believed that he saw proof that rebellion had begun, well before the Revolutionary War itself, at least “in the minds and hearts of the people.”
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Eric B. Schultz is an entrepreneur, author, and regular contributor to COBBLESTONE.
ures how the This drawing capt the Stamp Act. colonists viewed
I don’t think the post office will accept that kind of stamp!
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by Andrew Matthews
ORGANIZED G
reat Britain’s decision to enact a series of taxes on the American Colonies did not sit well with the colonists. The citizens of Boston particularly were opposed to British policies. A group of Boston men, mostly tradesmen and workers, formed the Loyal Nine to protest the Stamp Act of 1765. The Loyal Nine met in secret, and they used their contacts with printers to generate pamphlets and articles to educate the public and organize resistance on a larger scale. Then, in a speech made in February 1765, Colonel Isaac Barre gave new focus to the colonists’ concerns. Barre was an Irish member of Parliament’s House of Commons. He had fought in the French and Indian War and had firsthand experience with the American colonists. Barre spoke out against the Stamp Act and in favor of the colonists, whom he referred to as “Sons of Liberty.” He went on to say, “The [American] people, I believe, are as truly loyal as any subjects the
king has. But they are a people jealous of their liberties and who will vindicate them if ever they should be violated. . . .” Colonists, who looked to England for news, were thrilled to learn of Barre’s defense of their interests. Some of the more determined leaders formed Sons of Liberty organizations. Eventually, Boston’s Loyal Nine became members of the local group. Within a short time, Sons of Liberty groups organized in towns and colonies from New Hampshire to Georgia. They made it their goal to defend American interests. As resistance to British policies grew, the Sons of Liberty formed into Committees of Safety. By 1775, every colony had a Committee of Safety. They served as shadow governVindicate means to ments that took control of colony defend or insist on the recognition of affairs as royal governors became something. powerless.
RESISTANCE
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he American colonists tried to make their concerns known to leaders in Great Britain. Sometimes, they used persuasion. Other times, they used intimidation.
Here’s a look at their methods.
Intimidation is the act of filling someone with fear.
by Meg Chorlian illustrated by K.E. Lewis
Boycotts consisted of the colonists’ refusal to buy or import British goods. Boycotts were used to pressure the British government into repealing some acts. The passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, the Townshend Acts in 1767, the Tea Act of 1773, and the Coercive Acts of 1774 resulted in various colonial boycotts. The amount of trade revenue that Great Britain lost due to boycotts was greater than the amount of money the government might have collected through taxes. Nonimportation policies also allowed the colonists to test their ability to be self-sufficient. After shots were fired and fighting began in 1775, the British Navy blockaded many American ports, and imported goods were difficult to get.
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Colonial leaders shared written explanations for their discontent with British actions. For example, the Colonies sent a Declaration of Rights and Grievances to King George III and Parliament after the Stamp Act was passed in 1765. It made the claim that “taxation without representation” was unfair. In 1767, Pennsylvanian John Dickinson wrote a newspaper article, “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies.” It became a widely read pamphlet that pointed out how unconstitutional the Townshend Acts were. In 1774, Massachusetts residents drafted the Suffolk Resolves, which made the case for rejecting the Coercive Acts. As late as July 1775, the Second Continental Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition to England. It reaffirmed its members’ loyalty to the king and asked that he be willing to negotiate trade and tax issues.
JAMES OTIS
by Marcia Amidon Lusted illustrated by Zach Franzen
“Taxation without representation is tyranny. If we are not represented, we are slaves.”
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n 1761, James Otis protested the injustice of British writs of assistance, which gave British officials broad rights to search colonists’ property. His 1764 pamphlet, “The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved,” protested Parliament’s Sugar Act. It established him among the first Americans to write pamphlets on the rights of the Colonies as well as protest unfair British legislation. With fellow Bostonian Samuel Adams, he wrote an open letter to all the Colonies, which called on them to defy the Townshend Acts of 1767. To many, Otis lit the spark that led to revolution.
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Tarring and feathering involved applying sticky pine tar to a victim’s body and then throwing loose feathers to stick to the tar. The victim was then carted around in public and ridiculed. It was both painful and humiliating for the target. At first, this action was used to intimidate royal tax collectors in the Colonies, but it also was used to punish suspected informers, pro-British supporters, or individuals expressing unpatriotic sentiments. The first example of someone being tarred and feathered occurred in March 1766, in Newport, Virginia. A crowd used it on a sea captain who was accused of revealing the identity of a colonial smuggler to a British official. After a few instances of this form of punishment became known, just the threat of being tarred and feathered often got the desired results.
FAST FACT In some cases, rather than tarring and feathering a person, the victim’s personal property was targeted. Houses, places of business, and even a horse were subjected to this treatment.
Large, angry crowds of people were intimidating and effective. When confronted by a determined mob, royal officials saw the personal danger they faced if they tried to enforce unpopular British laws. On November 1, 1765, the Stamp Act was supposed to go into effect. By that day, however, all the appointed stamp collectors in the Colonies had resigned. After angry mobs threatened them personally or ransacked and destroyed their homes and businesses, some stamp collectors felt lucky to escape with their lives. But as some colonial leaders discovered, mobs could not always be controlled.
