Agricultural Extension Manual Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Department of Agriculture

DRAFT As of 31st January 2013

CONTENTS SECTION I Module 1

FARM PRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1 CROP PRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1

SITE SELECTION ........................................................................................................... 1 LAND PREPARATION .................................................................................................... 1 PLANTING REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................................... 3 FERTILIZER APPLICATION ......................................................................................... 4 WEEDING ........................................................................................................................ 4 PEST CONTROL/MONITORING.................................................................................... 5 Module 2

Livestock Production ................................................................................... 8

Poultry .............................................................................................................................. 8 Pig ................................................................................................................................... 10 Cattle .............................................................................................................................. 11 Module 3

FISH FARMING ........................................................................................ 13

Fishpond Design and Construction ............................................................................... 13 Pond Management Options ............................................................................................ 13 Aquatic Vegetation ......................................................................................................... 13 Why Should I Feed? ....................................................................................................... 14 Harvesting Fish .............................................................................................................. 14 Marketing Harvested Fish ............................................................................................. 16 After Harvest .................................................................................................................. 17 Module 4

LAND HUSBANDRY PRACTICES .......................................................... 17

LAND AND LAND USES .............................................................................................. 17 Degradation of the soil as a rooting environment ......................................................... 18 CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE .............................................................................. 20 ORGANIC FARMING .................................................................................................... 21 Techniques of Organic Farming..................................................................................... 22 Natural pest control ....................................................................................................... 23

SECTION II Module 1

FARM PLANNING .......................................................................... 25 MODULE ONE: INTRODUCTION TO FARM MANAGEMENT ............ 25

Farm management ......................................................................................................... 25 Module 2

VISIONING AND DECISION-MAKING IN FARM MANAGEMENT .... 28

Visioning ......................................................................................................................... 28 Module 3 Module 4 Module 5 Module 6

SECTION III Module 1

RECORD KEEPING.................................................................................. 29 FARM BUDGETING ................................................................................. 32 Marketing .................................................................................................. 37 CASH FLOW ANALYSIS .......................................................................... 40

EXTENSION DELIVERY ............................................................... 44 PARTICIPATION (I.E. IN CACS, COOPERATIVES, FGS,) ................... 44

LEADERSHIP + LESSON PLAN .................................................................................. 44 Group Development ....................................................................................................... 46 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT +LESSON PLAN ........................................................... 50 Delegation....................................................................................................................... 55 Farmer Field School (FFS) ............................................................................................. 56 Module 2

PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES ........................................................... 58

Participatory Extension Approach................................................................................. 58 PaViDIA.......................................................................................................................... 59 PROJECT CYCLE .......................................................................................................... 61 STUDY CIRCLES .......................................................................................................... 62

Module 3

CROSS CUTTING ISSUES - GENDER ................................................... 64

GENDER AWARENESS ................................................................................................ 64 SEX AND GENDER ....................................................................................................... 64 GENDER ROLES ........................................................................................................... 64 GENDER ISSUES .......................................................................................................... 65 Module 4

ZONING OF CAMPS................................................................................. 67

WORK MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................ 67

SECTION IV Module 1

NUTRITION.................................................................................... 70 FOOD AND NUTRITION EDUCATION.................................................. 70

What is nutrition? .......................................................................................................... 70 What is food? .................................................................................................................. 71 Food composition ............................................................................................................ 71 Functions of food in the body ......................................................................................... 71 Malnutrition ................................................................................................................... 72 Module 2

FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION ........................................ 75

Food processing .............................................................................................................. 75 Food preservation ........................................................................................................... 75 Why we process and preserve foods ............................................................................... 75 Food quality and safety .................................................................................................. 75 Safe food handling practices .......................................................................................... 76 Processing and preservation of roots and tubers........................................................... 76 Fruits and vegetable Processing .................................................................................... 77 Meat and fish processing................................................................................................ 77 Legume processing ......................................................................................................... 78 Module 3

SECTION V Module 1

FOOD UTILIZATION ............................................................................... 79

FARM POWER & MECHANIZATION ............................................. 80 Post-harvest Processing ............................................................................ 80

GRAIN CROP DRYING, HANDLING AND STORAGE ............................................... 80

SECTION VI Module 1

IRRIGATION PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT ......................... 84 FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE PLANNING TO IRRIGATION .... 84

CHOICE OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM............................................................................ 84 SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS ........................................................................... 85 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING ....................................................................................... 86 Module 2

WATER MANAGEMENT TECHNICS ..................................................... 88

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 88 MANAGING IRRIGATION WATER ............................................................................. 88 Module 3

WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS .............................................................. 90

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 90 FORMATION OF WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS ..................................................... 90 GUIDELINE FOR MAKING RULES AND GUIDELINES IN AN IRRIGATION SCHEME ........................................................................................................................ 91 CONDITIONS FOR USING WATER (SERVICE DELIVERY) .................................... 93 Module 4 SCHEMES

PROCEDURES FOR OPERATION & MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION 94

OPERATION PROCEDURES IN IRRIGATION........................................................... 94 MAINTENANCE SERVICE .......................................................................................... 95 Irrigation Network ......................................................................................................... 97

SECTION I

Module 1

FARM PRODUCTION

CROP PRODUCTION

SITE SELECTION Various Factors to Consider in Location and Farm Site Selection The type of crop to be grown This involves learning everything about the crop to be grown including a thorough identification of the environmental adaptation of the crop, particularly its soil, topographic, and climatic requirements. Plants are also distinguished into various classifications according to climate adaptation such as temperate, sub-tropical and tropical crops. Soil and climatic requirements of the crop The soil requirement of a particular crop includes such specific characteristics as soil type, depth, drainage, texture, organic matter content, pH, and fertility with respect to the macronutrient and micronutrient content of the soil. The topographic requirement of a crop refers to its natural adaptation or tolerance to land features such as elevation, slope, and terrain. The climatic factors that can influence the growth and yield of crops include temperature, water or rainfall, light (including photoperiod or light duration), relative humidity, and wind. These factors may vary with geographical location and, as to microclimate, from farm to farm. Frequency of calamities (droughts, floods and frost) The frequency of possible occurrence of calamities like flood, drought and frost are always considered in both location and site selection because they can cause severe loss in investment or total crop failure. In particular, some crops like banana are prone to injury due to frost and strong wind. Accessibility A farm that is managed as a business must have access to inputs supplies, equipment, and the market for the produce. The farmer must have easy access to the field for timely operations. Labour supply and cost The labour must be available at reasonable cost especially during peak periods like planting, weeding and harvesting. Security The farm should be secure from thieves and stray animals. Otherwise, additional investment may have to be provided for fencing or security personnel.

LAND PREPARATION Purpose of land preparation

1

Preparing the land for crop production serves many purposes, including: a) b)

c)

d) e) f)

The creation of a seedbed, where planted seeds are in contact with the soil moisture so they will germinate to become established quickly Weed control. Removal of weeds is necessary because they successfully compete with crops for moisture, nutrients and light. In addition, some weeds secrete chemicals from their roots into the soil that inhibit crop seeds from germinating. The incorporation of crop residues and fertilizer materials into the soil, when plowed into the soil, helps buildup organic matter and nutrients for the crop Plowing breaks the soil crust and hardpans, improving water penetration and aeration. Shapes the soil for irrigation. Also, the plow leaves the surface rough and porous, increasing the amount of water that enters the soil and helping to control erosion. Soil runoff can also be reduced if furrows are plowed opposite to the way water would flow.

Procedures and Methods of Land Preparation Land Clearing This attributed to a new site and involves uprooting, cutting, and removing trees, shrubs (and stones) from the field. Any pit falls have to be filled removed and anthills removed. Ploughing The best depth to plough is a much-discussed subject. Although research shows that 20 centimetres is usually deep enough, deeper ploughing has sometimes produced slightly higher yields. Implements used are disc plough, animal drawn plough, and hand and hoe. While tillage of some kind is desirable, there are many small farmers who, because of steep land and/or lack of access to equipment, plant without tilling the soil first. In these cases the farmer clears the land with a machete (may do manual ploughing, as well) and plants using a planting stick. Harrowing Tillage to prepare a seedbed after the land has been ploughed is accomplished with harrows or field cultivators preparation of a good seedbed. Disking can replace ploughing in soils that have relatively little or fine crop residues. Overworking a field with a disk can be disastrous as it leaves the soil surface fine, and loose. Overworked soil easily loses moisture and the lower half of the ploughed soil layer may end up as hard as before it was ploughed because it gets compacted with the machinery. Best time for land preparation Field crops Marginal moisture supply is critical at ploughing time because the soil must be dry enough for tillage without causing excessive compaction or creating clods in fine-textured soils. As soon as the crop has been taken out, the land can be tilled and preparations can be started for next cropping season. Horticultural The best time to work the land will be just before planting time making sure the land is not too wet or too dry. Under most conditions, a smooth, finely pulverized seedbed should not be prepared until just before a crop is to be planted.

2

Management practices Because of the possible damage to soil structure from overworking the soil, one modern approach to soil conservation is to use only as much tillage as is required to produce a good crop. The kind and amount of tillage is determined according to crop, soil and field conditions. No one set of guiding standards is appropriate for all situations. Tillage must be done in a way that will assure adequate protection of soil and water resources. A good soil surface will prevent crust formation and allow rapid rainfall penetration. Other management practices such as contouring, strip planting, cover cropping, alley cropping, reduced tillage, terracing and leaving some crop residue on the land help to eliminate or minimize the loss of soil from water and wind erosion. Using good erosion control practices not only preserves the soil, but also many nutritional elements needed for plant growth. In addition to these practices, a good fertilizer program promotes greater crop growth. Crops, in turn, contribute to soil improvement by protecting the soil against the impact of falling rain, by holding the soil in place with extensive plant root systems, and by providing soil nutrients from organic matter of decomposing plant residues.

PLANTING REQUIREMENTS The planting operation is one of the most important activities in crop farming because it is the time when seed or seedlings are placed in the ground to establish the crop. If there is poor establishment of the planted crop, yield potential is immediately limited. Factors to consider are time of planting, the plant spacing, and the depth of seeding and placement of the seed relative to fertilizer. Time of Planting This has a major effect on the yield of the crop. There is an optimum time of planting for most crops. This depends on the climatic conditions and time taken to reach maturity. For summer (rain fed) crops such as maize, cotton and groundnuts early planting at the beginning of rainy season is desirable as yield decreases with late planting. For winter (irrigated) crops such tomatoes, wheat, etc. early planting towards the end of April is recommended when soil temperatures are still relatively high. Spacing Planting spacing refers to the distance between rows and between plants in the row. The closer the plant spacing, the greater the number of plants per hectare. The ideal plant spacing depends on type of crop grown, climate and to some extent on the intended use of the crop. For example close spacing in maize for silage and wider spacing for grain. Accurate seed spacing in the row will ensure optimum plant population. The higher than optimum population will increase competition for water, light and nutrients. If implements are used in crop production ensure that rows are parallel and spaced as recommended. This is very important as a lot of plants will be destroyed by inter row cultivation if the width varies. Short statured crops like soya beans may be grown at closer spacing than tall larger crops like maize. In drier areas wider spacing is preferable in order to provide more soil water to the individual plants. In higher rainfall areas or where there is irrigation, closer spacing is recommended. Sowing Depth Sowing depth of a crop depends on the size of the seed, the type of soil and the weather. Generally, smaller seeds are sown at shallower depth than larger seed, while the deeper the seed is planted, the longer the seedlings will take to emerge and the weaker the plant will be at emergence. This may reduce plant vigour and yield. Correct planting depth is essential for uniform germination. Seed may be planted deeper into the sandy soils or when dry-planting (planting before the rains). When planting ensure good seed-to-soil contact, as this enables the necessary imbibition of water which initiates 3

germination. Soil Conditions At planting, the soil should be moist enough to germinate the seed and maintain early growth. If there is insufficient moisture, there is danger of the seed germinating then drying. Deeper soils are better than shallower soils as they store more water. Seed Rate This varies according to seed size and type of planting whether it is direct transplanting from the nursery. Seed may be drilled in row or broadcasted depending on the seed size.

FERTILIZER APPLICATION Manure and fertilizer must be applied taking into consideration the soil’s ability to supply nutrients, the requirements of the crops (i.e. the expected yield) and the cost and availability of fertilizer. Wherever possible, organic manure should be the prime source of nutrients for crops, because they are essentially cheap and contribute much to soil sustainability. Bought inorganic fertilizers should only be used to supplement organic manure. The most important elements of inorganic fertilizers are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Sulphur (S) and Calcium (Ca). Fertilizer applied at different stages in a cycle of crop growth. Basal dressing which is composed of NPK is usually applied at panting. Top dressing which is mostly nitrogenous fertilizers is applied to an established plant (usually 2-4 weeks after planting). Since nitrogen is required throughout the growth period and nitrogenous fertilizer may be lost through leaching, it is better not to apply too much nitrogen at once. Split application of nitrogenous fertilizers is more desirable in lighter soils than on heavy texture soils. It is recommended that the entire quantity of phosphoric fertilizer be applied in one doze before planting (especially in field crops). This is because phosphorus is required in greater quantities during the early growth period and become available to the plant slowly. Potassium should also be applied in one doze at sowing. However, for horticultural crops there are some top dressing fertilizers that are rich in P and K chiefly to promote fruiting, bulb formation and roots development e.g. in egg plants, onion and carrots respectively.

WEEDING Weeds are plants that compete with crops for light, space, water and nutrients. They can also make activities like land preparation and field operations such as spraying, irrigation and harvesting difficult. Crop yields are mostly adversely affected by weed competition during the first four weeks after crop emergence. Observing good tillage practices and maintaining soil fertility helps suppress certain species of weeds. The control of weeds can be achieved mechanically, culturally, physically, chemically or biologically. The choice of the method to be used is determined by the type of crop, its stage of growth and the planting method. Mechanical method is the most common method of weeding used by small-scale farmers in Zambia. Weeds are removed using hoes by cultivation or scraping. Hand hoeing though intensive is cheap and more effective. For large cultivated areas, ox-drawn cultivators can be used. Culturally, weeds can be controlled using mulching, crop rotation and appropriate land preparation. Physical control involves hand pulling of the weeds and it is suitable for fully grown crops to avoid damage and also in situations of continuous wet conditions when other weed control methods are not 4

efficient. Chemical control entails use of herbicides. These herbicides may be selective or non-selective in nature. Some are crop specific and will kill any plant they come into contact with apart from that specific crop. The time of application with respect to crop stage can be pre-emergence or post-emergence. The mode of action also differs between herbicides as some are systemic while others are contact in action. Remember to read and follow label instructions whenever you are handling herbicides.

PEST CONTROL/MONITORING A pest is any organism which is harmful and detrimental to the growth of a plant. Damage caused by the pest: Qualitative loss The quality of the produce is assessed in different ways according to the circumstances considered important by the local population and the trader concerned. Generally, quality is assessed and product graded on the basis of appearance (colour), shape, size etc, but smell and flavor are sometimes included. Foreign matter content and contaminants are other factors that influence qualitative losses. Foreign matter may be in form of insect fragments, grass, weed seed, parts of plants, stones etc. Nutrition loss It is a loss in terms of nutritional value to the human population concerned. Insects attack the germ and endosperm of the grain hence removing a large percentage of protein, vitamin and carbohydrate content. Loss of seed viability This relates to loss in seed germination which is important for its effect on future food supply. Seed grain is usually more carefully stored than food grain owing to its potential values. Loss may be caused by; changes in light, temperature, moisture, excessive respiration, infestation, and methods used to control infestation. Commercial losses These losses are generally incurred through a lack of knowledge, experience or management ability. Pest infestation may usually cause reduction in plant population and affect the physiological maturity leading to immature fruits thus affecting the yield per unit area. TYPES OF DISEASES IN CROPS TYPE OF CROP: BEANS COMMON PATHOGEN NAME Anthracnose Fungi leaf spot

SYMPTOMS

-Dark brown lesions on which pinkish spore may appear. Angular spots on vein of a leaf and may affect the stems and pods. Rust Fungi Dark brown or black raised spots on pods and leaves Bacterial Bacterial Small translucent spots on leaves Blight followed by lesions and slightly sunken, brown to red spots on pods. Browning of vascular system and cankers on stem. Common Fungi Small translucent spots on leaves disease followed by lesions and slightly sunken, brown to red spots on pods. TYPE OF CROP: GROUNDNUTS COMMON PATHOGEN SYMPTOMS NAME

5

DISSEMINATION

CONTROL

Seed borne and by spore dispersal

Resistant varieties

Wind blown spores and crop debris Seed borne and by bacterial spread

Sulphur dusting and use of resistant varieties Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties.

Seed borne, by rain, insects, wind and plant debris

Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties.

DISSEMINATION

CONTROL

Leaf spot

Fungi

Rust

fungal

Rosette

Viral

TYPE OF CROP: SOYBEANS COMMON PATHOGEN NAME Red leaf Fungi blotch Purple stain

seed

Fungi

Light tan, circular spots, later reddish brown to black on lower surface of leaf and light brown above Dark brown or black raised spots on pods and leaves Clorox of young leaves, pale yellow mosaic of older leaves and stunted growth

Crop debris dispersal

and

spore

Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties.

Crop debris dispersal Insect vector

and

spore

Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties. Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties.

SYMPTOMS

DISSEMINATION

Dark reddish to brown blotches appear on the leaves, stems and pods. Early defoliation and reduction in yield. Grain stained purple due to extreme wet conditions

Crop debris dispersal

and

spore

Crop debris dispersal

and

spore

CONTROL Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties. Use of fungicide Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties. Good sanitation Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties. Good sanitation Crop rotation, use of clean seed and resistant varieties.

Wilting of upper leaves, water soaked Crop debris and spore lesions on stem and covered by white dispersal cotton. Bacterial Bacterial Small translucent spots on leaves Seed borne and by bacterial Blight followed by lesions and slightly sunken, spread brown to red spots on pods. Browning of vascular system and cankers on stem. TYPE OF CROP: MAIZE, MILLET, SORGHUM AND RICE COMMON PATHOGEN SYMPTOMS DISSEMINATION CONTROL NAME Grey Leaf Fungi Numerous elongated spots between veins Crop debris and spore Crop hygiene and resistant spot which are reddish dispersal varieties Smut Fungi Galls form in embryonic tissue in any Spore dispersal and crop Use of resistant varieties and seed treatment part of the plants, from which spore debris masses are later released. Rust Fungi Pustules on leaves which become chloric Spore dispersal Use of resistant varieties and and dry out. seed treatment Rice Blast Fungi Longitudinal red or yellow spots on Spore dispersal Seed treatment and resistant leaves. Darker lesions spots appear on varieties. stem and developing grains. TYPE OF CROP: CRUCIFERS (CABBAGE, RAPE, CHINESE CABBAGE, SPINACH) COMMON PATHOGEN SYMPTOMS DISSEMINATION CONTROL NAME Liming of soil, improved Club root Fungi The roots become stubby and swollen Infested soils with spores drainage and drenching of and can develop wet rot. This greatly the soil. reduces the function of roots causing yellowing of the leaves Black rot Bacterial Browning or blackening of veins. Seed borne, infested soil, Seed treatment, crop rotation Yellowing and wilting of leaves. irrigation water and rain and and good drainage. crop debris Mosaic Viral Leaf mottling and vein clearing Infected crops, by aphids Pesticides and weed control from weed hosts TYPE OF CROP: SOLANACEAE FAMILY (TOMATO, IRISH POTATOES, GREEN PEPPER, CHILLIES, PAPRIKA AND EGGPLANT) COMMON PATHOGEN SYMPTOMS DISSEMINATION CONTROL NAME Late blight Fungi Brown to purple black lesions on leaves, By water, wind borne spores Tolerant varieties, removal stems and fruits followed by rotting and crop debris of affected plant and debris. Use of fungicides Early blight Fungi Dark brown to black spots on leaflets. By wind borne spores Use of fungicides. Lesion on tubers in some cases Scab Fungi Scabs of varying type on the surface of Soil borne and infected Resistant varieties, crop the tube tubers rotation and soil treatment. Destruction of diseased Black leg Fungi Yellowing of foliage and wilting, Decaying plant debris tubers, carefully handling of blackening of haulm, watery decay of tubers after harvest. tubers. Stem rot Fungi Dark brown lesions on stem starting at Seed borne and by infested Photo sanitation. Soil soil level. plant debris sterilization TYPE OF CROP: ALLIUMS (ONION, GARLIC, LEEK) COMMON PATHOGEN SYMPTOMS DISSEMINATION CONTROL NAME Downy Fungi Plants are dwarfed, distorted, pale green Spore dispersal Crop rotation and use of mildew with violet downy mildew on surface or fungicides whitish spots may appear in dry climate. Purple Blotch Fungi Leaves dry from the top Spore dispersal through air Crop rotation and use of and rain fungicides Neck rot and Fungi Softening of bulbs after harvest, mycelia Spore dispersal Only harvest well matured Stem Rot

Fungi

6

leaf rot TYPE OF CROP: CITRUS COMMON PATHOGEN NAME Black spot Fungi

mat on scales followed by sclerotic

tops. Dry bulbs if wet.