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An effigy is a three-dimensional figure of a known person. To hang someone in effigy, a mob would take the hand-made likeness of a person and hang it from a tree or a pole. The colonists used this method to show their intense dislike for any person who supported Britain’s oppressive acts. For example, Parliament’s efforts to establish the Stamp Act in 1765 quickly resulted in angry protests by the colonists. On August 14, 1765, Boston residents met to hang in effigy the Boston merchant Andrew Oliver, who had been appointed the royal stamp distributor. He resigned his post.
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JOHN DICKINSON by Marcia Amidon Lusted illustrated by Zach Franzen
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ohn Dickinson was a lawyer and legislator in Philadelphia. In the 1760s, he was a critic of British government policy and wrote a pamphlet protesting the Sugar and Stamp acts. After the Townshend Acts passed in 1767, Dickinson published his famous work, “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies,” which appeared in the Pennsylvania Chronicle.
FAST FACT Although Andrew Oliver publicly supported the Stamp Act, he privately was against it.
“Let us take care of our rights and we therein take care of our prosperity.”
In it, he offered the view of an average farmer, telling his fellow colonists how the laws did not match English constitutional principles. While Dickinson was among the first colonial leaders to take a public stand against British injustices, he did not share the eagerness for independence: He hoped that the differences between Great Britain and America could be resolved.
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ritish soldiers had been taunted by Boston’s residents since their arrival in the city in October 1768. The troops had been sent to help Massachusetts acting governor Thomas Hutchinson keep law and order in the rebellious city. But Boston citizens resented their presence. The Sons of Liberty met often to talk about what they should do. Samuel Adams felt that if the townspeople became angry enough, they might be ready to separate from Britain. Small fights between soldiers and citizens began to occur with some frequency. On March 5, 1770, events reached a boiling point. The city was covered with a layer of new snow. Outside the Customs House on King Street, a barber’s apprentice, Edward Garrick, shouted at a British soldier, Hugh White. Angered by the insult, White struck Garrick with the butt of his rifle. Garrick yelled for help, and a crowd gathered. Bells in a nearby church started ringing, sounding an alarm in the city, and more people rushed to the scene. White called for help, and eight additional soldiers came to his aid. By some estimates, a mob of almost 400 people crowded around the British soldiers outside the Customs House. In addition to shouting insults at the soldiers, the crowd began throwing things—a stone, some ice, a snowball. The soldiers had been ordered not to fire, but the colonists grew more menacing. One gun went off, followed by others. The crowd dispersed only when Hutchinson promised that the eight soldiers and their captain would be arrested and tried for their actions. By morning, five colonists were dead, and six others were wounded.
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in King Street Paul Revere’s famous engraving of the action between colonists and British soldiers on March 5, 1770, helped it to become known as the Boston Massacre.
Boston leaders used stories about the “massacre” to encourage greater colonial protests.
For the soldiers’ own safety, their trials were postponed a few months so that the Boston citizens could calm down. Hutchinson was forced to remove the troops from the city, which was a victory for the Sons of Liberty. However, the troops did not return to Britain. Instead, they moved to Castle William, an island in Boston Harbor. John Adams, Samuel Adams’ cousin, believed that Britain’s actions in the Colonies were unjust. But John was a lawyer, and he believed that laws, not propaganda, would solve the problems. John and Josiah Quincy agreed Propaganda is the to be the defending lawyers spread of information that reflects the views at the soldiers’ trials. They and interests of those convinced the jury that the supporting that cause. soldiers had fired in selfdefense. Only two of the men were found guilty of manslaughter. They were branded on the hand, a common form of punishment in those days, and discharged from the army. The Boston Massacre, known at the time as the Bloody Massacre in King Street, was just one of a number of events that contributed toward a complete break with Great Britain. The loss of life that occurred made it stand out. And the Sons of Liberty organized a propaganda effort to put the blame for the deaths on the shoulders of the British soldiers. After the trials, life in Boston settled down and seemed almost normal for a couple of years. Trade between Great Britain and the Colonies resumed. But, by 1773, more taxes and a problem with tea resulted in another confrontation—the Boston Tea Party.
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Detested by Andrew Matthews
Tea
Disguised as Native Americans, a group of Boston men boarded three ships stuck in Boston Harbor and destroyed their shipments of tea.
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By the mid-1700s, tea was so popular in Great Britain and its colonies that it was considered the national drink. The decision to boycott tea shows the extent of American frustration with British policies.