SYMPTOMS

DISSEMINATION

CONTROL

Mainly on fruits; circular reddish brown spots, 1-10 mm diameter; sunken centre surrounded by dark brown to black veins. Patches of black on trunk, collar, or main roots are killed through to the wood and gum is exuded.

By spores

By removal of diseased fruits and fungicides spraying.

In soil water and irrigation water

By use of resistant rootstocks, high budding, and excision of diseased tissue followed by antiseptics. Spraying with Bordeaux oil emulsion Spraying monthly in wet seasons with fungicides CONTROL

Gummosis

Fungi

Scab

Fungi

Corky projections on fruits and foliage.

By spores

Cercospora leaf spot COMMON NAME Bunchy top

Fungi

Brown spots with ashy centres and yellow margins SYMPTOMS

By spores

Leaf spot (sigatoka disease) Panama disease

PATHOGEN Virus

Stunting of plants; light and dark green streaking of leaves parallel to veins and chloride of young leaf margins; resetting and corrugation of leaves Clorox of young leaf margins, resetting and corrugation of leaves. Scorching of leaf tips Varied yellowing and subsequent wilting and buckling of leaves; red-brown discoloration of vascular tissue in pseudo stem.

Fungi

Fungi

DISSEMINATION By aphids and planting material

infected

Eradication and use of clean planting material

By spores

Use of clean materials and copper fungicides.

By infected planting materials and in infested soil

Use of resistant varieties

INSECT PESTS Insect pests can be grouped in two categories: Sucking insect pests These are pests which suck sap from a plant causing defoliation and wilting of the leaves. These pests act as vectors of viral diseases. Examples of sucking pests are spiders, aphids. Spiders can be controlled by using acaricides which are systemic in nature and other sucking insects use insecticides. Chewing insect pests These are pest that chew plant part causing loss of foliage. Examples of these are cut worms, beetles, grasshoppers and caterpillars. Control such pest by using contact insecticides and by crushing them if not economical to spray. Example of a Lesson Plan Duration: MODULE: Topic:

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

Principles of maize production

Sub topic: Site Selection & Land Preparations Rationale: Many farmers involved in maize production face low productivity as a result of neglecting some of the important production principles when selecting and preparing land. Learning outcomes/ objectives: Participants should be able to do site selection and land preparations. Farmers should be to able to prepare land for maize planting accordingly Pre-requisites skills and knowledge:

Farmers should have basic knowledge in maize

production 7

Reference books:

Extension manual and farm management resource guide

Facilitation and learning material/ resources:

Hoes, axes, ropes, pegs, flip charts

and pens LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (5MIN)

DEVELOPMENT

CONCLUSION

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Ask questions; What type of land is required for maize production? What types of soils are required? What type of tools or materials is needed for land preparation? How is land prepared for maize growing? Step 1: the facilitator will divide participants into two groups to; Discuss factors to be considered when selecting site for maize production Various methods of land preparation suitable for maize production for a particular given piece of land Step 2: Participants share group findings and experiences

LEARNING POINTS -Sloppy, flat -Sandy, clayey, loamy -Hoes, axes, rope, pegs -Ridges, basins Participants list factors on flip chart

Participants groups

present

by

Step 3: Facilitator, together with the participants will demonstrate on how to prepare ridges and/or basins Facilitator asks questions on: What is the importance of site selection Why are methods of land preparation important in crop production

Evaluation: Based on the outcomes of the training if Participants were able to: • • •

Appreciate the importance of site selection and good land preparation List various factors to consider when selecting site as well as preparing land for crop production Highlight various methods of land preparation

Module 2

Livestock Production

Poultry STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE NUTRIENTS SUPPLY IN VILLAGE CHICKENS A farmer should aim at producing more meat, plenty of eggs and chicks and health birds all year round. This can be achieved among other management practices through good chicken feeding strategies which include; Supplementary Feeding This is the supply of feedstuffs to birds in addition to what they feed on from the natural environment. This is practiced under extensive and semi-intensive systems. The following practices may be applied; a) b) c)

Provide supplementary feeds during dry season Provide supplementary feeds throughout the year Provide supplementary feeds to selected chickens, e.g., chicks, mother hens with chicks, breeding hens and cocks, sick birds, etc.

Workout a Feed Calendar A farmer should have a calendar showing months when various scavenging feeds are unavailable and make a feed plan. a)

In the feed plan; 8

• •

b)

State the conditions in which feeds are found and how they should be prepared Take note of the condition and performance of chickens in such seasons. For instance green, young and tender vegetation is associated with fairly high insect populations which feed on the herbage. Insects are nutritious feedstuff for chickens. Contrary, aged, fibrous and browning vegetation and characteristic dryness indicate poor nutrition in vegetation. Chickens will starve during this time if they are not supplementary fed Conserve feedstuffs; just after cereal harvests, when there are plenty cereal grains, cassava and legumes which are normally wasted. Collect and store these materials for chickens.

Feeding and watering Using conserved feeds, a farmer should make a feeding plan and ensure that hens lay and hatch more eggs and chicks grow fast while the entire flock remains health. Along with solid food, chickens must have access to clean and cool water at all times. WHAT A FARMER SHOULD KNOW AND DO TO MAXIMIZE BENEFITS FROM VILLAGE CHICKENS A farmers should have good chicken management skills and able to practice; a) b) c) d) e) f)

Improved chicken housing Improved chicken nutrition Good chicken breeding management Improved chicken health care Record keeping Improved routine practices

Poultry Housing and Equipment It is very important to provide suitable housing to chickens. Such structures should enable a farmer to efficiently carry out routine management operations while chickens are given favourable environment to grow and perform the functions they are kept for. Characteristics of a good poultry house A good chicken house should provide the following conditions; a) b) c) d) e) f)

Allow easy and good flow of fresh air at all times Allow enough sunlight in the house Provide protection from rain, cold weather, winds and excess heat Provide chickens with enough resting space and comfort Should protect chickens and eggs from predators e.g., cats, dogs, thieves, etc. Should be easy to clean and disinfect

Materials required for building poultry houses The materials required depend on the type of house being built. General considerations include; a)

b)

Simple poultry houses - use debarked wooden poles, chicken wire, mud or burnt bricks, grass for thatching and anthill soil for floors. Debarking minimises problems of parasites such as fleas, and tick which tend to hide under barks. Standard poultry house - burnt bricks or concrete blocks, chicken wire, treated timber or metal poles, corrugated iron or asbestos sheets for roof and concrete cement for floors

Designs of Village Chickens Houses The designs of village chickens houses should meet the specific management needs of three flock categories namely; brooding hens, growers and old chickens.

9

An Ideal Night Shelter for brooding hens Night shelters for broody hens and their chicks should have nests. The farmer should consider the following guidelines; a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

Construct such nests on bricks, stones or high ground to avoid running water. The height of a nest should be low enough to allow chicks to easily enter and get out of the shelter Nest size: - approximately 40cm width, 40cm length and 30cm height is ideal Place sun sterilised clean, dry, chopped grass, sunflower hulls or saw dust bedding on nest floor for comfort and protect the birds from the cold. Place night nests near hatching areas to help hens easily locate the night shelter To avoid diseases and parasite build up; Temporal nests -burn used nests after brooding Permanent nests - thoroughly clean and disinfect nest after each batch Avoid placing nests on the same site

An Ideal Night Shelter for Growers and Older Chickens a) b) c) d) e)

Raise the shelter at least 1.5m above the ground leaving gaps in the floor between poles for droppings to fall to the ground for easy manure harvest Allow 7 chickens per square meter to avoid overcrowding Provide roof overlap of 0.8m on all sides to keep out rain water Allow at least 0.5m between the roof and perch on the slanting lower sides for good ventilation Construct a new structure on a new site at least every 3 years. Changing sites for chicken structures help to prevent the build-up of disease causing organisms and parasites

Ideal Laying Nests for Chickens Brooding hens must be provided appropriate nesting facilities to ensure that eggs are safely laid and incubated, ultimately good hatchability. Below are general guidelines that a farmer should follow when constructing laying nests for hens; a) b) c) d)

e) f) g)

Ideal nest size: 40cm width by 40cm length and 30cm height Other simple nests; clay pots, calabashes, or baskets made of local fibre, cardboards or wooden boxes big enough to accommodate a hen Nest to hen ratio; 1 nest to 2-3 hens The farmer must ensure that nests are free from germs and parasites. Ecto-parasites in nests may reduce eggs hatchability, as hens tend to leave the nests most times and spend a lot of energy cleaning and scratching their bodies. Place laying nests in shady places Use sun-sterilised dry, clean and soft grass as nest bedding Generally raise nests at least 1.5m above the ground for protection against rain and predators

Pig CLIPPING PIGLETS 10

This is the removal tooth in piglets to minimize injury on teats of the sow and amongst the piglets themselves. Use a stainless steel cutter with a flat cutting edge on one side and beveled on the other. a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

Disinfect the cutter using surgical spirit before the operation Best age to cut piglets’ teeth is at day old. Carefully press open a piglet’s mouth with thumb and forefinger. Support piglet on your thigh while keeping its mouth open. Insert clippers into the mouth from the front. Keep flat side of blades close to the gum, but take care not to cut its lips or the tongue. Without twisting or pulling, clearly clip off the upper teeth first and then the lower teeth Afterward run your finger inside the piglet’s mouth to check if there are needle-sharp edges left.

MANAGING A BOAR A boar in pig production is considered to be half the herd. It is therefore very important that a boar is well managed so that it effectively performs. • • •

• • •

• • • • • •

•

Use a boar for mating when it is 8 months of age at a mating ration of 1 boar to 25 sows in a year. A boar can be used for 3-4 years but making sure that there is no inbreeding. A new boar brought in the pen should be put near other pigs but should not be used immediately. It should be given time to settle in the new environment. At least three weeks are adequate. Feed boars 2 kilograms of feed per day although individual variations are there. A sow on heat should be taken to the boar. Young boars serving for the first time should be given plenty of time to adjust and properly handled. They may fail to mount or locate the vagina; in such situations assistance is required. However, sows must be allowed to tease the boar. If the boar does not serve a sow within 15 minutes, remove the sow and bring it back later. The boar should be allowed to serve 4-6 times per week and give them one week off every month. Do not use a boar that is unwell; has some lameness or injury to the feet and general illness, rest the boar until it gets well. Do not use too large boars on small sows or gilts as they cannot stand the weight of the boar. Keep boars in individual pens to avoid fighting. Boars should always be handled by the stockmen so that they get used to human beings. Individual boar habits must be known. Boars may become savage due to poor handling or injury. Boars must be treated for worms and mange on a routine basis (at least every six months).

Cattle Pasture conservation ensures a more efficient animal production by making use of wasted pasture surpluses in the growing season. By utilizing conserved feed in the dry months, weight loses are minimized, productivity is enhanced and cattle mortality may be prevented. Hay is one easy method for conserving stock feed. Hay Making Hay can be made either from improved or natural grasses. Hay may be conserved as; long hay (standing hay left in the field), Shredded hay, chopped hay, baled hay or loose hay

11

Important Points to kept in mind while hay making; a) The grass for haymaking should be leafy with tender and thin stems. b) It should contain about 7-10% protein and 0.5% calcium. c) The harvested crop should be dried in field till its dry matter content reaches 60 per cent. It should be dried up to 80-85% dry matter d) The hay to be stored should not contain more than 15% moisture. e) Dry hay as early as possible to preserve nutrients present therein. f) There should be no loss of leaves during the act of harvesting, transportation and drying. g) The suitable crops for haymaking should be harvested at flowering stage. At this stage they are rich in carotene, protein, digestible carbohydrates and minerals. h) The best time for harvesting is early morning this helps in proper spreading and drying of grasses over the fields under sunrays. Hand Method Hay Making Process Steps to follow when making a bale of hay: Step1: Step2: Step3: Step4: Step5: Step6: Step7: Step8: Step9:

Cut grass with a sickle when half of it has flowered Spread the grass on the ground to dry and turn it once a day for 3 days. After 3 days tie (bale) the dried grass using a simple wooden box and strings Prepare the bale box for baling Fill bale box with cut grass Pack and press grass in the box to make a tight bale. Tie the grass in the box into bale Lift the box to release baled grass. Start the process again to make more bales. Store hay bales and cut grass fodder on storage racks above the ground to avoid wastage by termites

Ingredients for a 30 kg block Molasses 15.0 Urea

3.0

Salt

1.5

Quick lime

3.0

Bran

7.5

Other mineral* Total

30.0

12

(Unit measures in kilograms) Steps to follow; 1. Make a pre-mixture of salt, binder and a little bit of water; 2. Add the other ingredients in the order indicated above; 3. Mix thoroughly; 4. Put the mixture in moulds made from plastic sheets; 5. Allow the blocks to harden for a few days; 6. After drying, remove the blocks from the moulds and give them to the animals; 7. *Other extra minerals may be added to blocks to improve the mineral balance.

Module 3

FISH FARMING

Fishpond Design and Construction Ponds are built for a variety of reasons, but two basic rules remain the same. The pond must be sited on suitable soils and properly constructed to hold water, and there should be enough water available to fill the pond but not in great excess. Careful attention and expert advice on pond site selection and construction are essential. Once a pond is built, proper maintenance extends its useful life and beauty. In addition, most farm ponds depend on runoff from their watershed (land uphill from the pond) to fill and maintain the water level. Protecting the watershed ensures a quality supply of water to the pond. For ponds built for recreational fishing, there is no advantage in deep ponds (over 12 feet to 14 feet deep) or to a deep area within the pond. Deep ponds are not more productive and tend to have more oxygen problems. Ponds should not have extensive shallow areas (less than 3 feet deep) unless aquatic plants are desired. Constructing ponds to drop off rather quickly to a depth of at least 2 1/2 feet helps prevent aquatic weed growth

Pond Management Options Before a pond is stocked, deciding which species you would like to raise and which would do best in your pond is important. There are alternative management strategies for farm pond fisheries that rely on other species and more intensive management schemes. Some of these combinations are relatively untried or work well only under certain specific conditions. Pond owners should be aware that they might need to contract with a private farm pond consultant to properly implement and maintain such alternative fisheries. In small ponds (< 1 acre), the All-Purpose management strategy is not recommended because it is difficult to maintain a balanced predator: prey community. In these ponds, single-species fisheries tend to work best.

Aquatic Vegetation Weeds are simply plants in the “wrong” place. Many types of aquatic plants are beneficial for wildlife, and plants form part of a healthy pond. Farm pond owners may consider leaving vegetation in and around ponds to provide cover and food for wildlife. However, excessive growth of plants can interfere with other uses of the pond, such as watering cattle, fishing and swimming, making the plants “weeds.” Floating weeds, such as duckweed, can become so abundant that the pond surface becomes covered, cutting off light and oxygen to the fish below. On occasion, weeds can literally take over a pond and cause serious problems for the farm pond owner. Physical Techniques for Weed Control Shallow areas where light reaches the pond bottom are ideal for the growth of rooted aquatic weeds, 13

and plants can be expected to grow in these areas. In most cases, measures to control weeds in such shallow water are futile. Deepening pond edges so that the water depth quickly reaches 2 1/2 to 3 feet helps reduce weeds. This may not be an appropriate option for ponds close to homes where the safety of children is a concern. An alternative is to use pond dye, which provides a shading effect and prevents light penetration to the bottom where rooted plants attach and grow. Drawing down the water level 3 to 4 feet during the late fall and winter can help control rooted weeds and is also good to reduce overpopulation of prey fish. Shallow weeds are exposed during drawdown and subjected to drying an freezing. An expensive alternative is to use a pond liner which prevents plant roots from penetrating the soil. This option must be installed before filling the pond, or the pond must be drained.

Why Should I Feed? 'What is this manual all about? Fish already grow in my ponds. I have managed to increase production by fertilization. Why should I spend more money on feed? Will I be able to produce more or make more profit'? These are the sorts of questions this section will try to answer. Having done so, the rest of the manual deals with the type of feed that can be used, how to make mixed (compound) feeds, and how to store and use feed on your farm. In this section, information on energy and the feeding habits of fish is summarized. The types of food available to them are then introduced. The ways in which the food available to the fish can be increased are discussed. Finally there are some notes on the economic effects of feeding. The object of aquaculture should be to produce the maximum weight of marketable fish or shrimp from a given volume of water in the shortest time at the least cost.

Harvesting Fish Harvesting is the collection of fish from a pond for sale at market, or for cooking and preservation for family use. Harvesting can refer to collecting all the fish or to taking out only some of the fish (this happens often in tilapia ponds having both young and adult fish). If the pond can be drained, harvest the fish by draining the pond into the catch basin and collecting the fish with a scoop net. If the pond cannot be drained, drain out as much water as possible and use a series of nets to catch the fish. Types of Nets There are different kinds of nets which can be used in ponds. Some nets, such as the one shown here are gill nets. Gill nets often have mesh sizes from 2-3cm; they are often used to harvest the largest fish in a pond and leave the smaller fish until they grow larger.

They are called gill nets because the fish pokes his head through the net mesh, and is caught around 14

the gills as he tries to wiggle through the net. Another net used to harvest fish is the seine. A seine can collect all the fish in the pond at one time because it has smaller openings (mesh size) than the gill nets, and it is usually made of heavier fibres to hold the fish. (See the end of this section for instructions on making a seine.)

Both seines and gill nets have lead sinkers (weights) attached to the bottom ropes. These weights hold the nets at the bottom of the pond (so the fish cannot escape underneath the nets as they are pulled). Seines and gill nets also have floats attached to the top ropes to help the net form an enclosure: the entire pond is netted with one sweep of the net. Netting a Pond Let out as much water as possible. NEVER LET THE WATER OUT COMPLETELY. As the fish have less and less water in which to live, they become excited and use up more oxygen when there is less available. Plan on harvesting while the water is draining out so the fish are caught before they are stressed. Or, drain the pond almost completely, and then let water slowly trickle through while netting the fish.

Using a Seine Place the net at one end of the pond and slowly draw the edges down the sides of the pond. Bring the middle of the net across the pond. When near the other side, begin pulling the edges up onto the bank so that the net forms a u-shape in the pond. Pull up the bottom rope of the net along the pond bottom until it breaks the water surface. At this point the net is a bag shape and will hold the fish in (some seines already have a bag woven into them).

15

Pick the fish up one by one and transfer them to buckets or tubs of clear water for later weighing and transport.

Other Harvesting Methods Fish also can be harvested by other methods. One method is to catch them with a hook and a line, but this method is time-consuming. In some parts of the world fish are harvested by dynamiting or poisoning the water. But these methods are dangerous and should never be done in a pond or any other waterway: dynamite and poisons can kill people and other animals, in addition to fish. NEVER HARVEST FISH BY DYNAMITING OR POISONING THE POND. There are easier and cheaper methods than these.

Marketing Harvested Fish Once fish are harvested, they must be marketed. Marketing includes the transportation and sale of fish. As the introduction to the manual pointed out, one very important thing to consider before building a pond is the availability of a market. If a market is further away, the farmer must have transportation to it over passable roads. If the market is very near, he may want to advertise the date of his harvest by word-of-mouth so that the people will come directly to the pond to buy the fish. Also, he may want to make an agreement with a tradesman at the market so that he is sure he has a buyer for his fish when they are harvested. If there is no market, or if the farmer is going to use all the fish himself, then he probably will want to preserve some of the fish (see fish preservation). Containers for storing live fish being taken to market.

16

Transporting fresh fish to market must be carefully done, so that the fish are not damaged. Usually, fish are handled in the same way they were handled when put into the pond. If it is not possible to get the fish to market right away, they must be preserved -- either on ice for quick sale in a nearby market; or salted, dried, smoked, or canned if going to a distant market. These methods are discussed in the next section. Remember: Fish spoil very quickly in warm temperatures. Sell or preserve the fish right after harvesting.

After Harvest After the pond is harvested, it should be prepared for the next stocking of fish: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Plough the bottom of the pond Clear out predators, sticks, rocks, etc. Dry the pond bottom until the soil cracks Put lime on the pond bottom Wait two weeks Add water to the pond Check the water quality Put new fish into the pond Begin daily and monthly management of fish and ponds Breed Market Harvest Begin again

Module 4

LAND HUSBANDRY PRACTICES

LAND AND LAND USES There are different types of land use ranging from agricultural uses such as crop production, and livestock rearing to commercial and residential uses such as production plants and houses etc. For the purpose of this training manual all land uses mentioned refer to agricultural production with an emphasis on crop production. It is important that Agricultural extension staff understand that increase in crop production comes largely through better use of the land already in production. If there is unused land, the constraints that have hindered development in the past, such as poor soil or low rainfall, are not going to go away. The solution must come from making better and more productive use of the land already farmed Focusing on the three most frequent, negative effects of the agricultural modification of natural ecosystems, particularly where annual plants replace perennial plants is the starting point for land management: 17

Degradation of the soil as a rooting environment Soil degradation is on the increase worldwide, especially in the countries within the tropics. Causes of soil degradation in arable areas Mismanagement of arable areas through unsustainable crop production technologies and grazing areas by livestock owners is one of the major causes of soil degradation. Examples: • • • • • •

Early burning Mono-cropping Ploughing Shifting cultivation Overgrazing Unbalanced fertilizer use

The negative effects of the above practices are accelerated by the following factors: •

•

Natural phenomena such as;- land topography and climatic factors such as steep slopes, frequent floods, blowing of high velocity wind, rains of high intensity, strong leaching in humid regions and drought conditions Human interventions such as: Deforestation of fragile land, over cutting of vegetation and non-adoption of soil conservation management practices, over-pumping of ground water (in excess of capacity for recharge)

Measures of addressing soil degradation Soil cover Cover over the soil dissipates the erosive energy of raindrops by breaking them up into smaller droplets whose energy is insufficient to splash soil particles or to compact the soil surface. If soil is not covered, the most valuable particles (clays and organic materials) are moved. Soil cover also reduces evaporation and effect of trampling. Soil cover can be made of; crop residue and mulching and cover crops (in association or rotation). Crop residues left after harvest, or well-managed pastures or forests, provide benefits to the soil. The leaf canopy of well -grown crops can provide effective soil cover while the crops are growing. The faster vegetative cover develops, the quicker will bare soil patches be protected. A farmer’s management decisions and skills influence this effect These practices play a bigger role in production of biomass for organic matter replenishment. Crop rotation Several types of cropping systems exist. In this manual crop rotation has been discussed together with other cropping systems in an attempt to create a good understanding of the subject. Mono-cropping: this is the growing of one crop season after season It has several disadvantages: • Difficult to maintain cover on the soil • Encourages weeds, pests and diseases • Reduces soil fertility/damages soil structure Crop Rotation: This is a practice that involves changing the type of crop grown in the field each year. For example maize one year, and beans the next This is one of the key pillars of conservation agriculture discussed in chapter.....sonso. Advantages of the practice include; • Improvement soil fertility/structure • Controlling of weeds and pests/diseases 18

Sequence Cropping: This involves growing two crops in the same field one after the other in the same year e.g. maize in the long rains then beans during the short rains. It done by either planting two major crops or one major crop followed by a cover crop Intercropping: This is the growing of two or more crops in the same field at the same time e.g. growing alternating rows of maize and beans or cover crops in between the cereal rows. When seed of both crops is broadcasted or dibbled without any row arrangement the method is referred to as mixed intercropping. Weeding, fertilization, harvesting is difficult when this method is used. When the main crop and the intercrop are planted in rows the system is called row intercropping In this method weeding and harvesting is easy, however, potential yields of both crops may reduced. Common mixes include: • Millets + sorghum • Pigeon pea + sorghum (planted at same time) • Millet/sorghum + Crotalaria juncea • Millets + Cowpea • Maize + Velvet bean (delayed planting of c crop) Strip cropping: This cropping system involves planting broad strips of several crops (a strip can be 3m – 9m wide). Strips can be rotated. This system has the following advantages: • It allows to produce a variety of crops at the same time, improves soil fertility, reduces soil erosion, reduction of weeds, pests & diseases, residues from one strip used in another • Crop management in strips is easier and competition between crops is reduced Relay Cropping: This is the growing of one crop and planting another before harvesting the first e.g. growing maize then sowing beans between rows 4 weeks later. The advantage of this system is that: • There is no competition between main crop and intercrop • Allows the use of the field for a comparatively longer time. Length of Crop Rotations It is common practice to have a 2 year or 3 year rotation which involves 3 to 4 crops. Examples of crop rotation Maize, soya, wheat rotate well together Typical maize-based rotations: 1. Maize - Cotton 2. Maize – Cotton – Soybean 3. Maize - Soybean 4. Maize - Groundnut Other possibilities: 1. Maize – Cotton - Sun hemp 2. Maize – Cowpea 3. Pigeon pea/Crotalaria/cowpea - cassava Agro-forestry This is the incorporation of selected tree species into crop production. The selected trees will usually be; Fertiliser trees such Faidherbia albida, Multi-purpose trees for fruits, fuel wood, Building materials, live fences and wind breakers Improving the environment for micro-organism activity in the system The soil is a living system that contains millions of different microorganisms. These microorganisms are very important for: 19

• • •

Recycling nutrients Organic matter decomposition Soil aeration

Soil degradation often leads to depletion of useful and beneficial microorganisms important in maintaining the soil fertility. Residue or Organic matter maintenance Refer to chapter ....under Conservation Agriculture Water conservation and erosion control The effect of rains falling on unprotected will cause the soil surface layers become less permeable, less rainfall soaks into the soil and a greater proportion becomes surface runoff resulting in flush floods and agricultural droughts. This excess runoff water leads to soil erosion of the top soil which is as important in agriculture. There are various methods of conserving water and at the same time controlling soil erosion. In this manual in-situ water conservation methods and erosion control measures through managing runoff water have been discussed. a) b)

Soil erosion control Water harvesting

Refer to chapter sonso under Conservation Agriculture in which Infiltration pits, planting basins and potholes are discussed in detail

CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE Conservation farming is any system or practice which aims to conserve soil and water by using surface cover (mulch) to minimize run off and erosion and improve the conditions for plant establishment and growth. It involves planting crops and pasture directly into land which is protected by a mulch using minimum or no-tillage techniques. Conservation Agriculture (CA) is simply planting direct into the land, which is protected by mulch. PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE • • •

Minimal soil disturbances: restricted to planting drilling no ploughing disking or soil cultivation. Maintaining a permanent soil cover no burning of residues. Promoting crop rotation – combining different plant families (e.g. cereals and legumes) adequate biomass generation and continuous cropland use.

CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGIES • • • • • • • • •

No – tillage Agro – forestry Trap cropping Cover and green manure cropping Contour farming and ship cropping Organic and biodynamic farming Stubble mulching Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Crop and Pasture rotation

FACTORS

AFFECTING

THE

CHOICE 20

OF

CONSERVATION

AGRICULTURE

TECHNOLOGIES The choice of technology will be affected by the objectives one would like to achieve. Factors • • • • • • •

Establishing a soil cover through the long dry season (efficient protection at the beginning of rainy season) Communal grazing, fire
community approach Availability of tree and cover crop seeds Availability of ADP CA implements Variability of conditions
flexible system required, decision making tools Market and improved varieties for drought tolerant crops and varieties Change of habits, activity calendar, labor desegregation (e.g. dry land preparation)

How CA works? In CA less than 15% of the soil surface Is moved and all crop residue and other trash is left in the field. Through this method, land can be prepared prior to commencement of the rains, thus enabling timely planting. Old crop residue and other trash that is left in the filed restricted both water and wind erosion whilst also shading the soil. This vegetation residue rots down, improving the humus (or soil organic carbon, SOC) content of the soil, and ultimately soil Health. Benefits of conservation agriculture CA has several benefites. Conservation tillage i.e. reduced or no tillage is the key to sustainable arable land management as it protects the soil resources, increases the efficiency of water use and, of special importance in semi-arid areas, reduces the effects of droughts (FAO 1999).

ORGANIC FARMING This involves using techniques to achieve good crop yields without harming the natural environment or the people who live and work in it. Importance of organic farming Organic farming provides long-term benefits to people and the environment. Organic farming aims to: • • • • •

Increase long-term soil fertility. Control pests and diseases without harming the environment. Ensure that water stays clean and safe. Use resources which the farmer already has, so the farmer needs less money to buy farm inputs. Produce nutritious food, feed for animals and high quality crops to sell at a good price.

Crop nutrition To produce a healthy crop an organic farmer needs to manage the soil well. This involves considering soil life, soil nutrients and soil structure. The soil is a living system. As well as the particles that make up the soil, it contains millions of different creatures. These creatures are very important for recycling nutrients. Feeding the soil with manure or compost feeds the whole variety of life in the soil which then turns this material into food for plant growth. This also adds nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Green 21

manures also provide nutrients and organic matter. These are plants with high nitrogen content that are sown as part of a rotation and are dug into the soil when young. It is important to remember, however, that using too much animal manure or nutrient rich organic matter, or using it at the wrong time, could be as harmful as using man-made, artificial fertilizers.

Techniques of Organic Farming Crop rotations Crop rotation means having times where the fertility of the soil is being built up and times where crops are grown which remove nutrients. Crop rotation also helps a variety of natural predators to survive on the farm by providing diverse habitats and sources of food for them. A typical 4-year rotation would include a cycle with maize and beans, a root crop and cereals with either of the following; • •

Grass or bush fallow (a fallow period where no crops are grown). A legume crop where a green manure, which is a plant grown mainly for the benefit of the soil, is grown.

Composting Compost is organic matter (plant and animal residues) which has been rotted down by the action of bacteria and other organisms, over a period of time. Materials such as leaves, fruit skins and animal manures can be used to make compost. Compost is cheap, easy to make and is a very effective material that can be added to the soil, to improve soil and crop quality. Add procedures of compost making

22

Compost has many advantages over chemical fertilizers. These provide nutrients for plants but do not improve soil structure. They usually only improve yields in the season in which they are applied. Because compost feeds soil life and improves soil structure, the beneficial effects are long lasting. Mulching Mulching means covering the ground with a layer of loose material such as compost, manure, straw, dry grass, leaves or crop residues. Green vegetation is not normally used as it can take a long time to decompose and can attract pests and fungal diseases. Mulches have several effects on the soil which help to improve plant growth: Alternative mulching materials include black plastic sheeting or cardboard. However these materials do not add nutrients to the soil or improve its structure. How to use mulches: • • • •

Always apply mulches to a warm, wet soil. Mulch applied to a dry soil will keep the soil dry. Care should be taken as to the thickness of the mulch applied. Too much mulch will prevent airflow and encourage pests. To allow the germination of planted seeds through the mulch, a layer of less than 10cm should be used. To clear an area of land of persistent weeds a layer of 10cm or more can be used.

Green manures Green manures, often known as cover crops, are plants which are grown to improve the structure, organic matter content and nutrient content of the soil. They are a cheap alternative to artificial fertilizers and can be used to complement animal manures. Growing a green manure is not the same as simply growing a legume crop, such as beans, in a rotation. Green manures are usually dug into the soil when the plants are still young, before they produce any crop and often before they flower. They are grown for their green leafy material which is high in nutrients and provides soil cover. They can be grown together with crops or alone. Green manures: examples what plants for green manure

Natural pest control Insect Pests and Diseases are part of nature. In the ideal system there is a natural balance between predators and pests. If the system is imbalanced then one population can become dominant because it is not being preyed upon by another. The aim of natural control is to restore a natural balance between pest and predator and to keep pests and diseases down to an acceptable level. The aim is not to eradicate them altogether. There are many ways in which the organic farmer can control insect pests and diseases. • • • • • •

Growing healthy crops that suffer less damage from pests and diseases. Choosing crops with a natural resistance to specific pests and diseases. Local varieties are better at resisting local pest and diseases than introduced varieties. Timely planting of crops to avoid the period when a pest does most damage. Companion planting with other crops that pests will avoid, such as onion or garlic Trapping or picking pests from the crop. Identifying pest and diseases correctly. This will prevent the farmer from wasting time or accidentally eliminating beneficial insects. It is therefore useful to know life cycles, breeding habits, and preferred host plants and predators of pests. 23

• •

Using crop rotations to help break pest cycles and prevent a carry over of pests to the next season. Providing natural habitats to encourage natural predators that control pests. To do this, the farmer should learn to recognize insects and other animals that eat and control pests.

EXAMBPLE OF LESSON PLAN Duration :

115 MINUTES

MODULE :

LAND HUSBANDRY PRACTICES

Topic

:

Sub topic :

Techniques of Organic Farming

Organic farming

Rationale : Farmers involved in crop production face higher production costs due to the heavy use of inorganic chemicals which are highly expensive at the market thus making farming non profitable. Use of organic farming provides long term benefits to the environment and the people thus the need to promote it. Learning outcomes/ objectives Participants should be able to know and appreciate the importance of organic farming Participants should be able to prepare compost manure Participants should be able to control weeds and pests in line with organic farming Pre-requisites skills and knowledge Farmers should have basic knowledge in organic farming Reference books Extension manual, sustainable agriculture PaViDiA manual Facilitation and learning material/ resources Hoes, axes, ropes, pegs, shovels, manure, crop residues, flip charts and pens LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (15 MIN)

DEVELOPMENT (90 MINS)

CONCLUSION (10 MINS)

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Ask questions; What is organic farming?

LEARNING POINTS -Natural farming, no use of chemicals, harmless farming

What is the importance of organic farming?

-Improves soil fertility, less costly, controls weeds and pests, safe environment

What types of techniques are applied in organic farming? Step 1: the facilitator will divide participants into two groups to ; Discuss how compost is made and how it improves soil fertility. Discuss how weed and pest control is achieved in organic farming Step 2: Participants share group findings and experiences Step 3: Facilitator, together with the participants will demonstrate on how to prepare compost manure Facilitator asks questions on: Why is organic farming important? How weed and pest control is achieved through organics

-Composting, mulching, rotations, green manures Participants to use flip charts

24

Participants present by groups

Techniques in organic farming

Evaluation: Based on the outcomes of the training if Participants were able to: - Appreciate the importance of organic farming - List various techniques involved in organic farming - Highlights on how to prepare compost manure

SECTION II

Module 1

FARM PLANNING

MODULE ONE: INTRODUCTION TO FARM MANAGEMENT

Farm management Farm management is the science of optimizing the use of farm resources to bring about the optimal functioning of the farmstead and to ensure the farm family’s goals are achieved. Therefore, farm management involves: 1. 2. 3.

Making the best use of available resources; Using, managing and allocating resources; and Making decisions to increase profit: basically to run the farm as a business.

Importance of farm management A farmer may have several objectives for his farming activities. These may include: profit maximization, farm expansion, increased output/sales, reduction of costs, avoiding debt, reduction of risk, survival, attaining a satisfactory standard of living and ensuring adequate food supply for the family. As a result of this, the farmer is faced with key decisions which have to be made on a regular basis. Some of the decisions are: • • • •

What crop to produce or livestock to rear; How much of the crop to grow or livestock to rear; Whether to grow a crop or rear livestock for the market or for home consumption; and Where to sell a product and at what price.

There is therefore need for the farmer to have good farm management knowledge and skills to be able to realize objectives that will result not only in his/her betterment, but also the betterment of his/her family and the entire nation. Farming as a business In business, the farmer is the most important person because s/he is an entrepreneur since farming is a business. The farmer is responsible for the management and the success of the farm business. This calls for hard work and the investment of long hours that can result in profitability and satisfaction. Why farming as a business? • Because resources are scarce and so they need to be used more efficiently and effectively; • Because farmers have other needs (e.g. school fees for school-going children and buying other goods which cannot directly come from the farm, such as clothes and soaps); and • So as to contribute to the development of the country as a whole through Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

25

Entrepreneurship The world has so many resources which should benefit humanity in many ways. But that is not the case in the entire world as man has many shortages of goods and services that should assist him. There is a gap between the available resources and the satisfaction of the needs of humanity. Entrepreneurship, therefore, is a bridge – connector that provides an entrepreneur with the ability to scan the environment for opportunity and link the resources to the satisfaction of humanity. Entrepreneurship is the process of thinking, reasoning, and acting in such a manner that incremental wealth is created. It is not a genetic trait; it is a skill that is learned. Who is an Entrepreneur? An Entrepreneur is one who creates a new business in the face of risk and uncertainty for the purpose of achieving profit and growth by identifying opportunities and assembling the necessary resources to capitalize on those opportunities. (Give local example, e.g. Costain Chilala, Sylva Catering) Characteristics of an entrepreneur The following are the characteristics of the entrepreneur; • • • •

Desire and willingness to take initiatives, Preference for moderate risk, Confidence in their ability to succeed, Self-reliance, perseverance, desire for immediate feedback, high level of energy, competitiveness, and future orientation.

Identification of a farming business/ entrepreneurial opportunity One of the characteristics of entrepreneurship is the ability to create new and useful ideas that solve problems and challenges people face every day. Entrepreneurs achieve success by creating value in the market place when they combine resources in new and different ways to gain a competitive edge over rivals. Entrepreneurs can create value in a number of ways such as inventing new products and services, developing new technology, discovering new knowledge, improving existing products or services, finding different ways of providing more goods and services with fewer resources. Establishing a new business usually involves: • • •

Finding a good idea Subject the idea to a feasibility test to prove its viability Convert the idea into a business opportunity Capacity and capability to transform the idea into a product or service that captures a significant share of the market. Ideas may come from prior work experience, an understanding of the industry, and knowledge of the market. The scientific way to identify ideas involves a thorough search of the business opportunities in the environment.

The following are ways of identifying business/entrepreneurial opportunities: a)

Monitor Trends and Exploit Them Early Entrepreneurs watch local, national and international trends that are emerging and then build businesses that align with those trends. Detecting a rising trend early and launching a business to capitalize on it enables an entrepreneur to gain the advantage of being a “first mover.” b) Take a Different Approach to an Existing Market Entrepreneurs are famous for finding new, creative approaches to existing markets and turning them into business opportunities. c) Put a new Twist on an Old Idea 26

Sometimes entrepreneurs find opportunities by taking an old idea and giving it a unique twist. The result can lead to a profitable business venture. d) Look for Creative Ways to Use Existing Resources Another way entrepreneurs uncover business opportunities is to find creative ways to use existing resources. This requires them to cast aside logic and traditional thinking. e) Realize opportunities from existing Problems Another way to identify business opportunities is to recognize that other people face similar problems. Providing a product or service that solves those problems offers the potential for a promising business. f) Notice what is missing on the market or environment Sometimes entrepreneurs identify viable business opportunities by noticing what is missing. It is important to determine whether a market for the missing product or service actually exists. The feasibility of the Idea or Opportunity Many businesses result from an idea that has been converted into a useful application. Buying an existing business or recognizing a franchise opportunity does not necessarily mean that the new or existing venture will be an instant success. No matter how promising the idea or opportunity may appear, the entrepreneur should as soon as possible determine its feasibility. Doing a feasibility analysis in good time may prevent the entrepreneur from losing valuable resources on an idea or opportunity that in fact offers little hope of success. Development of business plan Once the entrepreneur has some certainty about the feasibility of the venture, he or she needs to compile a business plan. Check for abilities and skills Before entering the business world, any potential entrepreneur should first clarify whether he or she has knowledge, abilities and skills to undertake the business identified as well as management skills such as: •

• • •

•

•

Strategy skills -ability to consider the business as a whole and to understand how it fits within its market place, how it can organize itself to deliver value to its customers, and the ways in which it does better than its competitors.Planning skills - ability to consider what the future might offer, how this will impact on the business, and what needs to be done now to prepare for it. Marketing skills - ability to profitably satisfy customers’ needs and wants better than competitors. Financial skills.- ability to manage money; to be able to keep track of expenditure and to monitor cash flows – but also to assess investments in terms of their potential and their risks. Project management skills - ability to organize projects, to set specific objectives, to draw up schedules, and to ensure that the necessary resources are in the right place at the right time. Human relations skills - ability to deal with people, and include leadership, motivational and communication skills

Access to resources An entrepreneur must have resources to start a business. Alternatively, he or she must have access to resources to be able to enter into business. The emphasis is not on what resources the entrepreneur owns, but rather on what access to and control of resources he or she has.

27

Manage the business Once feasibility has been established and resources have been acquired, the entrepreneur launches and manages the new business.

Module 2

VISIONING AND DECISION-MAKING IN FARM MANAGEMENT

Visioning A vision is a mental picture where a businessman intends to take his business in the future. Therefore a farmer must have a clear vision of where he wants to take his farming business. Without a vision many farming businesses have ended up just as way of life without any growth and development. The Farm Vision Combining both short-term economic success and long-term survival can best be achieved if the farmer has a well-defined vision of the future, based upon a hierarchy of one main and several supporting objectives. It is advisable that the people the farmer works with should have a clear understanding of the true nature of their business and its prime objectives. Why build a vision? The farmer and his family members must understand that they must have a shared goal they intend to achieve. Therefore members must work together to develop a vision that takes them in the same direction. Building a vision helps members to communicate shared objectives and lays the foundations for strategic planning of operations and for the development of structures and behaviour which allow the best level of member participation, leadership and management. With a well defined vision, scarce resources will be used more efficiently and effectively. Developing the vision There are two ways in which a farmer and his/her family can build their own vision; 1. 2.