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he three ships tied up to Griffin’s Wharf in Boston Harbor contained 342 chests that held 92,000 pounds of tea. Massachusetts governor Thomas Hutchinson was determined to get the cargo unloaded. Boston residents were equally determined to prevent that from happening. It turned into a historic standoff with dramatic results. At issue was whether Great Britain had a right to collect a tax on certain items coming into the Colonies. In this case, the taxable item was tea—specifically, tea owned by the British East India Company. The British East India Company had been around since the turn of the 17th century. But by the 1770s, it was heavily in debt, and the company held large amounts of surplus tea—about 17 million pounds—in its warehouses. Parliament decided to help the struggling company. The Tea Act of 1773 gave the British East India Company the right to ship tea directly to the Colonies instead of going to Great Britain first. It eliminated any duties to be paid by the company. It gave exclusive control for the sale of tea in the Colonies to specific agents who were chosen by the king. The law eliminated competition in the Colonies and enforced the Townshend Acts from 1767, which included a tax on tea. Payment of the tax was expected to be made when the tea was unloaded or within 20 days of a ship’s arrival. Parliament believed that when the colonists accepted this tax, they also would have to accept Parliament’s right to impose taxes on them. Except . . . the colonists refused to pay the tax. Colonists convinced British East India Company agents and merchants to resign their positions. In New York, Philadelphia, Annapolis, and Charleston (South Carolina), the colonists refused the shipments of tea. They either sent them back to London, or they left the unloaded tea to rot on the docks.
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But in Boston, Hutchinson and his sons, who had been appointed company agents, were not intimidated. When the first of three ships carrying tea arrived in late November, the citizens of Boston would not accept the cargo. They tried to send the ships back to Great Britain. But the ships were unable to leave without a pass from the governor, which Hutchinson refused to give until the tea was unloaded. So the ships sat in Boston Harbor. As the 20-day deadline approached, Boston’s Sons of Liberty mobilized. On the evening of December 16, 1773, a crowd of men dressed as Mohawk Indians (to keep their identities a secret) approached the wharf. They instructed the men guarding the ships to step aside and asked for the keys to the holds. Working quickly and efficiently for three hours, they threw all the tea overboard. Only the tea and the chests it was in were destroyed. No other damage was done, except for a padlock owned by one of the ship captains. And that was replaced the next day. The harbor was described as being so thick with tea that citizens later went out in small boats to slap the tea with oars to make sure it sank. The Boston Tea Party was the first major act of defiance by colonists. The reaction from London was swift and severe. Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, which aimed to punish Boston. The port of Boston was closed until the value of the tea and the tax due on it was paid in full. For a city that relied on shipping and trade, it was a harsh blow. The Massachusetts colonial assembly was disbanded, ending the colony’s ability to have a American merchants role in its government. And 4,000 British regulars were sent to owned the ships holding Boston to police the colony. Boston citizens were expected to the tea in Boston. provide room and board for the soldiers.
FAST FACT
THOMAS HUTCHINSON by Marcia Amidon Lusted illustrated by Zach Franzen
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erving as lieutenant governor and then governor of Massachusetts from 1758 to 1774, Thomas Hutchinson became the focal point of colonial anger. While he had deep colonial roots, Hutchinson remained loyal to Great Britain. He thought the patriots were “hotheads” who used minor incidents to inflame public opinion against Britain. After his home was looted by an
“I doubt whether it is possible to project a system of government in which a colony 3,000 miles distant from the parent state shall enjoy all the liberty of the parent state.” angry mob in 1765, Hutchinson secretly wrote to friends in Great Britain, urging the use of force to restrain the unruly Colonies. Some of his correspondence was released to the public, which further enraged Boston residents. Hutchinson’s enforcement of the Tea Act in 1773, which led to the Boston Tea Party and the passage of the Coercive Acts, resulted in his exile to England.
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Boston’s citizens were singled out for punishment for their actions—British soldiers were sent to enforce the Tea Act, and British warships closed Boston Harbor.
By December 21, Sons of Liberty member Paul Revere set out from Boston for New York City with word of the Boston Tea Party. News of Great Britain’s reaction followed shortly. The Boston Tea Party helped unify the Colonies behind a common goal. Not only did the other colonies rally and send supplies to Boston’s citizens, but they came together in their desire to resist British oppression. When Virginia’s House of Burgesses voted to support Boston in 1774, Virginia’s royal governor ordered that the colonial assembly be disbanded. In response, Virginia’s leaders called for a meeting of delegates from all the Colonies to discuss an organized plan of action. The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia later that fall.
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nly one part icipant in th e Boston Tea P arty was arr ested. Francis Akele y, a Sons of Liberty member, wa s jailed for h is actions that night. He die d on June 19, 17 75, at the Battle of Bre ed’s Hill.
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Virginian Daniel Boone was one of the colonists who ignored the 1763 proclamation after the French and Indian War to keep white settlers east of the Appalachian Mountains. He helped settle Kentucky.
Samuel Adams, a leader of colonial protests in the 1760s and 1770s, was a tax collector in Boston, but he was behind in his collection of those taxes.
Crispus Attucks, a sailor and laborer who was part Native American and part African, has become immortalized as the first person to die in the Boston Massacre. 24
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Although the delegates to the Continental Congresses in 1774 and 1775 hoped for a united front, only about one third of Americans supported independence. One third was neutral. The last third remained loyal to the British Crown.