Focus on the current situation and try to find new creative solutions to problems experienced. Develop scenarios which are based on the hopes and aspirations of the members – putting aside for the moment the current problems.

Decision-making A farmer/entrepreneur is faced with varying decisions to make on a daily basis. These decisions will affect the direction and success of the farm business. In order to make farm management decisions, there is need to develop understanding and skills in four broad decision areas: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Planning Implementing Monitoring and Evaluation Diagnosis

Learning how to make decisions in these four areas will put one in greater command of the resources and processes that influence their income generation. These four areas flow in a pattern which supports a process of continuous learning about what works best for the farm business.

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Diagnosis

Planning

Monitoring & Evaluation

Implementing

Planning • “Failing to plan is planning to fail” • Planning involves making decisions about what, how and how much to produce, etc. • However, it begins with the setting of the vision/ goals and targets. A goal/vision entails what an entrepreneur/farmer intends to achieve over a specified period of time. It will guide the entrepreneur/farmer on what resources he will need to put together in order to achieve the desired goal/vision. • Therefore, planning includes decisions about resources and inputs. • It also includes an indication of the expected yields and income. • It is very important that the plan be put in writing for easier reference Implementing • Implementing means putting the plan into action. • During implementation, one may discover that things do not work exactly as they thought they would. They may need to make decisions to adjust their plan to accommodate these changes. Monitoring and Evaluation • Monitoring means keeping track of what is happening in the business. • The plan is a guide for monitoring. • Monitoring provides the farmer with the information they need to evaluate their farm business. • Evaluation means judging how well the business performed when compared to the plan. • Monitoring and evaluation provide the information the entrepreneur needs to diagnose their business’s failures or otherwise. Diagnosis • If deviations from the plan are observed through monitoring and evaluation, the entrepreneur needs to ask themselves why those deviations occurred and what caused them. • A proper diagnosis of the business is the basis for making the next plan.

Module 3

RECORD KEEPING

What is record keeping and what are business records? Record keeping is a process by which data is systematically collected, organised and stored. The stored data can be retrieved, put together in different ways and then analysed – turning the data into information. This information is then used to make decisions. Thus business records are stored data and information concerning a business’ activities and transactions that can be recalled and used at 29

some later date for the purpose of enhancing the business. about market prices, input prices, and market demands.

Business records include information

Why keep records? The recorded data and information can be used to: • • • •

Measure the production performance of the business Measure the financial performance of the business Examine the business as a whole against your plan Plan the way forward for the business.

More importantly, without good records, the farmer must rely on their memory for making decisions. Having a workable system for recording and retrieving data and information will make it much easier for them to improve the profitability of theirr farm. They will need to record, store and be able to retrieve relevant data pertaining to their farm business, such as production, marketing, processing and household consumption and expenses data. Keeping records also allows for continuity of business ventures in the absence of the entrepreneur him/herself. Types of records Records k can be kept simply and need not take up much of one’s time. There are many simple methods that have been devised to keep records. Keeping of records does require self-discipline and commitment to fill them in regularly. So the farmer has to be motivated by a desire to improve his or her farm business. Some of the most commonly used records are listed below: Physical records Physical records show the quantities of the inputs used and outputs obtained. In addition, physical records indicate timing and methods of operations. Production Records: These provide farmers with valuable information on yields, inputs and cropping practices used in the production process on specific parcels or plots. A crop record should include details of the crops grown on each plot, the dates of planting and harvesting, the amount of seed used and yields. Yields may be measured in the traditional way as so many bags or baskets or in kg or tons. The actual weight sold can also be recorded particularly at point of sale. The yield per hectare of a crop is calculated by dividing the total yield of the plot by the number of hectares to that crop. Labour Records: These keep track of labour inputs. The labour inputs are expressed in hours or days of operation for each of the farm enterprises and the corresponding payment in cash or kind. It may also be useful if these records indicate the source of this labour, e.g. family, hired from community, migrant, etc. Machinery and Equipment Records: These keep track of the expenses involved in operating machinery. This includes regular running costs, the nature, and the type and cost of repairs. This kind of record is most commonly kept by larger, more commercial farmers. However, it can be applied even to animal draft and hand equipment, where the records will help the farmer know the cost of farming with this kind of technology. Livestock/Poultry Records: Just as the farmer keeps records for her crops, she should also keep records of her livestock. Many farmers keep a few pigs, hens, goats, and sheep or cattle. Records should be kept for each. It is important to keep a record of the numbers that are on the farm. This not only gives a check on theft, deaths and losses, but knowing the numbers of animals helps the farmer calculate yield per animal or per bird. A separate record should be kept for each class of stock. It should include information on breeding, health, production and feed composition, etc. Marketing Records: These records refer to information on market transactions and procurement of 30

purchased inputs. Financial records Financial records are used to evaluate the financial performance of an individual enterprise or of the whole farm. They are also used for cash flow analysis. Financial records help the farmer to know how well individual enterprises perform and contribute to overall farm profit at the end of the season or production cycle. Financial records include the main cash transactions on the farm: sales, purchases and money borrowed as expressed in the cash flow and gross margin calculations. Financial records are kept in the form of accounts of what the farmer spends and receives. Purchases and expenses can be recorded on one page. Sales and receipts can be recorded on another. An example of a simple account book is shown below: Purchases and Expenses Date Detail

Sales and Receipts Date Detail

K

K

An alternative structure is to have what is called an analysed cashbook. In this case, receipts and expenditures are noted down under separate headings for each enterprise or type of commodity. The analysed cashbook also includes a running total of money received or paid. Using the analysed cashbook opens up the possibility of monitoring budgets more closely. Home consumption, income and expenditure Records can also be kept of home consumption, of other non-farm sources of income, and of expenditure. If the farmer uses a large part of her production to feed her family it should also be recorded. This part of production does not appear as sales in the account book, but it has value. The value of the farmer’s crop includes not only what is sold, but also what is consumed by the farmer’s family. Keeping a record of farm products consumed acknowledges the value of that production. It also ensures the farmer has an accurate record of production from her farm. This will help her determine the true profitability of her farm. This information could be recorded as follows: Date January 1st January 15th

Details 6 eggs 2 kg of spinach

K 120,000 6,000

Comments

At the end of the year the farmer adds up the total value of home consumption. The value is added to the farmer’s total receipts to give the value of total production of the farm. The value of sales plus the value of home consumption, less total expenses provides an assessment of farm profit. Another record could cover household non-farm income sources and expenditures. This will help the farmer when she wants to understand the role of the household cash flow on the farm. An example of this kind of record is shown below. Income Sources Date

Item of income

Amount ($)

Expenditure Date

Item expenditure

of

Amount ($)

Principles of record keeping There are some general principles which apply to all record keeping. Records should be: •

Accurate and filled in as soon as possible after the operation; 31

• • • • •

Neat and written clearly; Complete by not leaving out any information; Be simple in design, easy to keep and retrieve; Easy to analyse; and Appropriate.

Care should be made that only the really vital information required by the entrepreneur is collected through record keeping. The whole purpose of record keeping is to improve the standard of the business. There is no value in spending time on records and calculations of profit and production in individual enterprises, if no use is made of them. All of the results should be compared with some standards as discussed above. EXAMPLE OF LESSON PLAN Duration: 1 Hour Module: Farm management Topic:

Record keeping

Sub topic: Importance of keeping records Rationale: To promote farming as business Learning outcomes/ objectives: Participants should be able to understand the purpose of keeping farm records. Pre-requisites skills and knowledge: Reference books:

Farmers should have basic knowledge on record - keeping

Farm management resource guide

Facilitation and learning material/ resources:

Flip chart, markers

LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (5MIN)

DEVELOPMENT (45 min)

CONCLUSION (5min)

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Ask questions; What are records? How do you keep records Why keep records Step 1: the facilitator will divide participants into three groups to ; Discuss the reasons why they should keep records. Discuss the use of records on the farm. Step 2: Participants share group findings and experiences Step 3: Facilitator, together with the participants discuss the importance of keeping records and how they are used on the farm. Facilitator asks questions on: what is the importance of keeping records on the farm How are records used on the farm?

LEARNING POINTS -Importance of keeping farm records.

Participants list the reasons why farmers should keep records on flip chart Participants explain how they use records on the farm Participants present by groups

Evaluation: Based on the outcomes of the training if Participants were able to; appreciate the importance of keeping records and how they are used on the farm.

Module 4

FARM BUDGETING

Budgeting is an essential requirement of any farm's management and is an integral component of overall farm planning. A budget indicates the expected profitability of a business, and so whether in the long term, the business will be capable of generating an adequate income and repaying its debts. In order to formulate farm budgets, one needs to have a good understanding of farm costs and profits.

32

Costs Costs associated with a farm can be divided into two kinds: variable costs and fixed costs. Total Cost of Production

=

Variable Costs

Fixed Costs Costs

+

Fixed costs: The fixed costs apply to the farm as a whole. Fixed costs are costs which do not vary with changes in production output of a specific type of crop or livestock production. Fixed costs remain the same regardless of the output; even if there is no output, there will still be fixed costs incurred. Fixed costs include insurance, rent, rates, and depreciation on physical equipment used on the whole farm (Depreciation is the costs of the declining value of things like tractors, machinery and buildings. Depreciation is usually calculated as an annual payment). Fixed costs are also known as overheads. Fixed costs also include permanent labour and management, among others. Variable costs: Variable costs are the costs of actual production. They apply to specific enterprises on the farm. These costs vary as output changes. These costs occur only if something is produced. They do not occur if nothing is produced. For example, direct labour required in crop production. If a farmer has to hire labour, then as production is increased the need for hired labour also increases. If no yield is produced there is no need for hired labour. Typical variable costs include the cost of seeds, fertilizers, sprays, fuel for machines, hired labour, livestock feed, and veterinary costs, amongst others. Variable costs can be allocated to specific enterprises. Profit Profit simply refers to the income that remains after all fixed costs and variable costs have been deducted. Profit

=

Total income

Fixed costs Costs

-

-

Variable costs Costs

Types of farm budgets There are basically two types of farm budgets: 1. 2.

Whole farm budgets; and Partial farm budgets

Whole farm budget A full or whole farm budget is a far more detailed exercise of budgeting on the farm. A full farm budget is necessary in the event of any significant change in the farm enterprise being planned. If you are taking over a new farm, considering a change/ expansion in enterprise, planning a significant capital expenditure, increasing farm borrowing, or planning any change that may have a significant impact on your farm finances either in cash flow or income terms, you should complete a whole farm budget. In a complete budget the first step is to list the enterprises which are to be considered and on the basis of their gross margins to establish the expected return. Estimated fixed costs are then deducted from the farm gross margin to obtain the family farm profit. In preparing this budget, crop and livestock plans for the entire farm must be made and total output, expenses and income estimated. Partial farm budgets Partial budgets are made when the changes under consideration affect only a small part of the farm business. Partial budgeting is a tool that can be used to assess the effect of changes on the overall 33

profitability of a farm as well as the effect in choosing between technology and enterprise. This form of budgeting can be sufficient when you wish to establish the impact of a small alteration to your farming system on your farm's performance and ultimately the farm income. It looks at only gross income and expense items that are affected by the proposed change. It looks at the economic and non-economic pros and cons of a proposed change. Partial budgets are useful to evaluate changes such as: • • • • • •

Expanding an enterprise Selecting alternative enterprises Selecting different production practices Deciding whether to purchase equipment or hire Making a capital improvement Buying new equipment to replace hand labour or maintaining an older equipment

Partial budgeting is based on the principle that a small change in the organization of a farm will have one or more of the following effects: • • • •

Eliminate or reduce some costs. Eliminate or reduce some gross incomes. Cause additional costs to be incurred. Cause additional gross incomes to be received

Steps in preparing a partial budget Step 1 State the Proposed Change: Introduction of irrigation to 0.5 acres of ginger. Step 2 List the Added Annual Returns: Additional gross income. In this case, the irrigation will increase production by 300 kg of ginger or $1,350 (300 kg @ $4.50) annually. Step 3 List the Reduced Annual Costs: No reduction in annual costs. Step 4 List Added Annual Costs: The additional annual costs is the extra labour for preparing water channels, water application and for extra harvest, extra cost for transportation and marketing. Step 5 List the Reduced Annual Gross Incomes: No reduction in annual gross incomes Step 6 Estimate Changes in Annual Farm Income: In this example, the farm income would increase by $1,035 due to the introduction of irrigation. Step 7 Non-economic Considerations: non-economic factors: any social aspects of having more/less family members working on the farm, increased flexibility in the production cycle, etc. Gross margins A gross margin budget is simply a form of a partial budget. The term gross margin generally refers to 34

the remaining income from an enterprise after the variable costs are deducted (Gross income less variable costs). A gross margin budget is a fairly detailed estimate of the output, cost, and profitability of individual enterprises. The gross margin budget includes all variable costs involved in producing the enterprise. It is not profit because it does not include all costs (it excludes fixed costs which the enterprise shares with other enterprises). But it is an indication of the profitability of an enterprise. If an enterprise does not have a positive gross margin, then that enterprise is not profitable. How can gross margins be used? • Make comparisons between individuals running the same business in the same area; • Make comparisons for your farm business over time; and • Used as a planning tool in evaluating the potential value of alternative technologies and/or enterprises Advantages of gross margins • The information required is simple. • The information required can be easily collected. • The analysis is easy to complete. • The results are easy to understand. A gross margin is usually calculated on unit basis. It can be calculated on a per hectare basis, or as a return to labour, based on the number of days worked by the farmer and her family. These would be expressed as K/Ha, K/worker, K/person day, respectively. Every farmer who sells their produce should know their costs of production and should be able to calculate the gross margin. This will allow them to analyse the current performance of an enterprise using current prices and input-output information. Using the gross margin they can project information into the future; this will help them plan and make decisions. This is what budgeting is all about. Components of the Gross Margin The gross margin is made up of two major parts: 1. 2.

Gross Income Variable Costs

The basic calculation for a gross margin is as follows: Gross Margin

=

Gross Income

-

Variable Costs

Gross income (value of production) The gross income is obtained by multiplying the physical output by the farm gate price of the product and valuing home consumption. Gross Income

=

Yield

X

Unit price

A more detailed understanding of gross income highlights that the gross income from an enterprise comprises a number of sources of income: • • • •

Produce sold; Produce consumed by the farmer’s family/workers; The produce put into storage; and By-products.

Enterprise selection Gross margins are useful in enterprise selection. A comparison of gross margin budgets for different 35

enterprises will give an indication of which enterprise is more profitable. The higher the gross margin value, the greater the profitability of an enterprise. Therefore, depending on the availability of resources, the farmer can decide to produce a particular crop or rear a particular livestock because it shows a higher gross margin value. Below are two examples of gross margin budgets (maize and groundnuts): 1. MAIZE GROSS MARGIN BUDGET - MARKET PRICE INPUTS ENTERPRIZE NAME: Maize ENTERPRIZE SIZE: 1Ha INCOME (A) S/No. OUTPUT (ITEMS) UNIT QTY UNIT COST AMOUNT (ZMK) 1 Maize 50Kgs 60 65,000 3,900,000 A

B 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 B

TOTAL INCOME (A) EXPENDITURE VARIABLE COSTS Seed Fertilizers - "D" Compound Urea Land preparation - Ploughing Planting Weeding Fertilizer Application Harvesting Transport (Field to Homestead) Shelling Empty Grain bags Transport (To market) TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS (B) GROSS MARGIN (A - B)

3,900,000

UNIT 10Kgs 50Kg 50Kg Lima Line Line Line Lima 50Kg 50Kg Each 50Kg

QTY 2 4 4 4 100 100 100 4 6 60 60 60

UNIT COST 129,000 212,000 215,000 50,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 40,000 20,000 1,000 2,000 2,000

AMOUNT (ZMK) 258,000 848,000 860,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 160,000 120,000 60,000 120,000 120,000 3,346,000 554,000

2. GROUNDNUT GROSS MARGIN BUDGET ENTERPRIZE: Groundnuts ENTERPRIZE SIZE: 1 Ha INCOME (A) S/No. OUTPUT (ITEMS) UNIT QTY UNIT COST AMOUNT (ZMK) 1 Shelled groundnuts Kg 2,500 4,000 10,000,000 A

TOTAL INCOME (A)

B 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 B

EXPENDITURE VARIABLE COSTS Hybrid Seed Fertilizers - "D" Compound Lime Chemicals(Pesticides & Fungicides) Land preparation - Ploughing Planting Weeding Spraying Harvesting Harvesting Transport and empty bags TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS (B) GROSS MARGIN (A - B)

10,000,000

UNIT 10Kg 50Kg Kg Lima Lima Line Lima Lima Lima

QTY 6 4 500 2 4 4 100 4 4 4 50

UNIT COST 144,000 212,000 150 200,000 50,000 35,000 2,000 5,000 5,000 40,000 10,000.00

AMOUNT (ZMK) 864,000 848,000 75,000 400,000 200,000 140,000 200,000 20,000 20,000 160,000 500,000 2,927,000 7,073,000

From these two examples, the groundnut enterprise proves to be more profitable than maize, with a gross margin value of K7,073,000. In this situation, a farmer would be better off to produce groundnuts than maize, that is, he may decide to increase the hectarage of ground nuts and reduce on maize. But before the farmer makes such a decision it is advisable that the farmer prepares a partial budget to check on how this expansion on groundnut enterprise will affect his expenses and if he can afford it.

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Module 5

Marketing

The agricultural sector in Zambia is one of the key industries and employs majority of the labour force. Therefore, a well-functioning agricultural marketing system plays a number of important roles in the society. It improves both household and national incomes, creates employment to farmers, marketing agents, processors and provides consumers with food and non-food products as well as services. What is marketing? From the point of view of the farmer, marketing is a process where a farmer finds out what the customer wants and supplies it at the quality and price at which the customer is prepared to buy, and at which the farmer makes a profit.. It involves the following: • • •

A process of activities which involve moving products from the point of production to the point of consumption. Buying and selling of goods and services either at a physical place or through the electronic media; and Planning the production, pricing, post-harvest management, distribution or transportation, storage or warehousing, packaging and promotion.

Marketing concept versus selling concept The selling concept holds that consumers/ buyers, if left alone, will ordinarily not buy enough of your products. The farmer must therefore undertake aggressive selling and promotion effort. The farmer can go to the nearest town and move from house to house-persuading residents to buy his or her products. Selling is about producing first, and looks for buyers later. The Marketing Concept holds that key to achieving your business goals should start by firstly getting to know the needs and wants of your target Markets (customers) and thereafter go back to your farm to produce and deliver the desired products more effectively and efficiently than your competitors. Marketing is about looking for buyers first, and then produce according to the buyers wants. For example, farmers of farmer organizations need to hold pre-planting meetings with the major buyers to reach consensus on the expected quality and other standards such as packaging and grade classifications. Buyers are mainly in two categories namely; final consumers and Business Customers, (Traders, Out grower schemes, Millers, Stock feed and Food Processors, Exporters, Marketers, Retail Outlets i.e. supermarkets like Shoprite, Spar, Pick and Pay etc.). Business customers buy for reselling and processing into other products. For example, millers buy maize for processing into mealy meal and stock-feeds. Major Roles of Agricultural Marketing The roles of agricultural marketing include; • • •

Physical handling and transfer of agricultural products as they move from producers to consumers Adding value to farm commodities and facilitating the exchange process between buyers and consumers A growing number of rural and urban people look to agricultural marketing activities such as storage, processing, transport and trading as a source of employment.

In developing marketing, investments made in improving infrastructure such as expansion of road networks benefit other areas of the economy; make farmers more accessible and sometimes even more vulnerable to market forces. Improvements in transportation and new production technologies encourage greater specialisation and commercialisation in farm production and increases in demand 37

for new products. Why is Marketing Important? Marketing is important for an entrepreneur in order to carry out the following activities; a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

Identify buyers and their needs Deciding on marketing channels to be used Plan production to meet market demand Plan when to harvest, process, grade, packaging or store Identify arrangements for transport and delivery of the products Calculate costs Calculate profit or gross margins

The marketing mix: In marketing management four variables are used to make decisions: • • • •

The product itself The place where it is offered for sale (distribution of the product) The marketing communication methods used to inform consumers about the product The price that reflects the product’s value to consumers.

These four variables, which are known as marketing instruments, combine to form the market offering which consumers purchase to satisfy their needs. Since the 1960s, these variables have been known as the 4Ps of the marketing mix (product, place, promotion and price). Decisions about the use of 4Ps result in the marketing strategy, which is directed at specific consumers in a specific environment. The market offering to consumers comprises a basic product with need satisfying attributes. The price of this product, it is easy availability, and the information in the marketing communication message (advertisement) all contribute to the product’s value or utility. A specific market offering is not supposed to satisfy the needs of one individual only, but rather a whole group of consumers or market segment. Product Product decisions entail decision making about the product itself (for example the type of packaging and the brand), as well as about the composition of the product offering. The decision on what product to produce/sell depends on what customers want to buy (what has a market) and what is more profitable to produce and sell. Place A market is the place where the exchange of goods and money takes place. The market is made up of sellers, buyers, products and prices. The relationship among these elements influences the amount of money received in exchange for products. There are many different types of markets. Some are close to the farmer; others far away. At some markets, the farmer can sell his/her products with very little packaging, handling and transporting. Other markets may require substantial packaging, handling and transporting. Each type of market requires different information, different skills, and different decisions. Farmers must carefully consider these requirements when choosing a market. The Price The price refers to what the consumer must pay to purchase a unit product. It is usually expressed in monetary value such as Kwacha/dollar per unit item. Price is usually influenced by supply and demand. Farmers who produce and sell in a competitive market with many buyers and sellers are called price takers. Price takers have very little influence on the price. A farmer should be aware of the price s/he sells his/her produce to make sure it covers his/her production costs; otherwise s/he will 38

be making a loss. The following are the common methods for determining the price at which to sell a product: a)

Cost – Plus method:

In this method, the farmer calculates the cost of producing a single product, and then s/he adds a reasonable profit margin; say 5 to 15% to the final cost of the product which then becomes the product price. b)

Comparative Method:

The starting point should be your cost of production per unit. Thereafter compare what your competitors are charging. Based on your quality you may either charge above or below what the competitors are charging c)

What the Market will bear:

These prices are based on relationship between forces of supply and demand Promotion This refers to making people aware of your product. There is information gap between producers and consumers regarding the goods/services that the producer/provider may have and yet the customer may not be aware that such goods/services are available in the area. So there is a need for the producer to let the potential customers know about the quality, price, value and the general information of his products. Some potential customers may not know that they need your product until you promote it to them and explain its benefits. Most promotional methods may have a cost attached to them, so the entrepreneur/farmer should be aware of this and assess whether the added cost will result in increased revenue or not. Table below identifies some of the promotional methods, pointing out their advantages and disadvantages. Promotional method Television

Advantages

Disadvantages

Mass coverage, High reach, Impact of sight, sound and motion, High prestige, Low cost per exposure, Attention getting, Favourable image

Low selectivity, Short message life, High obsolete cost, High production costs, advert congestion.

Radio

Local coverage, Low cost, High Frequency, Flexible, Low production costs, Well segmented audiences

Audio Only, Clutter, Low attention getting, passing Massage

Magazines

Segmentation potential, quality re-production, High information content, can be kept for future reference, Multiple readers

Long lead time for ad placement, Visual only, Lack of flexibility, can be used for coupons

Newspapers

High coverage, Low cost, Short lead time for placing ads, Ads can be placed in interest sections, Timely (current ads) Reader controls exposure, can be used for coupons Location Specific, High repletion, Easily noticed

Short life, advert congestion, Low attention getting capabilities, Poor reproduction quality, selective reader exposure Short exposure time requires short ads, Poor image, Local restrictions High cost/Contact, Poor image (Junk mail) advert congestion.

Outdoor Direct Mail

High selectivity, Reader controls exposure, High Information Content, Opportunities for repeat exposures

Others are: • • • • • •

Fliers Posters Banners Hawkers (people moving from place to place explaining the product to potential customers) Mega phone Word of mouth

The marketing (value) chain The different steps involved in moving produce from the farm to the consumer, is called the marketing chain, also referred to as the value chain. Each of these steps involves costs. At the simplest 39

level, the steps and cost involved may just be the time taken by the farmer to walk to a nearby market and stay there until all of his/her vegetables are sold. At the most complex level, a product may be stored for long periods, transported long distances and processed several times before reaching the form in which it is finally sold. The cost of marketing makes the price of a product in a shop or retail market higher than the price paid to the farmer. Each person or agent who handles the product changes the product in some way. When he does so, he charges a fee. This fee is added to the cost of the final product sold to the customer. If the farmer sells directly to the end customer, s/he will receive the full market price. But she will be responsible for all the marketing costs. If she sells to someone else (e.g. a trader) who will process the product and then sell it, the farmer will receive only the price paid by the trader. The trader is then responsible for the marketing costs.

Module 6

CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

It is useful to assess the overall effect of an enterprise on the household finances. To do this, the farmer needs to prepare a Cash Flow. The Cash Flow is simply the flow of money into the farm from sales and the flow of money out of the farm through purchases and other payments. The farmer can use the Cash Flow to determine the financial performance of her household as a whole. It will help her to assess whether the family will have enough money to carry out their plan or if they will be short of money in any month. It enables the farmer to find the time of the year where additional financial resources may be required. Difference between a Cash Flow and a Gross Margin There is an important difference between a Gross Margin and a Cash Flow. The Cash Flow looks at the overall performance of the farm and its enterprises, whilst a gross margin will concentrate on a particular enterprise. When accounting for income, a Gross Margin will include the value of products consumed by the family. In a Cash Flow, only actual cash income is included; even though crops consumed by the family have value, they are not sold, and they do not generate cash. Therefore they are not included in the Cash Flow. Similarly, costs such as family labour which are often not actually paid, are included in the Gross Margin, but are not included in the Cash Flow. This difference is important because although an enterprise may be profitable in terms of Gross Margin, if the farmer is not selling enough of the crop, then she may not generate the cash she needs to pay for inputs, hired labour and other cash costs. Net Cash Flow The Net Cash Flow is the difference between the cash inflows and cash outflows. Net Cash Flow is calculated by subtracting the money (cash) spent over the year from the money received. (Non-cash item like crops consumed by the family, unpaid family labour, depreciation, etc. are not included in the flow of cash.) Net Cash Flow

=

Cash Inflow

–

Cash inflow is made up of: • • • •

Sales of produce marketed, Income from wage labour and other employment, Gifts; and Loans, etc.

Cash outflow is made up of 40

Cash Outflow

• • •

Purchases and payments for inputs for the farm (e.g. hired labour, fertilizers, seed, pesticides, animal feeds, salt licks, etc); Land preparation costs, purchase of new machinery and other operational costs; and Household expenses (e.g. medicine, food, school fees, taxes, gifts).

The farm should try to generate a positive Cash Flow. This comes about by ensuring that more cash flows into the farm than out of the farm. Analysis of a farm Cash Flow generates a detailed projection of the farmer’s ability or inability to finance an enterprise. In the absence of records details of household expenditure usually have to be estimated. Use of Cash Flow A farmer can use a Cash Flow to analyse their farm, plan for the future, and to monitor farm activities. Controlling the flow of cash in and out of their farm is an important task of the farmer. Cash Flow budgets are important in: • • • •

Developing the farm plan Choosing between alternative farm enterprises Comparing actual and budgeted results (to enable corrective action to be taken on time) Arranging for loans

As a planning tool, the Cash Flow can be used to see the effect of a small change on the farming system or the financial impact of a complete farm plan. It can be used to examine whether the financing is available within the farm household, or alternatively if there is a need to take out a loan. In cases where the farmer has already decided to take a loan, the Cash Flow will also indicate whether and when the farmer will be able to repay the interest and principal. How to construct a Cash Flow As noted earlier, the main feature of a Cash Flow is that it focuses specifically on cash. The non-cash items included in Gross Margin analysis are not included in a Cash Flow. Therefore, non-cash items such as depreciation, the value of family labour and food consumed at home are excluded. Also as noted earlier, the Cash Flow for smallholder farmers includes the on-farm and off-farm (household) inflows and outflows. It should cover all cash income and expenditures for the farm household. It should include loans that the farm household receives from moneylenders, friends and lending institutions as cash inflows. And it should include repayment of these loans (principal and interest) as cash outflows. A Cash Flow can be calculated on a monthly, quarterly or annual basis. Annual Cash Flows are common for longer-term investments such as livestock and tree crops. Monthly and quarterly Cash Flows are well suited to annual crops. A farmer can construct a Cash Flow on what she is currently doing or she can construct a Cash Flow on the basis of what she intends to do over the next year. In the example which follows, we will construct a Cash Flow budget to examine the projected cash situation of a plan to introduce a new enterprise. We will look at Cash Flow for these projections on a monthly basis over one year. Let us imagine a farm household that earns some income from selling maize and cassava and rearing dairy cows. They also have some chickens. The family has three children attending school. The farmer wishes to introduce beans into her system. She knows that the enterprise is profitable but wonders whether she has enough funds to finance the enterprise. When the farmer plans the farm programme for next year, she wants to find answers to the following questions: • •

How much money are the farm enterprises likely to generate and how much cash expenditure will be needed to cover costs? When will she receive the money (inflow) and when will the money be needed (outflow)? 41

•

If the amount of money she expects to receive over the year does not cover the amount needed, how can she make up the difference? Will it be made up by savings? Does the farmer have reserves? Does the farmer have access to loans?

The steps involved in preparing the Cash Flow are as follows: Step1: Identify Inflow and Outflow List the income and expenditure items and when they occur in the year, as shown in the table below. This is a time plan schedule. Cash Inflow Description

Month

Sale of maize

January March September October November Apr Aug MarchSept

Sale of cassava Sale of milk

Sale of chicken Planned beans

sale

of

Cash Outflow Description

Income (K’000) 250 300 300 100 100 340 120 480

January September July

130 60 450

December

400

Money spent (Maize)

Month on

Money spent on (Cassava) Money spent on (livestock)

farm

inputs

farm inputs farm inputs

Brooding cost and feeding (chickens) Money spent on inputs (Beans)

Money to cover living expenses Money to cover school expenses

Total

Money to cover health expenses Total

3030

Expenditure (K’000)

March

September April

300 37

January Feb to September October to December Sept

30 400 90

April July October December Jan to Dec February May September January-December

200 40 180 40 480 200 140 100 240 2837

60

Step 2: Prepare a Cash Flow Table From the inflow outflow table, we can work out the monthly balance. MONEY COMING IN Sales of farm products: Maize Cassava Milk Chicken Planned sale of French beans Total Cash Inflow

MONEY GOING OUT Payments & Purchase of inputs: Maize inputs Cassava inputs Farm inputs livestock Chicken feeding expenses Beans inputs Household expenses: Living expenses School fees Hospital Expenses Total Cash Outflow

Jan

Feb

250

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

300 60

340 60

60

60

60

120 60

360

400

60

60

450 510

180

130 380

Jan

0

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

300 30

10 10 50

50

10 200 10 270

Oct

Nov

300

100

100

100

100

Dec

60 60 420

Sep

400 400

Oct

Nov

Dec

30

30

30

300 37 50

50

200

50

10

10

10 370

10 307

10 140 10 260

50

Sep

50

50

50

50 60

40

180

10

10

10

10 70

10 110

10 70

10 100 10 530

40

10

10

10

10 230

10 50

10 90

Step 3: Calculate the monthly net Cash Flow This is done by subtracting the expenses from the income for each month. It will be positive if income is greater than expenses; and negative if income is less than expenses. 42

Total Cash Inflow Total Cash Outflow Monthly Net Cash Flow

Jan 380 50 350

Feb 0 270 -270

Mar 360 370 -10

Apr 400 307 83

May 60 260 -200

Jun 60 70 -10

Jul 510 110 400

Aug 180 70 110

Sep 420 530 -110

Oct 100 230 -130

Nov 100 50 50

Dec 400 90 310

Step 4: Calculate the cumulative net Cash Flow In order to assess whether the family has enough cash over the year to cover the introduction of beans we have to construct a cumulative Cash Flow. The cumulative net Cash Flow is calculated by adding the monthly net Cash Flow with the cumulative net Cash Flow of the previous month. For example, in January, the monthly net Cash Flow was K350,000. This is also the cumulative net Cash Flow because it is the first month in the season. In February, the monthly net Cash Flow is -K270,000. Adding these two together tells us that by the end of February, the cumulative net Cash Flow was K80,000. Monthly net Cash Flow Cumulative balance

Jan 350 350

Feb -270 80

Mar -10 70

Apr 83 153

May -200 -47

Jun -10 -57

Jul 400 343

Aug 110 453

Sep -110 343

Oct -130 213

Nov 50 263

Dec 310 573

Note: All of these calculations (Steps 2, 3 and 4) are meant to appear in a single table. See the example given at the end of this topic. Step 5: Analyse the net Cash Flow This example shows that the family has a shortfall of cash in May and June. This means that even though Beans is a profitable enterprise the family does not have the money available to cover the expenditures expected to occur in those months. What can the family do? There are a number of possibilities: • • • • • •

The farmer could decide not to introduce Beans The farmer could try to save some money in order to cover the financial shortfall The farmer might decide to cut back on some of the inputs used for growing beans The farmer might decide to reduce some of the area under maize and cassava in order to reduce costs. The farmer might sell some of her livestock to cover the financial gap The farmer might decide to take a loan to cover the shortfall

Using a loan Let us assume the farmer decides to finance her shortfall with a loan. She would need to determine how much of a loan she needs and whether and when she could make payments to repay the loan. The shortfall which cannot be covered amounts to K104,000. A loan of K200,000 would ensure the Cash Flow required. If she is to repay the loan over four months and is charged a rate of 18% interest, she will make 4 payments of K59,000 each. The total repayment would be K236,000. The table below sets out an example of how a loan and repayment schedule could be planned to make this proposal feasible. Monthly Balance Proposed Loan Proposed Repayments Cumulative Balance

Jan 350

Feb -270

Mar -10

Apr 83 200

May -200

Jun -10

Jul 400

Aug 110

Sep -110

Oct -130

Nov 50

Dec 310

350

80

70

353

153

143

-59 484

-59 535

-59 366

-59 177

227

537

Assumptions: • • • •

Loan of K200,000 paid back over 4 months Grace period of two months Interest rate at 18% Payable at four equal instalments

43

In this example, if the farmer took out a loan of K200,000 she would cover the financial shortfall and would have the funds available to repay the loan. The cumulative balance would then be positive for the entire twelve-month period showing that there is no more need for finances. Where loan options are viable it is necessary to understand that taking out a loan is treated as an inflow, but the cost of repayment (principal and interest) also needs to be taken into account and is treated as an outflow. In conclusion the farmer should be confident that introducing of Beans into the farming system is profitable and by taking a loan would also be financially feasible. The final decision rests with the farmer. Complete Cash Flow Budget MONEY COMING IN Sales of farm products: Maize Cassava Milk Chicken Planned sale of French beans Total Cash Inflow MONEY GOING OUT Payments & Purchase of inputs: Maize inputs Cassava inputs Farm inputs livestock Chicken feeding expenses Beans inputs Household expenses: Living expenses School fees Hospital Expenses Total Cash Outflow Total Cash Inflow Total Cash Outflow Monthly Net Cash Flow Cumulative balance

Jan

Feb

250

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

300 60

340 60

60

60

60

120 60

360 Mar

400 Apr

60 May

60 Jun

450 510 Jul

180 Aug

130 380 Jan

0 Feb

300 30

10 10 50 Jan 380 50 350 350

50

10 200 10 270 Feb 0 270 -270 80

SECTION III

Module 1

Mar

Oct

Nov

Dec

300

100

100

100 Oct

100 Nov

400 400 Dec

30

30

30

60 60 420 Sep 300

37 50

50

200

50

10

10

10 370 Mar 360 370 -10 70

10 307 Apr 400 307 83 153

10 140 10 260 May 60 260 -200 -47

50

Sep

50

50

50

50 60

40

180

10

10

10

10 70 Jun 60 70 -10 -57

10 110 Jul 510 110 400 343

10 70 Aug 180 70 110 453

10 100 10 530 Sep 420 530 -110 343

40

10

10

10

10 230 Oct 100 230 -130 213

10 50 Nov 100 50 50 263

10 90 Dec 400 90 310 573

EXTENSION DELIVERY

PARTICIPATION (I.E. IN CACS, COOPERATIVES, FGS,)

LEADERSHIP + LESSON PLAN DEFN; leadership; • • • •

is an art of influencing others in order to meet set goals is coordination and harmonization among followers can be learnt and improved upon is team work

Styles Leadership style refers to a leader's behavior. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to 44

converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members. Autocratic or authoritarian style

Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators. Leaders do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group. Participative or democratic style The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality. Laissez-faire or free rein style A person may be in a leadership position without providing leadership, leaving the group to fend for itself. Subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER • • • • • • • • •

Intelligence and being able to inspire others Have a vision Allowing all strata of the group to participate in activities Enduring hardship Being an example Being committed Being advisable Being honest and transparent Being fair

LESSON PLAN Module ; Facilitation Duration: 55 min Learning area: PARTICIPATION Topic: GROUP DYNAMICS Sub topic: LEARDESHIP Rationale: 1. What 2. Why; Success of development initiatives in by a group is highly dependent on good leadership. Many groups fail to achieve their intended objectives due to lack of guidance. It is important that for farmer groups to succeed the members appreciate the important role leadership has in their activities. 3. How 4. When Learning outcomes/ objectives; Participants should be able to Pre-requisites skills and knowledge Reference books 45

Facilitation and learning material/ resources LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (5MIN)

DEVELOPMENT (30)

CONCLUSION (20)

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Facilitator asks the participants; 1. what is leadership 2. to give examples of leaders in the community 2. what are some leadership styles

LEARNING POINTS 1. influencing, coordination, team work 2. Village headman, group chairperson, committee members... 3. democratic, authoritarian, laissez- faire

Step 1: facilitator divide participants into groups Step 2: Group members discuss and list the qualities of a good leader Step 3; Group share their findings with the rest Facilitator gives the participants an activity to reflect on leadership -role play

Evaluation: Based on learning outcome 1. Participants should be able to define leadership and its role in development activities 2. Participants should be able to list the leadership style and qualities of a good leader

Group Development A group is like a living organism. A group gets born, grows and dies. During the group’s lifetime it has something to do (programme activities) in these activities the group faces problems, which members wotry solve collectively. The group also achieves its set goals during its lifetime. The group may finally cease (die) after accomplishing its purpose. Stages of Group Development 1.

2. 3.

4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

Beginning stage: this is when the group comes together. An idea is born for people to come together as a group to fulfill a purpose. During this stage members depend on leadership for orientation so that they know the group goals, objective purpose etc. Non-Development Stage: During this stage the group develops standard or behavior to follow. Conflict stage: this stage is characterized by individual interest. Members tend to bring their individual characteristics to the group leading to tension and conflict. Conflicts can either be positive or negative. Conflicts are positive when they help the group leaders to understand each member of group and negative when they interfere with group development. This stage requires an effective leadership so that the group does not lose track. Transition stage: this stage replaces conflict with acceptance. Members begin to seek way of resolving their differences. Group cohesion develops and a sense of belonging to each member of the group takes hold. Task replaces personal concerns. Production stage: this is a stage at which sharing of tasks is done. Individuals know what he/she has to perform. The group members are guided by group purpose, objectives or goals Affection stage: During this stage consensus (agreement) becomes the norm and guiding principle. You begin doing things in uniformity and decisions are made in agreement with standing values and norms in the implementation of programme. Actualization stage: this stage is the highest stage of the group development. Group members feel attached to the group. Group belonging has a personal meaning. Individual well-being is associated with group membership.

Group dynamics The main actors\characters in Groups 1. the defensive: always defending one’s ideas and actions. 2. the aggressive quarrel some: never satisfied. Eager to lead discussion into heated argument 3. the detached uncooperative: didn’t want to come to this gathering in the first place. 4. the know all: underrates other’s opinions. Thinks her\his are the best solutions. 5. the what’s the use person: give up. Lost interest as soon as his\her ideas were rejected. 46

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

the bright idea person: constantly contributing educated ideas. the impatient uninterested: irritated by the contributors. In a hurry to go home. the silent: doesn’t contribute anything the check fokoll: doesn’t care what direction the proceedings go the shy: afraid of giving a ‘wrong’ suggestion. the positive contribution: the mature member who’s concerned about the success of the meeting

Group leadership Leadership is the ability to influence others. Whoever influences the behavior of the group is exercising leadership. Every group member has the potential to influence others. Social groups work is a broader societal function predicted upon the belief that people can and should be helped to acquire skills for membership and leadership in neighbourhood, labour, profession, business, religion or civic organizations. Types of Leadership There are three main types of leadership: 1. 2. 3.