When Benjamin Franklin heard about the Boston Tea Party, he wrote from London that he hoped the British East India Company would be compensated for its losses.
Paul Revere’s famous ride to alert Massachusetts towns that the British regulars were on the move in 1775 was just one of many trips he made. He was a prominent member of the Sons of Liberty, and he served as a courier to carry news within Massachusetts and to the Continental Congresses in Philadelphia. 25
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Psst ! Pass I by Andrew Matthews
SAMUEL ADAMS by Virginia Calkins illustrated by Zach Franzen
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amuel Adams was an inspired political leader. When Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765, Adams wrote articles condemning it because it taxed the Colonies without their consent. He urged colonists to disobey the act, and a year later, it was repealed. He organized dockworkers, merchant seamen, and other workers into Sons of Liberty
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“It does not take a majority to prevail . . . but rather an irate, tireless minority, keen on setting brushfires of freedom in the minds of men.” groups. They led protest demonstrations, such as the Boston Tea Party, against what they perceived as British injustices. Adams also encouraged unity among the Colonies by sharing information. In 1776, as a member of the Continental Congress, he worked with his cousin John Adams to persuade undecided delegates to vote for independence.
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MERCY OTIS WARREN by Marcia Amidon Lusted illustrated by Zach Franzen
“The rights of the individual should be the primary object of all governments.”
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ercy Otis Warren was one of the most important women to play a public role in the years prior to the Revolutionary War. She was the sister of James Otis and the wife of James Warren, both of whom were patriots. The Warren home became a meeting place for Boston’s Sons of Liberty. Although Mercy lacked a formal education, she became a historian, poet, and playwright. Her writing supported the cause of independence and encouraged colonial resistance to British oppression. She also wrote essays describing how women were supporting the war effort. She corresponded and shared ideas with many of the leading patriots.
illustrated by John Hinderliter
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oston’s citizens were not the only ones to resist British laws in the 1760s and 1770s. They just did it with a lot of energy and passion. Their defiant actions earned them the attention of the British government, which considered Boston a hotbed of rebellion. By the early 1770s, other colonies were watching the situation in Boston carefully. After fighting long and hard to get his fellow colonists to support independence from Great Britain, Samuel Adams thought it was time to try something else. In 1772, Adams called for permanent committees of correspondence to be formed. They would provide news of what was going on within each colony as well as offer a way to share information among the other colonies. Before this, committees of correspondence had been organized to address a certain
issue, but once that issue was resolved, the groups disbanded. The idea of permanent committees of correspondence made sense to the other colonies. Virginia was the first to act. In March 1773, Virginia’s House of Burgesses proposed that each colonial legislature form a permanent committee for communication with the other colonies. Within a year, most of the colonies had established a formal organization of its leaders. Groups exchanged news and information, produced pamphlets and broadsides, and even made plans to take up arms if necessary. Many of the men who served on the committees of correspondence were leaders in their respective colonies. In the end, the committees linked leaders across the Colonies. Many of them later served as delegates to the Continental Congresses.
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S Is in Session by Denver Brunsman
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merica’s path to revolution took a big step forward when the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. Fifty-five delegates from 12 colonies (all but Georgia) gathered in support of Massachusetts after Britain passed the Coercive Acts. The congress was the largest meeting of colonial leaders to have ever assembled. It included Samuel Adams and John Adams of Massachusetts, John Jay of New York, and George Washington of Virginia. The congress had three major goals. First, it wanted to define American grievances against Great Britain. Second, it needed to develop a plan of action for addressing those grievances. Third, it hoped to determine America’s future relationship with Great Britain. Early in its session, a document arrived from Suffolk County, Massachusetts, which helped the congress to accomplish the first two of these goals. The document, known as the Suffolk Resolves, denounced the Coercive Acts. It called on the Colonies to unite in a boycott of British products. On September 17, 1774, the congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves. The action showed that Americans were prepared to stand together against British policies that took away the freedoms of any colony. The delegates then began a discussion of their future relationship with Great Britain. That question turned out to be the hardest issue to solve. No one proposed independence yet. Some delegates felt that Americans no longer had to follow any laws passed by the British Parliament. Others argued that the congress should still recognize Parliament’s control over some aspects of colonial life. Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania was one of the strongest supporters of keeping the Colonies within the British Empire. He proposed a Plan of Union in which all laws affecting the Colonies would be passed by both Parliament and an American congress. The delegates rejected Galloway’s Plan of Union by one vote. Ultimately, the delegates decided that Parliament no longer had authority to pass new laws without colonial consent. But they agreed to continue to accept acts that already existed for regulating trade. The concept of no taxation without representation had expanded to no legislation without consent. The First Continental Congress ended its session on October 26, 1774, having agreed to petition King George III with America’s new position. The delegates planned to meet again in the spring if they were not satisfied with the king’s response.
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George III responded to the news from Philadelphia with anger. He refused to accept the petition from the congress and declared, “The New England Governments are in a State of Rebellion, blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this Country or independent.” The British government ordered Thomas Gage, the new royal governor of Massachusetts and commander in chief of British forces in North America, to take action. Gage sent troops to Concord, Massachusetts, to seize armaments that the colonists had stored there. The order led to war. On April 19, 1775, British regulars clashed with Massachusetts militia, who had been alerted to British troop movements. In Lexington and then Concord, Americans defended their towns and then drove the British back to Boston. The colonists kept the British army surrounded and under siege in Boston for the next several months. Meanwhile, the Second Continental Congress prepared to meet in Philadelphia to review the king’s response to the Americans’ petition. The new congress convened on May 10, 1775, under very different circumstances than those of the previous fall. This congress had contradictory tasks: to organize for war while also seeking peace with Great Britain. At the urging of John Adams, the congress chose Washington as the commanding general of colonial forces. Washington had the most military experience of any colonist. And as a resident of Virginia, his selection confirmed that the war was between Great Britain and all the colonies, not just Massachusetts.
JOSEPH GALLOWAY by Marcia Amidon Lusted illustrated by Zach Franzen
“This restless spirit will lead to a black rebellion with all the horrors of an unnatural civil war. We must accept England’s authority to maintain peace and tranquility.”
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oseph Galloway was among the first colonists to petition Great Britain for relief from the Stamp Act in 1765. Galloway believed that the British residents in North America should have the same privileges as those living in Great Britain. But when riots broke out in the Colonies, Galloway feared that rebellion and independence would only bring chaos. As a member of the First Continental Congress, he proposed a Plan of Union. In it, he suggested ways to reconcile with Great Britain. As the movement toward a split became more of a reality, he was denounced for his loyalty to England. He resigned from his appointment to the congress and tried to persuade others to find peaceful means to end the conflict with Great Britain.
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Washington left immediately for Boston. On his way, he received news of a battle, which took place in Boston on June 17, 1775. The Americans held the high ground on Breed’s Hill (next to Bunker Hill) and withstood three frontal attacks by the British before finally surrendering the position. The British suffered hundreds of casualties in the battle. One British officer reflected that after a few more such victories, no one would be left alive to carry the news to London. Under Washington’s leadership, the new Continental Army (as the American forces became known) succeeded in driving the British from Boston by March 1776. Still, the delegates tried one last attempt to secure peace and end more bloodshed. On July 5, 1775, it approved the Olive Branch Petition to King George III. The petition pledged the colonists’ loyalty to the Crown and implored the king to help devise “a happy and permanent reconciliation” between the Colonies and Great Britain. The peace offer from Philadelphia and the news of Breed’s Hill from Boston arrived in London at the same time. On August 23, 1775, King George III rejected the Olive Branch Petition. He declared that the Colonies were officially in rebellion. The First and Second Continental Congresses failed to end the crisis with Britain, but they succeeded in uniting the American people to a greater extent than ever before. By early 1776, it was becoming clear that the colonists had only two choices: submit to British rule or pursue American independence.
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Denver Brunsman is a history professor at George Washington University and the consulting editor for this issue.
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by Jerry Miller
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Case for I R
esolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented this resolution to the Second Continental Congress on June 7, 1776. John Adams of Massachusetts quickly seconded the motion. The next morning, the debate on independence began. It lasted for two days and was so bitter at times that several delegates threatened to leave. On June 9, it became clear that an immediate vote would favor independence but by the narrowest of margins. Seven colonies would vote for freedom from Britain, while six would vote against it. The majority of the individual delegates from those six colonies either opposed independence or believed that it should be declared later, rather than sooner. Even the strongest supporters of independence realized that the congress needed to be more solidly united before taking such a big—and dangerous— step. So the weary delegates postponed voting until July 1. They hoped that by then, they might all agree.
The delegates to the Second Continental Congress assigned a team to write the Declaration of Independence, but Thomas Jefferson (right) crafted the initial draft by himself.
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Independence By a one-vote majority, the congress also agreed to create a committee to write a declaration of independence. The document could then be ready for immediate publication and shipment throughout the Colonies if Lee’s resolution passed in July. The committee’s members were Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Robert R. Livingston of New York, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, John Adams of Massachusetts, and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. The Committee of Five decided what points their document needed to include and then who should write it. Livingston could not vote for independence because New York had not sent instructions to its delegates, and he was recalled before signing the final version of the Declaration. Sherman was not a skilled writer. Franklin, America’s greatest writer and most experienced diplomat, was ill (he spent most of June in bed). Adams and Jefferson were both outstanding writers. It was determined that the fiery Adams would continue to lead the fight for independence on the congressional floor. That left the quiet and shy Jefferson to pen the work. Jefferson spent two days writing and rewriting the declaration before showing it to the committee. Adams and Franklin
RICHARD HENRY LEE by Kahlil Chism illustrated by Zach Franzen
“Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.”