Authoritarian or Autocratic Leadership Democratic Leadership Laissez faire Leadership

Leadership Theories There are two important leadership theories, which are important in group situations namely: • • 1.

Situation leadership Action centred leadership Situation leadership

Research has shown that there is no single all purpose leadership style. Successful leaders are those who can adapt their behavior to meet the demands of the situation. To determine what leadership style is appropriate to use in a given situation one must first determine the development levels of the group members in relation to the specific task they require to achieve. Leadership styles is situational, the style is also dependent on the problem 2.

Action centered leadership

The theory is based on the premise that it is not what the leader is but what he\she does. Leaders should therefore lead by example in order to gain members confidence. The group leader should be able to enable the group achieve set tasks, develop individuals and build team. Achieve tasks A leader’s main functions is to enable the group achieve tasks. In order to do so he she needs to know: • • • •

What the objectives are How to achieve these objectives The goals and standards set The risks involved and how to deal with them

Team Building The team or group exists because one person alone cannot achieve the tasks. Group work is centred on group and team efforts. It is team leaders responsibly to: 47

• •

Direct individual efforts towards team work Develop in the team loyalty, pride, a desire to work together, appropriate standard and of common purpose

Develop Individuals A group is a collectivity of individuals who function as unique persons and as members of the group. Their individual development is, therefore, essential to the actual group development. Each team member is an individual. The group leader should ensure that: • • • •

Each individual develops his or her skills, talents and abilities and each individual knows his\her role in the group activities Each group member gives in the best for the benefit of the whole group Individual interest do not interfere with group goals Individuals fulfill both their individual needs and group needs

Leadership for Development A group aimed at development turn to bring a new era of hope, reformation and opportunities, to untie, to love, to help one another and sacrifice our individual interest for advancement of the our people. There is usually high hopes or expectation of wonderful results and accomplishment. If we are leaders we have lead to such high hopes, we must be prepared reexamine: • • • • •

Our selves to make time success And reconsider our behavior, attitudes that keep as apart and in conflict with other That cause some individuals plunder the wealth of the majority That tear down the safety and security of the poor ones (food and income security) That destroy the reputation of our people and threaten everyone to appear un concerned.

We must take decisions to abandon or stop every retrogressive self-destructive behavior and adopt new values to build our community and people that live in it. Roles and Responsibilities of a Committee Member Chairperson The chairperson is the figurehead of the club. The central figure and a decision maker. Primary responsibility is to chair all meetings. The chair is Neutral and in Control. Qualities: Well informed, able to represent the organization at highest levels, unbiased, good listener, well focused, diplomatic, able to control meetings and able to maintain the harmony of the group even when there is disagreements. Responsibilities: • • • • • •

For opening the meetings For getting though the agenda For giving people the opportunity of putting forth their views For seeing that the decisions are taken and agreed For conducting votes on resolutions For upholding the rules and constitution

The Vice Chairperson takes up these responsibilities in the absence of the chairperson Treasurer Has the position of trust and has ultimate responsibility for financial well being of the group. 48

Qualities: Honesty, tidy and orderly, bookkeeping knowledge and financial management skills Responsibilities: • • • • • • • • • • •

Look after finances Collects subscriptions and other monies Pays bills and records information Keep up to date records of all financial transactions Deposits all cash and cheques promptly to bank Ensures funds are spent properly Issues receipts Reports regularly to meetings Prepares end of the year financial reports Financial planning, producing and monitoring it throughout the year Helps prepare and submit and statutory documents

Equipment: cash book, calculator, receipts books, files, petty cash box, and financial records from previous year Secretary Responsibilities: • • • • • • •

To write minutes of every group’s meeting accurately To work hand in hand with the chairperson in preparing for meetings To keep all club information and documents like the constitution, register of members and correspondence for the club. Shall undertake the administrative role for all members and thus keep records of members and those assigned to do some work or go to make consultations on anything on behalf of the group To make available all the minutes of the previous meetings to the members. Shall communicate the decisions of the executive committee to rest of the member of the club Shall be the public relations office of the club

Meetings Meetings are an essential part of the running of an organization. Meeting can be effective tools for planning, communication and evaluating. Why should you have a meeting? • •

There is no better way to generate a team atmosphere than consulting everybody through a meeting. They will feel involved and committed to the decisions. Because it may be a constitutional requirement. (like an AGM)

A good meeting will: • • •

Motivate Remove suspicion and mistrust Help create a good relationship between colleagues and members

An unnecessary or non-productive meeting will be: • • •

Waste of time and money Demotivating Likely to sour relationship and bleed mistrust and discontent

Meetings are held to cater for discussions and take decisions. Types of meetings 49

1. 2. 3. 4.

Annual general meeting Executive meeting Sub committee meetings\working group meetings Public meetings\information meetings

Order of the meeting 1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

Call to order Minutes of the previous meeting – the minutes of the previous meeting must be ratified by the meeting as a correct version of what took place. Any amendment must be agreed, the minutes in the meeting book amended, and a note of the amendment made in the present meeting. Business arising or matters: any matters arising from the meeting can be raised at this point in the proceedings. Any actions taken from decisions made at the previous meeting should be reported. Reports: treasurer’s, secretary’s, all sub committee leader’s reports Business: identification of the matters to be discussed. Any other business: this when other items, not listed on the agenda, can be raised, usually at the discretion of chair. Date for the next meeting: it is recommended that you fix the date for the next meeting “like the first Monday in each month”. If not it is important to ask members when it will be convenient to hold next meeting. Adjournment

Minutes of the Meetings Minutes of the meeting are important documents and as such, should be taken seriously: • • • •

if the proper procedures are followed, they are an authenticated record of the proceeding, they form the base for any actions arising from decisions taken at the meeting they are important points of reference for an organization or a club they form an important historical and archival record of an organization

Minutes should include the following a) The heading, which includes the name of the organization\committee, date and place b) List of those present, c) List of those who have apologized for their ability not to be able to attend d) Ratification of the previous minutes with any amendments properly recorded, e) Maters arising, f) The items discussed, including decisions taken, and responsibility given, g) Date of next meeting. There are many styles of writing of minutes. In some only briefest outline of the subject matter is included together with decisions taken. Other like to include all that was said almost verbatim. Most common is a combination of these two. It is also of importance that all members take their own notes from the important items discussed. If time allows, it is efficient and courteous to let the person chaired the meeting have sight of the draft minutes in order to correct them prior to circulation.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT +LESSON PLAN INTRODUCTION Conflict will be present wherever people live. It is a fact of life in any ongoing relationship. When conflict occurs between people, they often become angry, hurt, bitter, or defensive. Sometimes the 50

conflict ends the relationship or seriously damages it. Yet, while conflict is inevitable in relationship, it can have either constructive or destructive results. It would wise at this point to define conflict. WHAT IS CONFLICT? Conflict is defined as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. Within this simple definition there are several important understandings that emerge: Conflicts occur when people (or other parties) perceive that, as a consequence of a disagreement, there is a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. Although conflict is a normal part of organization life, providing numerous opportunities for growth through improved understanding and insight, there is a tendency to view conflict as a negative experience caused by abnormally difficult circumstances. So, is it still a simple definition of conflict? We think so, but we must respect that within its elegant simplicity lies a complex set of issues to address. Therefore, it is not surprising that satisfactory resolution of most conflicts can prove so challenging and time consuming to address. A few points are worth reiterating before proceeding: •

•

•

•

•

A conflict is more than a mere disagreement - it is a situation in which people perceive a threat (physical, emotional, power, status, etc.) to their well-being. As such, it is a meaningful experience in people's lives, not to be shrugged off by a mere, "it will pass…" Participants in conflicts tend to respond on the basis of their perceptions of the situation, rather than an objective review of it. As such, people filter their perceptions (and reactions) through their values, culture, beliefs, information, experience, gender, and other variables. Conflict responses are both filled with ideas and feelings that can be very strong and powerful guides to our sense of possible solutions. As in any problem, conflicts contain substantive, procedural, and psychological dimensions to be negotiated. In order to best understand the threat perceived by those engaged in a conflict, we need to consider all of these dimensions. Conflicts are normal experiences within the work environment. They are also, to a large degree, predictable and expectable situations that naturally arise as we go about managing complex and stressful projects in which we are significantly invested. As such, if we develop procedures for identifying conflicts likely to arise, as well as systems through which we can constructively manage conflicts, we may be able to discover new opportunities to transform conflict into a productive learning experience. Creative problem-solving strategies are essential to positive approaches to conflict management. We need to transform the situation from one in which it is 'my way or the highway' into one in which we entertain new possibilities that have been otherwise elusive.

SOURCES OF CONFLICT Some of the sources of conflict are as follows: 1.

2. 3. 4.

Perceptual Difference – people not seeing things the same way. No two individuals see or perceive things exactly the same way and this leads to misunderstanding, confusion and conflict. People act on the basis of their perceptions or reality, which may not be reality itself. This creates problems because our experiences limit our perceptions. Personality Clashes – some people cannot mix. This could be caused by different values that each cherishes in their own lives. Lack of consultation – when decisions affecting the whole community are made without consulting other people to find out their views about the project. The style of leadership – every style of leadership has a specific context in which it can best be applied. However, if a leader applies a wrong style to situation, it is a sure case that it would cause conflict 51

CONSEQUENCES OF CONFLICT Constructive There are times when results of conflict may have value for people concerned. Some of these good values include the following: • • •

It stimulates interest and stimulates creative thinking. It makes clear people’s viewpoints. It produces better ideas and forces people to search for new approaches.

Destructive Conflict can be destructive as well. Leaders need to know how to handle it or else it can completely ruin whatever is built. Some of the negative effects of conflict include the following: • • • •

It develops a climate of suspicion and distrust among members. It reduces contact and bring about communication breakdown between people. It makes people, especially those who have ‘lost the battle’ feel defeated, embarrassed and demoralised. It reduces productivity and commitment to community causes.

STYLES OF CONFLICT - MANAGEMENT In any conflict between two parties, the approach and style for resolving conflict depends upon: • •

A person’s assertiveness – the extent to which we attempt to satisfy our own concerns; and A person’s co-operation – the extent to which we attempt to satisfy the concerns of others.

The two dimensions define a model of conflict – resolution which gives us a usable framework for describing various conflict – management behaviours and for assessing their relative strength and weaknesses. The competing style Competing: The competitive style is both assertive and unco-operative. To compete is to try to meet one’s own needs and concerns at the expense of the other party. To achieve this desired outcome, a competitor will use whatever power is available: The Accommodating Style Accommodating: At the opposite pole from competition is accommodation – unassertive and co-operative behaviour. Accommodation means putting the other party’s needs above one’s own – even if one has very strong needs and concerns related to the situation that has produced the conflict. The Avoiding Style Avoidance: This style is characterised by unassertive and unco-opeartive behaviour by both parties. Those who use it simply do not address the conflict, acting as if indifferent to other people’s needs and concerns. It is a matter of evading the issue, withdrawing from the discussion or not bothering to press for a resolution – apart from what time itself might bring. The Collaborating Style Collaboration: This style involves the maximum use of both assertiveness and cooperativeness. A high assertiveness aimed reaching one’s goal is balanced with a high concern for the needs of the other person. In fact, those using a collaborative style seek to satisfy the needs of both parties. The Compromising Style

52

Compromise: compromise is an intermediate strategy – in a midway position between competition and collaboration, avoidance and accommodation. The approach is to find an acceptable solution to a conflict that partly satisfies both parties. Therefore, moderate amounts of assertiveness and cooperation are required to effect a compromise. The style is characterised by a well-known phrase ‘’splitting the difference’’- ‘’looking for the middle ground’’, or ‘’meeting the other person half way’’. CHOOSING A STYLE To be in harmony with the spirit and practices of community participation, the collaborative style is the ideal to aim for. This would hold true whether you are in a one–to-one relationship with a colleague, trying to work through a difference of opinion, or a leader trying to resolve a conflict between two people or groups of people in your area. For the style implies interactive, participatory modes of communication in problem solving and decision-making. Creative ideas about ways of solving problems are most likely to come from collaborative approaches. Strong commitment to decisions are most likely to come from collaborative approaches. Of all the styles, collaboration most fits the rational, three-stage procedures of problem-solving: EXPLORATION GOAL-SETTING

ACTION

Acknowledging that there is a conflict. Identifying each party’s need, concerns and goals. Analysing solutions and their consequences for each party. Selecting the solution that seems to offer the best resolution – that best meets the needs, and concerns, ad achieves the goal of each party. Implementing the decision and evaluating the outcome.

CONCLUSION However, which particular conflict style is appropriate will depend on the specific situation. To be an effective leader or facilitator in conflict situations, you need to be able to use any of the styles and have a sense of which is appropriate at any given time. However, what tends to happen is that individuals and groups become ‘’locked into’’ one preferred style and use it in most situations. The consequence is that they neglect other styles that could be effective in reaching their goals. There is nothing necessarily right or wrong with any of the conflict-management styles – each will be more or less appropriate depending on the nature of the problem and the characteristics of the parties involved. We all have access to all the styles. What we need to do is to develop our skills. In executing any of the styles. One of the most crucial skills is the ability to quickly explore the conflict situation and choose the most appropriate way to deal with it. However, our ability to respond flexibly will depend on our sensitivity in expressing either or both of the two main determinants of style – assertiveness and co-operation. LESSON PLAN Module; Cross Cutting Issues Duration: 2hrs 5mins Learning area: Social Extension Topic: Conflict Management Sub topic: Conflict Management Rationale: Conflict will be present wherever people live. It is a fact of life in any ongoing relationship. When conflict occurs between people, they often become angry, hurt, bitter, or defensive. Sometimes the conflict ends the relationship or seriously damages it. Yet, while conflict is inevitable in relationship, it can have either constructive or destructive results.

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Learning outcomes/ objectives; Participants should be able to • • •

Know the meaning of Conflict. Know the causes and consequences of conflict. Understand the different ways of managing conflicts.

Pre-requisites skills and knowledge Reference books Facilitation and learning material/ resources • Flip charts • Markers • Flip chart stand • A4 paper LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (5MIN)

DEVELOPMENT (2hrs)

CONCLUSION (20)

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Facilitator introduces the topic on conflict by informing participants that: Conflict will be present wherever people live. It is a fact of life in any ongoing relationship. When conflict occurs between people, they often become angry, hurt, bitter, or defensive. Sometimes the conflict ends the relationship or seriously damages it. Yet, while conflict is inevitable in relationship, it can have either constructive or destructive results.(5mins) Session I Step 1: Facilitator divides the participants into 3 groups and asks them to answer the following focus questions: Group 1: What is conflict? Group 2: What are the sources of conflict? Group 3: What would be termed as Destructive conflict? Group 4: What would be termed as constructive conflict? (30mins) Step 2: The groups are asked to present their findings and facilitator takes down points which should be discussed after all the groups have presented. (20mins) Session II Step 1: The facilitator should now introduce the role plays on conflict management. Scenario 1. This should be acted during the plenary session. The objective of this role-play is to identify styles of conflict management. After this, the facilitator should discuss all the styles of conflict management while in plenary session. (40mins) Step 2: Facilitator asks participants the following question: What did you see in the play? What was the source of conflict? Was the conflict constructive or destructive? What conflict management style was used in resolving this conflict? (30mins) Facilitator discusses with participants the conflict management styles.

LEARNING POINTS

No person chooses his sex.

Evaluation: Based on learning outcome; 1. Participants should be able to define conflict and know the causes of conflict. 2. Participants should know the consequences of conflict and understand the different ways/style of managing conflicts. Scenario 1 There is a growing tension and mounting possibilities of violent conflict between Ila and Tonga villagers about where Zambiana water should be situated. Apparently, word has gone round that the said NGO has identified a place to site a water project that should give a certain area clean drinking water. The Ilas want the project in their village so that they can claim ownership of this scarce resource. The Tongas claim that the Ilas have been traditionally subordinate to the Tongas so that historical reality resolves the problem of where the water project ought to be situated. This tense situation has put Zambiana in a very awkward predicament. Much as it wants to provide a service to 54

the community, it does not want to be drawn into an age-old conflict between these two ethnic groups which, as far as the NGO is concerned, should co-exist peacefully. So the NGO has to play a conciliatory role and facilitate development at the same time. Roles • 3 Ila Villages • 3 Tonga villages • 1 Zambiana facilitator Objective: Both groups of villagers have to come to a compromise after a heated discussion that sees the people arming themselves with spears and other weapons to resolve their problems the only way they know how.

Delegation INTRODUCTION: Delegation is the assignment of authority and responsibility to another person (normally from a manager to a subordinate) to carry out specific activities. However the person who delegated the work remains accountable for the outcome of the delegated work. Delegation empowers a subordinate to make decisions, i.e. it is a shift of decision-making authority from one organizational level to a lower one. Delegation, if properly done, is not abdication. The opposite of effective delegation is micromanagement, where a manager provides too much input, direction, and review of delegated work. In general, delegation is good and can save money and time, help in building skills, and motivate people. Poor delegation, on the other hand, might cause frustration and confusion to all the involved parties. THE STEPS OF SUCCESSFUL DELEGATION 1. Define the task Confirm in your own mind that the task is suitable to be delegated. Does it meet the criteria for delegating? 2.

Select the individual or team

What are your reasons for delegating to this person or team? What are they going to get out of it? What are you going to get out of it? 3.

Assess ability and training needs

Is the other person or team of people capable of doing the task? Do they understand what needs to be done. If not, you can't delegate. 4.

Explain the reasons

You must explain why the job or responsibility is being delegated. And why to that person or people? What is its importance and relevance? Where does it fit in the overall scheme of things? 5.

State required results

What must be achieved? Clarify understanding by getting feedback from the other person. How will the task be measured? Make sure they know how you intend to decide that the job is being successfully done. 6.

Consider resources required

Discuss and agree what is required to get the job done. Consider people, location, premises, equipment, money, materials, other related activities and services. 7.

Agree deadlines

When must the job be finished? Or if an ongoing duty, when are the review dates? When are the reports due? And if the task is complex and has parts or stages, what are the priorities?

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At this point you may need to confirm understanding with the other person of the previous points, getting ideas and interpretation. As well as showing you that the job can be done, this helps to reinforce commitment. Methods of checking and controlling must be agreed with the other person. Failing to agree this in advance will cause this monitoring to seem like interference or lack of trust. 8.

Support and communicate

Think about who else needs to know what's going on, and inform them. Involve the other person in considering this so they can see beyond the issue at hand. Do not leave the person to inform your own peers of their new responsibility. Warn the person about any awkward matters of politics or protocol. Inform your own boss if the task is important, and of sufficient profile. 9.