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y the late 1760s, Richard Henry Lee was among the many colonists who disliked the long-distance rule of the British Crown. When Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, Lee strongly opposed it. In 1767, in reaction to the Townshend Acts, Lee expressed the Colonies’ grievances in a petition to the king. Lee was one of the first Virginians to organize an intercolonial communications system. Then, on June 7, 1776, Lee presented a resolution to the Second Continental Congress. It was only 80 words long. It plainly spelled out independence from Great Britain for the American Colonies. Although many of the members of the congress agreed with Lee, they were not all ready to sign his resolution. But it motivated them to take action. After a short recess, the congress reconvened to debate the document that would become the Declaration of Independence.
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suggested a few changes, but the committee praised the draft. The declaration was presented to the congress on June 28. On the morning of July 1, the delegates met to vote on Lee’s resolution. Since early June, American opinion had shifted toward independence. Even so, the debate promised to be bitter, and the outcome was not certain. John Dickinson of Pennsylvania spoke first. He presented reason after reason for why declaring independence at that time would bring disaster. To do so, Dickinson said, would be to “brave the storm in a skiff made of paper.” Dickinson spoke so impressively that the room was silent when he By the summer of 1776, a finished. The only sound was that of a raging storm outside. Then, John unified congress was ready Adams rose to speak. For two hours, Adams argued for independence. He to vote for independence. spoke, said Jefferson, “with a power . . . that moved us from our seats.” The debate continued long into the evening. At last, a preliminary vote was taken. Nine colonies favored independence. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against it, while New York abstained. Delaware had only two delegates present, by Marcia Amidon Lusted and they could not agree. illustrated by Zach Franzen Those who supported independence had a definite majority, but they had hoped to prove their resolve to Great Britain and the world with a unanimous vote. Edward “We must, indeed, all Rutledge of South Carolina made a motion hang together, or most that the voting wait until the next day. assuredly we shall all Perhaps, he said, his colony would change hang separately.” its vote. By the morning of July 2, South Carolina’s delegates agreed to vote with the majority. Dickinson and Robert Morris ometimes called the “First American,” Benjamin Franklin stayed home. Their absence allowed is one of the most familiar faces in colonial America. He Pennsylvania’s vote to be in favor of indewas a printer, a writer, an editor, a scientist, and a newspaper pendence. Delaware’s third delegate, Caesar journalist. As a well-liked and respected colonial represenRodney, arrived at the last moment soaked tative in England, he presented arguments to Parliament in mud. He had ridden all night through against the Stamp Act, which helped repeal it. He was not a the storm to cast his vote for independence. supporter of independence at first, but his years in London New York still abstained, but that made the (1764–1775) convinced him that reconciliation was impossible. vote 12 in favor, none opposed. Once he returned to the Colonies, he was elected to the There was still work to be done, howSecond Continental Congress as a delegate from Pennsylvania ever. The next day, more than 50 delegates and became a forceful advocate for independence.
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
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And now, Great Britain and the United States are close allies. Go figure!
After the Revolutionary War, the Colonies still had to figure out ways to govern themselves, but they were free from British control.
took up the task of considering the actual wording of the Declaration of Independence. They eventually deleted one fourth of Jefferson’s original and changed or added many words and phrases. Congress adopted the final version on July 4. The completed document was rushed to John Dunlap’s print shop, and by the next morning, broadside copies of the official Declaration were on their way to each colony and to General George Washington with his army in New York. As the news spread, public readings of the Declaration of Independence took place in military camps, on town squares, and all over the Colonies. There were great celebrations everywhere. The signing of the Declaration took place on August 2, after it had been copied onto a single large sheet of parchment. As the delegates signed the document, some became unusually solemn. Others made nervous jokes. There was good reason for them to be uneasy. Today, we know how history turned out, but these men risked everything for an uncertain future. Their signatures on the Declaration of Independence provided undeniable proof of their treason against Great Britain—an act for which they could be hanged.
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Jerry Miller is a former teacher. He writes about history for COBBLESTONE, APPLESEEDS, and other magazines.
A skiff is a shallow, open boat. Abstained means held back from doing something. A broadside is a large sheet of paper with print on one side. Parchment is made from the skin of a sheep or a goat, which is turned into material on which something can be written or painted. Treason is the betrayal of one’s country by waging war against it.
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n o i t a r Decla s Quote
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, . . . a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the
pursuit of Happiness.—That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
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For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
We, therefore, . . . solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace,
contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
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A Growing S by Will Bremen
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an you solve this crossword puzzle? All the information about it can be found in the issue. Answers are on page 48.
ACROSS 2. The Quartering Act required colonists to . provide food and lodging for British 5. The threat of getting tarred and often convinced royal officials to give in to angry colonists. 6. This form of colonial protest worked because it had a negative economic impact on British trade. 8. The Boston Massacre was initially known as Street.” the “Bloody Massacre in 9. The Coercive Acts, designed to punish Acts in the Boston, were called the Colonies. 10. The cost of fighting the and Indian War left Great Britain with an enormous national debt. 11. The colonists used and letters to try to persuade the king and Parliament to understand their position. 13. Adams was one of the first colonists to support a complete separation from Great Britain.
DOWN 1. Sons of were groups of colonists who worked to resist oppressive British policies. 2. This 1765 act was the first direct tax that Great Britain attempted to collect from the colonists. 3. Committees of created a network on which the Colonies could share news and information. 4. Patrick Henry’s fiery speeches helped rally support for the cause for independence in this southern colony. 6. Great Britain’s attempts to assert its sovereignty met the most active resistance in this New England city. 7. Boston leader James was the first to claim “No taxation without representation!” 12. A “party” in Boston Harbor in 1773 destroyed 342 chests containing this product.
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g Split
Crossword Puzzle It’s a strike!
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Am ia c r y by Ma db e t ra ill u s t
The British View
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hen we think about the American Revolutionary War, we tend to think about Americans who played big roles in the struggle for independence. But what about the other side . . . the British leaders who also played a part in the unfolding events?
“I rejoice that America has resisted.” William Pitt uttered these words in 1766. Pitt was a member of the British House of Commons. He was speaking out against the Stamp Act. Even though Pitt, a former prime minister, believed that the British Parliament had the authority to create legislation for the American Colonies, he did not believe that it had the right to levy taxes on them. His speech helped repeal the Stamp Act a few months later. In 1775, Pitt proposed a Provisional Act that would maintain Parliament’s authority but still meet the demands of the Colonies. The proposal did not pass. Once the Revolutionary War began, Pitt warned that the Americans would not be defeated. His defense of America and his belief that the Continental Congress should be recognized and that there should be no taxation without representation made him popular with the colonists. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is named for him.
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A Family Quarrel? While William Pitt was speaking out against the Stamp Act, his brother-in-law, George Grenville, was defending it. Appointed England’s prime minister in 1763, Grenville was responsible for the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765. It included 55 resolutions, detailing all the different situations where the tax would be applied. In addition to the Stamp Act, Grenville’s government also passed the Sugar, Currency, and Quartering acts. While these laws made Grenville popular in Great Britain, they led to wide-scale opposition in the Colonies. Grenville was dismissed from his post as prime minister in 1765. He eventually reconciled with Pitt.
The Prime Minister Who Lost America History remembers Frederick North, best known as Lord North, as the British prime minister who lost the American Colonies. He became prime minister in 1770, and at first he tried to ease some of the colonists’ resentment by restraining some of Parliament’s activities. He found other ways to create revenue for Great Britain without increasing taxes in the Colonies. But he didn’t understand how strongly Americans felt about British taxes until the Tea Act of 1773. Instead of removing the tax on the Colonies, Lord North only altered it. And while he reduced the original tax by half, the standoff over the tax in Boston led to the Boston Tea Party and eventually to the Revolutionary War. Lord North resigned in 1782.
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UR Yo S TTER LE
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USS Yorktown Under Attack!
Kevin Williams Leesville, South Carolina
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1865: A Year in the Civil War Tragedy at Wounded Knee Road to Civil Rights Write to us! Draw a picture or write a poem or short essay that connects to one of the above COBBLESTONE themes on which we currently are working. All contributions must be your own, original work. Include your name and address, and a note from a parent, guardian, or teacher acknowledging the originality of your work. We will include as many as we can in the upcoming issue to which your work relates.
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J URSFuTn Fo
Hey, Kids! We’re looking for a funny caption for this photo. Send your idea to: Just for Fun, COBBLESTONE, 30 Grove Street, Peterborough, NH 03458. Include a letter from a parent or guardian that confirms it is your original work and that we have permission to publish it. Send your name and address, too. If your caption is chosen, we’ll send you a copy of the issue in which it appears.
be ing toever! o g s i This est selfie P., age 11 b e Alex lifornia h t Ca B a ke
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You know say . . . twwhat they are better o heads than one! Kevin Shea , age 9 Yonkers, New York
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often pose this question to my audiences: “Where are the women heroes in U.S. history?” Then I answer my own question: “They’re everywhere—we just haven’t done as good a job telling their stories as we do with male heroes.” This month’s mystery heroes are women who organized into patriotic groups during the events leading up to the American Revolutionary War. While the groups of men with a similar name are always mentioned in history books, these groups of women are rarely mentioned. As you have read in this issue, the boycotts of British goods were an important tactic for
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the Americans. Women supported the effort by refusing to buy dresses or ribbons or gloves made in England. Beginning around 1766, some women’s groups led the effort to replace British goods with items made in the Colonies. Of particular importance was the clothing they made. Homespun yarn was made by holding “spinning bees” in town squares. The bees were designed to work as contests, which allowed the women to have fun while helping the cause. Homespun cloth became a symbol of defiance in the struggle with the British. The women’s groups also opposed the Tea Act by finding substitutes for tea and sugar. They created “liberty tea,” which was made by boiling basil. The ladies used other herbs, such as catnip, sage, and even raspberry leaves as a tea substitute. In 1774, the efforts of these women made possible the total boycott of British goods passed by the Continental Congress. It was an early demonstration in American history of women exercising political power. And once the actual fighting started, the women supported the cause by sewing uniforms and making bullets. What was the name for these active and important groups of women who helped pave the way for independence? Answer on page 48.