Feedback on results

It is essential to let the person know how they are doing, and whether they have achieved their aims. If not, you must review with them why things did not go to plan, and deal with the problems. You must absorb the consequences of failure, and pass on the credit for success Reference: 12 Rules of Delegation - Retrieved December 17th, 2009 A mechanism for identity delegation at authentication level, N Ahmed, C Jensen - Identity and Privacy in the Internet Age - Springer 2009

Farmer Field School (FFS) DEFN: Participative learning process that takes place in the field. The learning process combines different types of knowledge (farmers’ traditional or indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge) and values both as essential elements towards sustainable farming practices FFS consists of 20 to 30 people with a common interest who get together on regular basis to study the how and why of a particular topic. In FFS, topics can vary considerably (from selection and multiplication of planting materials, integrated pest management, organic agriculture, crop production, animal husbandry, and soil management, to income generating activities. The field is the teacher which provides most of the training materials like plants, pests, and soil and real problems. The curriculum follows the natural cycle of its subject, be it crop, animal, soil, or agro processing. The Agro Eco System Analysis forms the heart of the FFS that stimulates collective decision making capacity and group activity development Fundamental Elements of FFS: • Farmer- it is believed that have wealthy experiences and knowledge. There could also be misconceptions and bad habits learned during intensification programmes • Group: there are elements of group learning, capacity development, group dynamics and group organization • Field: The field is the teacher and the plants are the books. The field conditions provide lessons to the participants • Facilitator; each FFS needs a technically competent facilitator to lead and guide members through the hands on exercises and support their learning process • Curriculum: FFS follows natural life cycle of its subject, be it crop, animal or soil • Leadership; programme leader to support the training of facilitators, having materials organized for the field, solve problems in a participatory way and provide field staff with support and feedback • Financing; different modes of FFS financing that influence the cost-efficiency rates. FFS by local organizations, government, have relative lower cost than those externally supported FLOW CHART FOR ESTABLISHING A FARMER FIELD SCHOOL; 56

Training of Farmer Field School Facilitators Community mobilization and sensitization Farmer selection and formation of Farmer Field School Launch of Farmer Field School Season-Long Farmer Field School Learning Enhanced knowledge and application of skills

Improved Community with better skills and knowledge, improved food security, nutrition and income

MODULE

: PARTICIPATION

DURATION: 60MIN Learning area: Facilitation Topic: farmer study groups Sub topic: Farmer Field Schools Rationale: It is a well established understanding that adults learn better if they are involved in the learning process. Training methods that restrict farmers to class room learning tend to yield lower results. Farmer Field School offers one of the best tools for farmers hands o n learning experiences. For effective extension service delivery, it is good to not just introduce the concept of farmer field schools but also letting farmers know steps involved in the school for their effective learning Learning outcomes/ objectives Participants should have a good understanding on what is involved in a farmer field school and appreciate the group dynamics and learning process involved Pre-requisites skills and knowledge; trained facilitators, participants interested or involved in one or more enterprises and willing to participate in the routine FFS meetings Reference books: establishing Farmer Field Schools in a cassava Based systems in Zambia- a Facilitator’s Implementation Manual, MACO/FAO, 2009 Facilitation and learning material/ resources LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (10MIN)

DEVELOPMENT : 2hrs

CONCLUSION

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Facilitator asks: 1. participants to give various ways of learning new technologies 2. Step 1: facilitator gives guidance on famer field school Step 2: Participants go into groups to discuss….what Step 3: Participants make practical field observations Facilitator asks farmers to give stages involved in FFS and state effectiveness of FFS approach

Evaluation: Based on learning outcome 1. Participants should exhibit good understanding of the FFS concept 2. Participants should be confident to implement farmer field schools

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LEARNING POINTS -news, from field days, from friends, from extension officers, from mobile courses, exposure visit, demonstrations

-good points -challenges

Module 2

PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES

Participatory Extension Approach DEFIN: PEA is a participatory learning process in which all village residents are involved in identifying, prioritizing and analyzing problems, making action plan to address problems, implementing and monitoring the activities through the village organizational committees. Features: a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

All community residents are involved The community residents identify their priorities, make their own decisions and set their own agenda More comprehensive and systematic approach to planning Plans are broad based to address all concerns of rural development Establishment of community committees to oversee implementation of the community action plans Empowers communities to demand for quality and timely services Communities are responsible for conducting participatory monitoring of implementation and assessment of the impact and results

The PEA Cycle and Stages Stage 1: Preparation It avails an opportunity for the facilitators to understand and appreciate the community and the environment they will be working in. Stage 2: Diagnosis It examines and analyses the village situation. With the help of the multidisciplinary team acting as facilitators, the community residents learn how to analyze the current situation using various tools. Stage 3: Needs Assessment Participatory identification of needs felt and experienced by Clients The needs may include; technical, information, management, exposure, financial, infrastructural, security, networks Stage 4: Training and Exposure Stage 5: Action Planning The action planning involves determining the activities to be carried out, the resources required, the timing as well as the responsibility. In the action plan the objectives of the community are operationalised. Stage 6: Resource Mobilisation Resource mobilization means sourcing a number of necessary resources for the enterprise to proceed. Stage 7: Implementation The activities in the action plan are implemented or carried out in order to achieve the objectives. Stage 8: Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation and Impact assessment A participatory approach is employed for monitoring and impact assessment. The indicators to be 58

used will be those decided upon by the community or the particular interest group. Reconsideration – Process review and re-planning The whole process is then reviewed in a last step, and new actions planned. The whole process constitutes the cycle of action and reflection (the learning cycle). Pea Facilitation Cycle Preparation

Diagonosis

Needs assessment

Monitoring and Evaluation

Training and Exposure

Implementation

Resource Mobilization

Action Planning

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES USED UNDER PEA; • PRA/PLA tools • Mapping • Transect walk • Vein diagrams • Semi-Structured Interviews (SSI) • Historical analysis • Seasonal calendar • HIV/AIDS analysis • Ranking and scoring • Problem tree • Objective tree • Table of community solutions

PaViDIA The Participatory Village Development in Isolated Areas (PaViDIA) is one of the effective rural development approaches, which was developed for extension officers of the Ministry of Agriculture in the early 2000 Goal: Poverty alleviation through capacity development Core of Approach: Provide villagers with an opportunity to implement a Micro Project through their participation. The initial cost for materials that cannot be obtained locally is funded by an outside agent Villagers may obtain expanded economic benefits as individuals or as a community The process of PaViDIA implementation in villages is facilitated by a trained Extension Officer. FEATURES OF PaViDIA Feature 1: Uses ministry of Agriculture Extension Officers Feature 2: Targets Village as a “sustainable” unit of intervention covering all stakeholders from rich to poor to pursue Economic + Social development Feature 3: uses Participatory Approach at all levels (planning, implementation of activities, monitoring and evaluation) Feature 4: emphasis on utilizing “Local Resources” in the micro project (Farmers are rich as being 59

surrounded by resources, which are just underutilized or neglected) Feature 5: Financial Grant Assistance. While the villages are encouraged to fully utilize the local resources, there could be need for initial support for them to acquire essential inputs not available in the community. This can be met with initial assistance from outside and it should be made clear that is done just once. Thereafter, the villages should be able to support themselves.

Feature 6: Re-investment from Profits from Income Generating Activity Phases PHASE I Preparatory

Stages Village Listing and Selection Information to villages Participation Assessment Shared Vision of Agricultural Village Development Resource Finding: PHASE II Success Stories/ Resource Mapping/ Stakeholders Finding Analysis (Village Planning Suggestions from CEO Workshop) Tower of Ideas of Agricultural Development Listing of MP (Micro Project) Alternatives Formation of Preliminary Project Committee Feasibility review of MP Alternatives (e.g. resources) Selection and integration of MP PHASE III Finalization of MP sub-projects and its Management System and Learning system Planning Documentation Micro Project Plan, Plan of Operation, Plan of Budget, etc Pre-implementation Arrangements PHASE IV Implementation / Micro Project Implementation Utilization Starter Sub-project report and second funding Monitoring for utilization and improvement PHASE V Monitoring/ Evaluation Participatory Evaluation and Expansion / Self-Expansion Back to routine extension

Micro Project Refilling of village fund through Payback System

Opportunities & Services To Groups/Villagers

Refilling of village fund through Payback System

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Feature 7: All functions are integrated in Ministry of Agriculture Extension System Feature 8: PaViDIA Micro Project serves as one of the best demonstration sites for fame learning purposes PaViDIA CYCLE: The PaViDIA Cycle is just the same as that of the Participatory Extension Approach

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Phase I Preparato ry Phase V M&E

Phase II Analysis

Phase IV Implementati on

Phase III Planning

Elaboration of what happens at each phase is provided below: • • • •

Study Circles Commodity Study Groups/Interest Groups Farmer Field Schools Lead Farmer (MM)

PROJECT CYCLE Phases: Assessment 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Observing a problem Analysing it Defining the need Deciding on an action Answering „W-questions“ (Laswell)

Planning 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Needs Analyses (!!!) – formal, „why“ Analysis of the organisation, its values, activities and relevancy Own motivation Definition of aims (general) and concrete objectives Selection of methodology, activities Plan of activities – schedule Resources: human, financial, material, time Organisation of the project: team, partners Outline of the project/project fiche Risks assessment strategy

Implementation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Implementing and executing activities (conferences) Management resources: human, material/technical, financial, time PR and communication Team work Book-keeping and accounting Process documentation, records Continuous monitoring, feedback

Evaluation 1. 2.

Final evaluation vs. continuous monitoring Using originally planned methods 61

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Summing up results, objectives, activities, fulfilled expectations Formal documentation (reports, brochures) Internal lessons documented (manuals) Acknowledgments Closing accounting Follow-up

Keys to success • Balance between organisational capacity and tasks to be conducted • Full team participation in all phases • Shared notion of objectives • Involvement and support from the target group(s) • Realistic plans of activities, budget • All formalities respected, proper techniques – means, but not the end in itself! • Necessary skills (eg. communication)

STUDY CIRCLES Study circles are voluntary, self organising, small diverse group of people with common goals who meet regularly to address a critical public issue in a democratic and collaborative way Features of a study circle; • • • • • • • • •

Group is composed of adults Small group of about 15 to 20 people for enhanced discussions Voluntary: members join the group voluntarily Meet regularly over a period Group decides the topic, objectives and where to meet Group leader Discussion and sharing of issues related to their livelihoods Democratic environment Resource person invited

Personal participation and action People consider the issue from many points of view while the discussion progresses from a session on personal experience on the issue, to sessions that examines many parts of view on the issue and considers strategies for action and change Study Circle Leadership Study Circles are mobilized and formed by a well trained community volunteer called a study circle organizer and led by a democratically elected individual called a study circle leader Basic Principles of SCs Equality & Democracy-Involve everyone; demonstrate that the whole community is needed Experiences and Co-operation-Share knowledge, resources, power & decision making Active participation-participants’ active contribution is the base, which the study circle is build upon. People learn best when they are active Dialogue & deliberation-Create public talk that builds understanding & explores a range of solutions Change and Action-Connect deliberative dialogue to social, political & policy change

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Basic Requirement • • • •

Well trained and informed leader 7-15 participants Appropriate study material Voluntary participation

Teaching vs Study Circles Learning and information sharing under the study circle could be differentiated from Teaching in the following comparisons: • • • • • • • • •

Management decides on what is relevant vs participants deciding what is relevant Prescribed curriculum vs flexibility of content Teachers vs leaders/facilitators Class vs study group Pupil vs participant Lesson vs session Classroom vs meeting place Sitting behind one another vs circular sitting Text book vs study material

Study Circle Common study needs Willing or voluntary people

Support structure

Reference People

Relevant study material

Trained Leader

Study Plan

Benefits Individual Level • Learning and acquisition of new farming technologies that boost agricultural production at household level • Strengthening dialogue and participation in the community • Women and the youth exercise their leadership and public speaking skills hence promoting gender & youth empowerment • Strengthening of the culture of saving and wise borrowing among ordinary citizens Community level • Achievement of sustainable community development (Strengthening of the decentralisation concept-through developmental initiatives emanating from Study Circles) Government level • Cheap and affordable vehicles of information (Both to and from) • Study Circles give individuals a chance to have input into public issues early in the decision 63

making process, not just before the officials make up their minds Opportunity for Agric. Extension • • • • • •

CEO cannot reach all farmers Mobilisation of groups Training of organisers Linking groups with materials, reference persons and district Resource person Supporting organisers

Module 3

CROSS CUTTING ISSUES - GENDER

GENDER AWARENESS Gender relations and identities are not universal but vary from culture to culture and sometimes from community to community. They are dynamic and change overtime. Understanding gender values and practices is control to knowing how societies are organised, how they function and potential for change.

SEX AND GENDER DEFINITION Gender: ‘The relations between men and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of either women or men, but is constructed socially or a broader term defining both our sex and cultural or social roles that accompany it or the way society assigns roles to men and women in a way that they complement each other. Despite these definitions, gender is often misunderstood as being the promotion of women only. However, as we see from the definitions, gender issues focus on women and on the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over resources, division of labour, interests and needs. Sex: The term ‘’sex’’ refers to the biological characteristics, physiological attributes and differences between men and women with which they are born. These are biological identification of being male and female. The difference between Gender and Sex: The roles assigned to individuals will be different according to whether they are male of female, young or adults and according to the social categories to which they belong. Roles related to the physical and physiological characteristics of men and women are termed as sex roles and social constructed roles are termed as gender roles. Gender roles are perceived and valued differently according to the social context and to whether these roles are carried out by women or men. This is a crucial element in the definition of violence of social status of men, women and young people. The social status of an individual as compared to others also defines the power relations among them, including the decision-making power in respect of individual, family, community and institutional matters.

GENDER ROLES What is male? What is female? Your answers to these questions may depend on the types of gender roles you were exposed to as a child. Gender roles can be defined as the behaviours and attitudes 64

expected of male and female members of a society by that society. These are actual activities which are done by males or females and are classified into two as social and biological roles. The development of gender identity begins during the early years of a child. The child begins to see him/herself as male or female and begins to understand what that means socially for instance, sex roles stereotyping whereby a boy will be with the father cutting firewood or working in the garden and the girl will always be busy working with the mother in the house cleaning and cooking in the kitchen. Gender roles vary. Different cultures impose different expectations upon the men and women who live in that culture. Urban Zambia has experienced tremendous upheaval and revising of its traditional gender roles in the last generation. These changes in gender roles affect the home, the workplace, and the school, and they affect all everyone to some degree. • •

Biological roles: these are roles that cannot be changed. Social Roles: these are roles that can be changed.

Biological Roles Men Do not conceive Do not breast feed

Women Do conceive Do breast feed

Gender Roles commonly associated with Men and Women Men Cut firewood Protector Provider Good leader Risk taker Do not talk

Women Cook in the kitchen Cowards Home maker Submissive (Agree easily) Non risk taker Gossipers

GENDER ISSUES Arise when old attitudes persist in situations where they are no longer valid. The consequence can be: • • •

•

•

Gender discrimination, whereby one sex is favoured and the other becomes disadvantages; Gender oppression, whereby one gender dominates the other unjustly or even cruelly, whether it is deliberate or not; Gender gaps, whereby as a result of customary practices, religious biases, social assumptions, myths or taboos, one gender is discriminated against to such an extent that it is prevented from getting its fair share of resources or services. Gender equity, having equal access to property between men and women. Having equal control to sharing or distribution of resources. The concept recognises that women and men have different needs and power and that these differences should be identified and addressed in a manner that rectifies the imbalance between the sexes. Gender equality, absence of discrimination on the basis of a person’s sex in opportunities and the allocation of resources or benefits or access to services.

LESSON PLAN Module; Cross Cutting Issues Duration: 55 min Learning area: Social Extension Topic: Gender Sub topic: Gender Rationale: If development programs do not take gender issues into account, they become gender insensitive or gender-blind in as much as they fail to recognise the distinctive needs of either women or men. 65

However, because women in traditional societies have suffered the gender imbalances and gender inequalities of heavy workloads and exclusion from decision-making forums, gender sensitisation has mainly focused on enhancing their opportunities and building their capacities. Learning outcomes/ objectives; Participants should be able to • Know the meaning of Gender and the difference between gender and sex. • Know the meaning of Gender roles and Sex roles and their differences. • Understand the Gender issues which arise in the communities. Story of a Married Couple ‘’A couple, 30 years in marriage, have no child. They continue praying to God for a child. One day God talked to them in their sleep. God promised them a child but on condition that they tell him the sex of the child they would need. Wife and Husband were happy but could not agree on the sex of the child. They come to you for advice. What would be your advise on which sex to chose?’’ Pre-requisites skills and knowledge Reference books • Gender operational Cycle (Field Guide) Facilitation and learning material/ resources • Flip charts • Markers • Flip chart stand • A4 paper LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (5MIN)

DEVELOPMENT (1hr:40mins)

CONCLUSION (20)

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Facilitator asks the participants; 1. Sit in a semi-circle and male/female mingled. 2. To define Gender in their understanding in plenary and record all answers on the flip chart? Session I Step 1: Facilitator narrates story of the couple (page 4) and asks the question, ‘’what sex of the child would you advise the couple?’’ (5mins) Step 2: Participants are grouped according to the sex of the child they chose and are asked to give reasons for their choice. The non-aligned group is also asked to give reasons? (15mins) Step 3: The 2 or 3 groups are asked to present in plenary. Start with non-aligned if present. (15mins) Step 4: Facilitator swaps the titles for boy and girl child and asked which reason(s) is not applicable under the new titles.(chart by chart) (15mins) Step 5: Facilitator asks participants to explain reasons for their responses after swapping titles. Facilitator writes reasons on flip chart for all to see. (10mins) Session II Step 1: Facilitator divides the group into males and females and asks then to illustrate their daily activities from waking up to sleeping during the rainy season. An activity clock to be used. (20mins) Step 2: Groups are asked to present.(10mins) Step 3: Facilitator asks the participants which gender has a high workload than the other. (10mins) Facilitator discusses with facilitators the positives of working together and negatives of not working together. (10mins)

LEARNING POINTS Gender not about women challenging men but about men and women working together.

No person chooses his sex. Participants will brainstorm and list reasons related to gender roles mostly.

Participants to realise that roles can be interchanged. Gender roles can be changed. Biological roles cannot be changed.

Workload for men and women.

Highlights the Gender concerns in most communities. Demerits of gender insensitivity in developmental programs.

Evaluation: Based on learning outcome 1. Participants should be able to define gender and understand the importance of gender balancing in developmental programs. 2. Participants should know that gender roles can be changed and thus men and women should share these roles to reduce the workloads for each gender group. 66

Module 4

ZONING OF CAMPS

WORK MANAGEMENT In the operational structure of the Department of Agriculture, a camp is the lowest area of operation. It is managed by an Agricultural Assistant referred to as Camp Extension Officer. The purpose of establishing agricultural camps is to bring agricultural advisory and technical services to the “door steps” of the many resource poor farmers Due to settlement patterns, camp boundaries cover a relatively wide area so as to capture as many farmers as possible. According to Needs Assessment Survey conducted by the Department of Agriculture in 2010, it was revealed that the main source of extension services for the small scale farmers was the camp extension Officer. In addition, it was among other things, revealed that farmers held varying perceptions of the camp extension Officer depending on the frequency and duration of the visit. Farmers tended to appreciate officers that visited them more routinely but spending a minimum of two hour per visit. Spending more time with the farmers didn’t yield significant difference as opposed to the two hour visit. With increased demand for extension services, amid limiting resources, the Camp extension Officer is faced with the challenge of covering all corners of the camp. This calls for reorganising the camp in such a way that the officer carries out his routine extension work systematically Relation of CEO’s reliability and visitation Very Much Reliable

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% Reliability 40% 30% 20%

Little/ No Reliable

10% 0%

Weekly

Fortnightly

Monthly

Quarterly Not routinely


“Routine” visitation (Routine-ness) is important rather than frequency.

Some of the proposed strategies include mapping, zoning of the camps, working with groups and scheduling of work according to calendar (use of diaries recommended) as well improve on information sharing and report writing/submission MAPPING The extension officer need to have a clear understanding of his area of operation. A camp map showing camp boundaries, key features (roads, rivers, mountains, prominent structures, sites) is very cardinal when it comes to planning movements. Inn addition the camp map should show location of camp house, villages and location of/meeting places for farmer groups/cooperatives. It may also include location of contact /lead farmers.were camp map is not available, the extension officer has to work with community leaders in sketching the map. He/she may solicit for advice from the technical services branch. ZONING Zoning entails sub dividing the camp into areas of operations for the purpose of scheduling farmer visitations. It enables the extension officer to have consistent plan of work. Zoning could be done in such a way that each zone is visited at least twice per month. The concept is much derived from the training and visit which was based on training of farmers in the first week and making follow ups in the other week. Factors to consider when zoning camps include; 67

• •

•

Number of villages; the officer may zone the camp according to distribution of villages focussing proximity of villages to each other. Population of farmers; for some communities, it may be difficult to distinguish communities by villages especially where there are no distinct boundaries. The officer may consider the households. Number of farmer groups/cooperatives; some communities are dominated by cooperatives /already existing farmer groups. Zones may be mapped according to distribution of groups

The number of zones may vary from 4 to 8 depending on the identified factors

Scheduling of work-frequency and duration of visit Scheduling of work comprises of aligning activities with time/calendar. From the Needs Assessment Survey Results, an extension officer will be more efficient when he/she has planned for activities in a routine manner and spend optimal time with farmers. A “Two (2) Hours/ Monthly/Routinely” concept can be employed.

2 hours/ Monthly/ Routinely
the strategy (basic rule) of work management.

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Number of Farmers Serviced per Month 80

20 5 Weekly, One day for a farmer

Bi-Weekly, A half day for a farmer

Monthly, 2 hours for a farmer

Using the “Two (2) Hours/ Monthly/Routinely” and the zoning concepts the extension officer could be focused and efficient in extension service delivery. The visitation to zones can be tied days of the week in a month as below

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Week 1: Month:

Week 2:

Activity:

Month:

date

Day

3

Sunday

4

Monday Zone 1:

5 6

Activity:

date

Day

10

Sunday

off

11

Monday

Zone 5:

Tuesday Zone 2:

12

Tuesday

Zone 6:

13

Wednesday

Zone 7:

14

Thursday

Zone 8:

7

Wednes Zone 3: day Thursday Zone 4:

15

Friday

Office: Reports and others

8

Friday

16

Saturday

Off

9

Saturday Off

off

Office: Reports and others

In the similar pattern, the third and fourth weeks are dedicated to making follow ups. Scheduling of work in this manner would help the extension officer to plan effectively even when resources are limited. Given adequate resources (motorcycle/fuel), the extension officer can visit all zones as per schedule. If, on the other hand, resources are not allowing, the extension officers may restrict their effort to reachable areas. However, they could also find better strategies of reaching out to farmers in the outlying zones. These could be creating synergies with farmer groups or other players in extension service provision

Plan B and C may cover areas were the officer could even cycle or just walk (as in C) An Agricultural Diary for Extension Officers (ADEOs) may be a useful tool in scheduling of work Targeting groups as opposed to individuals One of the strategies of extension services is strengthening farmer groups as units of extension delivery. Targeting farmer groups will enable the camp extension officer to reach relative more farmers than if individual farmers were targeted.