g— ne n ber nnis De e ears, y D 0 r. 2 D t as r almos o known F . o s ut ls e o a b ro “Dr. D”— ry and real he and speaking a s.com , u to g 4 is s in h e h s c love ng, tea ww.hero and his ti w ri it w is n V ook he’s bee over America. inning b all award-w is h heroes t u o all ab s. to learn e trading card u t ir -V ro He
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oston is one of my favorite places. As you know from reading this issue, the city played a historic role in the years before the Revolutionary War. That Revolutionary spirit is still alive. Whether you plan to visit in person or just want to experi experience a virtual tour, I suggest you start with the Boston National Historical Park (www.nps.gov/bost). You can get information on the Freedom Trail, a 2.5-mile walking tour that includes various historic sites and
stops. Even Colonel Crow loved it (but he flew for part of the walk!). We saw the Paul Revere House and the Old South Meeting House. We met some colonial interpreters who were so authentic and knowledgeable that the Colonel thought we had traveled back to the 18th century. Of course, we saved time to enjoy the buzz of activity at Faneuil Hall. By the way, did you know that Faneuil Hall was the site of some Stamp Act protests in the 1760s? We learned that on our walking tour!
Loo somet History for
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“Give me liberty, or give me death!”
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he above quote is credited to Patrick Henry. He gave a speech in 1775 to Virginia’s colonial leaders to persuade them to send militia from Virginia to fight in the American Revolutionary War. While it is unclear if Henry said these exact words (no transcript of the speech exists), or even if he wrote them himself (the words may have been written by another person), those who were present remembered Henry’s speech as being electric and dramatic.
Answers to A Growing Split Crossword Puzzle from page 38: 1 2 S
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Picture Credits: North Wind Picture Archives: 2–3 (top), 3 (bottom), 4 (left), 10 (right), 11 (left), 20–21 (bottom), 22–23 (top), 45 (left); Shutterstock.com: 4 (globe), 6–9 (background), 10–12 (background), 13, 18–19 (background), 20–23 (background), 21 (top, both), 32 (left), 32–33 (center), 34, 35, 36–37 (top and bottom), 38–39 (background), 44 (both), 46 (both), back cover; Library of Congress: 5 (both), 9 (bottom), 12 (top and bottom), 15, 16, 18–19 (center), 19 (top right), 48 (detail); courtesy Dennis Denenberg: 45 (inset). Cricket Media has made every effort to trace the copyrights of these images.
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Editorial and Marketing office: COBBLESTONE, 30 Grove Street, Suite C, Peterborough, NH 03458. Telephone: 603-924-7209.
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Answer to Dr. D’s Mystery Hero from page 45: Daughters of Liberty
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COBBLESTONE (ISSN 0199-5197) (USPS 520-350) is published 9 times a year, monthly except for combined May/June, July/August, and November/December issues, by Cricket Media, 30 Grove Street, Peterborough, NH 03458. Periodicals postage paid at Peterborough, NH, and at additional mailing offices. One-year subscription (9 issues) $33.95; $15.00 additional per year outside the U.S. (includes Canadian GST/HST). Please remit in U.S. funds (GST # 30428204). Prices subject to change. Back issue prices available on request. For SUBSCRIPTIONS, CHANGE OF ADDRESS, and ADJUSTMENTS, write to COBBLESTONE, P.O. Box 807, Peterborough, NH 03458-9901. Please give both new address and old address as printed on last label. Allow six to eight weeks for change of address. POSTMASTER: Please send change of address to COBBLESTONE, P.O. Box 807, Peterborough, NH 03458-9901. Copyright © 2014 by Cricket Media. All rights reserved. Reproduction of the whole or any part of the content is illegal without written permission from the publisher. Not responsible for unsolicited manuscripts or other material. All letters assumed for publication become the property of Cricket Media. For information regarding our privacy policy and compliance with the Children’s On-line Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), please visit our Web site at www.cobblestonepub.com or write to Cricket Media, 30 Grove Street, Peterborough, NH 03458. Editorial correspondence: COBBLESTONE, 30 Grove Street, Peterborough, NH 03458. Printed in the United States of America.
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Telling America’s Story www.cobblestonepub.com
September 2014 • Volume 35 • Number 7
l o l o C oo A h c S
Creat ure
Featu re
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y the mid-1770s, the American Colonies realized that they had a better chance of success against Great Britain if they stuck together. That made us think of how fish use schooling to increase their chances of survival. Small fish, when swimming tightly in a large group, can appear to be a much larger, single fish to other sea creatures searching for a meal. The ability of schooling fish to swim together, shift directions, and remain aware of the fish swimming closest to them is pretty fascinating. By sticking together, schooling fish can either avoid or defend against larger prey. We don’t think the American colonists studied the habits of fish, but they certainly showed some “fishy” instincts by uniting together.
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