Group approach
is a key for effective and efficient extension service.

450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Number of Farmers Serviced per Month 400

40 5 Weekly, One day for One(1) farmer

Bi-Weekly, A half day for Two(2) farmers

Monthly, 2 hours for Five(5) farmers

Group s are formed based on the common interest shared and take the form of commodity study group/Interest Group, cooperative, farmer field schools and so on. These address the farmer learning 69

process. As for management of extension work, these groups may send representations to management committees at Zonal and Camp level With the group approach, extension service delivery may follow a pyramid arrangement.

Household: the basic institution in the community. It is composed of the farmer and his/her household. Though extension officers may not directly farmers as households, the ultimate target of extension service delivery is the farmer in the household/family. Success of the group should be seen to trickle down to household level Farmer Groups; it is formed when a group of individual farmers/households come together to address felt needs. Where no active farmer groups exist, the extension officer may facilitate in revamping them or forming new ones. The process of forming new groups should follow the participatory methods that will enable communities to identify their development visions. From the identified strategies/activities, individual community member with common interest as vegetable growing, sunflower oil production, rice growing and marketing and so on, may belong to respect groups that may be target for extension service delivery. With all in place, the extension officer can have minimum of two groups per zone. Zonal committee: representatives from groups in the zone form a zonal committee. Membership may include other stakeholders in the zone like from community based organizations/NGOs among others that are operating in the zone Camp Agricultural Committee: responsible for coordinating all agricultural activities in the camp. It draws membership from the farmer groups in each zone as well as from key stakeholders as NGOs and other government institutions. The camp extension officer’s should ensure that the CAC meet as regular as possible (if possible monthly). Camp and farmer groups’ visions and action plans as well as other projects in the camp could be discussed. The committee would pose as one of the effective way of receiving and sending information to and from farmers

SECTION IV

Module 1

NUTRITION

FOOD AND NUTRITION EDUCATION

What is nutrition? Nutrition is the science that deals with the food we eat and how the body uses that food. Good nutrition contributes to good health while bad nutrition leads to bad health.

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Good Nutrition

Stronger Immunity Resistance to Infection

Increased Productivity

Good Health

Poor diets and inadequate food intake are not always the result of lack of food or of money to buy food. People must have some knowledge of nutrition. The most important information is what kinds of food to eat and how to prepare the food in the right quantities and mixes and in a way that is safe and clean.

What is food? Food is any edible substance either solid or liquid which when taken can do one or more of the following: 1. 2. 3.

Will provide the body with energy Provide material for growth maintenance, repair or reproduction in the body Supply substances which protect the body and control body processes

Food composition Just as plants require fertiliser from the soil in order to be healthy, people also need certain special substances called nutrients in order to be healthy. These nutrients are come from the food we eat and are divided in to five groups: a) b) c) d) e)

Carbohydrates Energy giving nutrients Fats Proteins Body Building nutrients Vitamins Minerals

Functions of food in the body Table 1: Nutrient sources and their functions Nutrient Carbohydrates

Function Energy giving

Fats and oils

Energy giving

Proteins

Body building

Vitamins

Protecting the from diseases Control of processes

Minerals

body

Sources of nutrient Cereals: maize, rice, sorghum, millet, Tubers: cassava, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes Legumes: cowpeas, Bambara nuts, ground nuts, beans Others: sugar cane Oil seed crops; ground nuts, Soya beans, sunflower, Processed oils; cooking oil, butter & margarine, Different Animal products Animal sources: meat, eggs, fish, milk Legumes: Soya beans, common beans, cowpeas, pigeon peas and groundnuts Cereals Mostly found in fruits and vegetables

body

Mostly found in fruits and vegetables

These nutrients can be divided into three major groups for easy teaching and understanding. These are: 1. 2.

Energy giving nutrients Body building nutrients 71

3.

Protection giving nutrients

Malnutrition Malnutrition is a state where one or more nutrients that the body requires are inadequate, lacking or are in excess in the body. Good food is needed for a person to grow and develop well, work hard and stay healthy. Many common sicknesses are caused or accelerated by not eating enough. A person who is weak or sick because he does not eat enough or he does not eat the food his body needs is said to be poorly nourished or malnourished. He suffers from malnutrition. Malnutrition can lead to learning difficulties, delayed growth and development, lowered resistance to disease and sometimes death. Types of Malnutrition Under nutrition This is a state where the body is not receiving adequate nutrients. Protein Energy Malnutrition Protein energy malnutrition occurs when one does not get enough carbohydrates to provide energy the body needs for various activities. When this happens, the body utilises the existing proteins to generate energy. Protein Energy Malnutrition leads to: In children • • • • •

Failure of a child to grow or gain weight normally Slowness in walking, talking or thinking Lack of energy, child is sad and does not play Thinning, straightening, or loss of hair, or loss of its colour and shine Swelling of feet, face and hands often with sores or marks on the skin

In adults • • • •

Weakness and tiredness Sores in the corners of the mouth Anaemia during pregnancy Loss of appetite

Common Nutritional Deficiencies and their control Table 2: Common Nutritional Deficiencies and their control Nutrient Proteins calories Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin D Iron

Food source Animal products and legumes Eat cereals and fats Fruits and vegetables Fruits and vegetables Milk, eggs, light Lean meats, eggs, whole grains, green leafy vegetables, legumes

Deficiency Marasmus kwashiorkor xerophthalmia Scurvy Rickets, *osteomalacia Anaemia

*osteomalacia is a condition mostly in women where the bones are weak and painful Food security Food security means having access to enough nutritious and safe food to meet the dietary needs of all household members all year round. Households can obtain food supplies either through their own food production or food purchases, but more often through a combination of both. 72

Food and Dietary Diversification There is no single food that contains all nutrients in required quantities. It is therefore important to eat different types of foods in order to get all the nutrients our bodies need. The eating of different types of food is called dietary diversification it is also called balanced diet. Below is an example of a balanced meal. NSHIMA

FISH

SWEET POTATO LEAVES OR

NSHIMA

BEANS

PUMPKIN LEAVES

In order to achieve dietary diversification we need to diversify in our food production. This means that famers need to produce foods that can supply all the nutrients that our bodies need. The production of different types of foods that can supply all the nutrients that our bodies need is known as food diversification. Backyard gardens, small livestock and fish production Many farmers concentrate on the growing of staple foods only. This means that they may grow only maize, cassava or millet depending on which part of the country they live in. However, such farmers can diversify in their food production by having backyard gardens where they can grow different types of vegetables, keeping small livestock or engaging in fish production. Household Nutrition Good household nutrition starts with a good household food supply or food security. Each member of the family needs to have access to this food supplyaccording to their nutrient body requirements but special attention should be given to pregnant women as well as infants and young children. This is because when pregnant, a woman requires nutrients for herself and for the developing baby. Similarly, infants and young children need frequent nutritious meals because they are in a stage of rapid growth. Beyond six months of age, mother’s milk is inadequate to provide all of the baby’s nutrient requirements. At this point, it is necessary to provide additional food for the baby. This is known as complementary feeding. Nutrition and HIV/AIDS Whether they are HIV positive or not, both men and women need knowledge on healthy and balanced nutrition, that is a combination of foods drawn from all the three groups namely protein, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals. However, for those individuals infected with HIV/AIDS, such knowledge is very important because the earlier a person starts to eat a healthy and balanced diet, the longer he or she will stay healthy. Adequate food intake and good nutritional status is a prerequisite for optimal immune function. In malnourished individuals, the immune function is hampered and it is no longer capable of fighting against acute and chronic infections from bacteria, germs and viruses and other organisms that the body is exposed to. Malnutrition consequently further deteriorates the body’s ability to cope with infections such as HIV. From a preventative point of view, a healthy and balanced nutrition may help the individual to fight against the development of disease. The relationship between nutrition and HIV/AIDS is explained below. Figure …The relationship between nutrition and HIV/AIDS

73

Good Nutrition Maintain body weight Eating well Good appetite

Stronger Immunity Resistance to Infection Slower HIV/AIDS disease progression & reduced sickness

It is important to eat snacks in between the main meals. Roasted groundnuts, soya beans, boiled maize cobs, roasted cassava and fruits such as bananas, mangoes are examples of snacks. It is also very important to take in as much food as possible during the period of wellbeing in the HIV status in order to achieve Nutritional adequacy. This should be done within the limits of personal food choice and socio-economic status. For example The need for extra protein is high for those with HIV/AIDS. Proteins come from animal and plant sources. Plant foods can give us all the protein we need by mixing them. Lesson Plan (Sample 1 for Chapter 1) Block : Muoyo Date: 29 July, 2012 Camp : Muoyo Duration: 2hrs Learning area : Food and Nutrition Topic : Nutrition Education Sub topic : Food composition Functions of food in the body Malnutrition Group : Zone 3 Simbule Farmers Group Gender : Male 13; Female 12 Rationale : 1. Participants are expected to understand the composition of food, its functions in the body and the meaning of the term malnutrition. 2. Inaadequate knowledge as well as inappropriate and poor feeding practices are major causes of malnutrition. Methodology: Lecture, Role Play and Discussion Learning outcomes: By the end of the session Participants Should Be Able To (PSBAT) • Explain the composition of food, its functions in the body and the meaning of the term malnutrition. Objectives: • To teach the participants the composition of food, its functions in the body and the meaning of the term malnutrition. Pre-requisites skills and knowledge Participants know what food is and that it is important for energy and good health. Reference books: Nutrition in Agriculture, Handbook for Agriculture field workers, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and water development, 1982 Facilitation and learning material/ resources Flip chart, actors, makers, pictures of food groups, stickers, flip chart stand, sample foods from the major food groups. LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (15MIN)

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Ask questions; What is food? Why do we eat food?

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LEARNING POINTS Food any safe edible substance For energy, protection from disease and

What would happen if we didn’t eat food for a day? DEVELOPMENT (30mins)

(40mins)

building and repair of the body The body would be weak

Step 1Facilitator makes presentation on food composition, functions and malnutrition. Step 2 Facilitator calls on 4 participants (2men and 2 women) to the act in a role play as two families. The first family are facing various problems due to poor nutrition The second family is enjoying good health, high productivity and a happy home Step 3 Open discussion on the role play

(25) CONCLUSION

(10)

Facilitator reminds participants of the main points from the presentations

Participants mention composition and functions of the sample foods as they are displayed

Evaluation: Play a game: a ball is thrown around and whoever catches says what they have learnt in the training session Based on learning outcome 1. Were the participants able to mention the composition of food? 2. Were the participants able to mention the functions of food in the body? 3. Were the participants able to say what malnutrition is?

Module 2

FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION

Food processing Food processing is a series of actions that converts raw foods into foods which are ready for immediate or future use. Canning, drying, malting, fortification, fermentation, oil extraction, parboiling and milling are examples of food processing.

Food preservation Food preservation is to treat or store food in such a way as to protect it from decay. For example, salting, drying, pickling, canning, freezing and jam making are all methods of food preservation.

Why we process and preserve foods Preservation • For use in times of shortage (ensure house hold food security) • For consumption off season-perishables • Ensure seed availability for the next season • For off season sales

Processing • Adds value for better income • Improves palatability • Removes toxins • Reduces bulk • Increases digestibility

Food quality and safety For food to be beneficial to the human body it has to be of high quality and it needs to be safe to eat. The ingredients when processing and preserving must be of the highest quality in order to yield high 75

quality final products. High quality also has to be maintained through good handling practices as well as proper packaging and storage.

Safe food handling practices 1.

Wash hands before preparing, handling and eating food and after using the toilet or changing nappies 2. Wash and keep food preparation surfaces clean 3. Wash all fruit and vegetables with safe water before eating , cooking or serving 4. Avoid letting raw food come into contact with cooked food 5. Ensure all food is cooked thoroughly especially meats and chicken 6. Avoiding storing cooked food unless you have access to a refrigerator 7. Keep food covered and stored away from insects, flies, rodents and other animals 8. Use safe water for drinking, cooking cleaning dishes and utensils. 9. Do not eat mouldy spoiled or rotten food 10. Do not eat raw eggs or foods that contain raw eggs 11. Serve food immediately after preparation especially if it cannot be kept hot 12. Do not use bottles with teats to feed infants use a cup instead

Processing and preservation of roots and tubers Roots and tubers are perishable as they have high water content. Their preservation is focused on reducing the moisture to a level that prevents spoilage. They can be processed into various products. Cassava and sweet potatoes are the most common roots and tubers in Zambia. These can be processed using traditional methods or improved methods. However, our focus is on the improved methods. Cassava Processing Methods There are several methods of processing cassava tubers. Two of these methods are outlined below: Traditional Method

Improved method Fresh tuber

Fresh tuber

3-7 days

Washing Soaking Peeling Peeling Slice Washing 1

3-7 days

Soaking

Drying 2

Drying

Pound Pound Sieving Sieving 6-14 days

Cassava flour

3

Cassava flour

Table 3: Comparison of the traditional and the improved methods METHOD TRADITIONAL

ADVANTAGE Less equipment needed Has a fermented flavour

DISADVANTAGE Processing takes long due to soaking and drying (6 – 14 days) Dying of bigger pieces takes longer Hygiene is not guaranteed

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IMPROVED

Less equipment needed Yield is high Reduced processing time (2 – 3days)

Dark coloration Reduction in yield Pest attack Theft Does not have the fermented flavour

Sweet Potato Processing Sweet potatoes can be processed into dried chips, fried fresh chips, jam and flour.

Fruits and vegetable Processing Products that can be made from fruitsinclude drinks, jams, chutney and sauce. Fruits can also be dried straight especially wild fruits. Preservation of vegetables The following steps outline one of the methods we can use to preserve vegetables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Harvest: this must be done when the vegetables are still fresh and tender Wash sort and remove strings Blanch with salt (50g/lt of water) or without salt (3-5 minutes). Okra is straight dried. Mushrooms are actually boiled for15 minutes before drying. Dry. Preferably under shade on a raised platform. Pack and store in a cool dry place.

Note: Over boiling and washing vegetables after cutting should be discouraged so that vitamins will be retained in the preserved vegetables.

Meat and fish processing Meat and fish processing Sun-drying of meat and fish is a common practice. Meat is cut into strips and is hung outside in the sun to dry. Sometimes the meat can be boiled for a few minutes before hanging it in the sun to dry. The meat can also be dried under shade. The process for fish depends on the size of the fish. Large-medium sized fish is first cleaned, gutted, opened and then spread in the sun to dry on mats or on clean cut grass. Small fish like kapenta, kasepa (tiny bream) do not gutting they are sundried after thorough washing. Salting of meat and fish Fish is usually salted when smoking it, but not when being sundried. Meat is salted when being either sun dried or smoked. Salting depends on the individual’s taste. Salt prevents flies from lying eggs on the meat or fish.Salt is applied to the meat after cutting, be it in strips or lumps, before sun drying or smoking. Smoking meat and fish Meat is either cut into strips of any length and about 5cm in diameter or its cut into lamps of reasonable size. It is then placed on rack made of wood or iron bars over a slow fire. Smoke passes over the surface of the meat and it is dried in this way. Fish is preserved in the same way after degutting. Sometimes the fish is cut open and is spread before smoking.

77

Legume processing Processing of legumes before consumption is important as some of them contain anti-nutritional substances and some are indigestible in nature when raw for example soyabeans.Groundnuts is perhaps the only legume eaten raw. Advantages of processing legumes before consumption: 1. 2.

Increases digestibility and palatability; processes such as roasting, cooking, fermentation and de-hulling increase the digestibility and palatability. Improves nutrient availability: legumes are a good source of minerals calcium and iron.

Legumes used for human food must be of high quality. Food legumes: beans, cowpeas, groundnuts, soya beans, Bambara nuts,mungbeans, pigeon peas. Lesson Plan (Sample 1 for chapter 2) Block : Muswishi Date: 5/8/ 2012 Camp : Chowa Duration: 2hrs Learning area : Food and Nutrition Topic : Food Processing and Preservation Sub topic :Vegetable Preservation Group : Zone 01 Chabota Farmers’ group Gender : Male 14; Female 14 Rationale : 1. Participants are expected to know improved method of preserving vegetables that maintain the nutritive value of processed vegetables. 2. Most farmers lack adequate knowledge on improved methods of vegetable preservation. This often leads to poor quality of processed vegetables as well as spoilage of excess harvested vegetables. Methodology: Demonstration and discussion Learning outcomes: By the end of the session PSBAT • Preserve vegetables using the demonstrated method Objectives: • To teach the participants how to preserve vegetables. Pre-requisites skills and knowledge Participants know that vegetables should be preserved for future use and to prevent wastage during periods of excess. Reference books: Small Holder access to Processing, Extension and Seeds Project- PAM12/01/2001 Facilitation and learning material/ resources Fresh vegetables, pot, water, salt, sack or reed basket, knife, basin, drying rack, cooking stick, fire. LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (15MIN)

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES Ask questions; How do you preserve vegetables Why do we preserve vegetables?

LEARNING POINTS By drying To keep them longer

DEVELOPMENT (1HR 30 MINS)

Step 1: Facilitator assigns some participants to Make fire and boil some water Wash and cut vegetables Prepare a basin of cold water Step 2: Blanching Add salt to boiling water (optional)

78

Salt is a preservative Blanching stops enzyme activity hence

Put cut vegetables into the reed basket or sack Immerse the basket or sack into the boiling water for 3-5 minutes Remove and immediately dip into cold water Step 3: Dry on raised rack under a shade

Step 4: Divide the participants into 4 groups for practical work Instruct them to repeat what they saw in the demonstration

CONCLUSION

(15MINS)

slowing spoilage

Drying on raised racks is more hygienic Drying under the shade helps in retention nutrients and color Facilitator supervises the group

Facilitator wraps up by encouraging participants to use the method at home

Note: Participants should be informed in advance to come with locally available vegetables and the other learning materials for group practical work Evaluation: Based on learning outcome Are the participants able to preserve the vegetables using the demonstrated method?

Module 3

FOOD UTILIZATION

The ability to use food efficiently in order to live to the fullest is what is called food utilization. For the body to fully benefit from the locally available foods, the food should be prepared in an appropriate and safe manner. This calls for broadening of the base on the utilization of the locally available foods such as grain, legume, fruits, vegetables, roots-tubers, meat and fish. Notes on utilization can be found in various recipes books.Examples of such books include Recipe Book on Zambian Traditional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 200 and Delicious Recipes from my Kitchen, Program Against malnutrition in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2007. Lesson Plan (Sample 1 for chapter 3) Block : Mongu Central Date: 14/5/ 2012 Camp : Mabumbu Duration: 2hr Learning area : Food Utilization Topic : Utilization of Legume Sub topic :Pounded Cowpea Relish Group : Zone 08 Mabumbu Power Club Gender : Male 25; Female 25 Rationale : 1. Participants are expected to know improved methods of utilizing legumes 2. Most farmers lack adequate knowledge on improved methods of legume utilization. This often leads to poor quality meals as well as to malnutrition. Methodology: Demonstration and discussion Learning outcomes: By the end of the session PSBAT • Utilize cowpeas Objectives: • To teach the participants how to utilize cowpeas. 79

Pre-requisites skills and knowledge Participants know that legumes are important components of their diet. Reference books: Recipe Book on Zambian Traditional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, 2009. Facilitation and learning material/ resources 1. Ingredients required: 4 cup dry cowpeas, 2 cup pounded roasted ground nuts, 4 tomato, 4 onion, salt to taste, water 2. Utensils: Motor and pestle, basin, knife, cup, plate, spoon, cooking stick LESSON PROCESS STAGE INTRODUCTION (15MIN)

FACILITATION/ LEARNING ACTIVITIES How do you prepare cow peas? What are the benefits of consuming cowpeas?

LEARNING POINTS By boiling Proteins, vitamins and minerals

DEVELOPMENT (10mins)

Step 1: Divide the participants into 4 groups

Facilitator ensures each group has the ingredients and utensils they need to use.

(1hr)

(20mins) CONCLUSION (10mins)

Step2: Each group does the following; Roast the cowpeas on low heat for 15 minutes Pound into grits then winnow Boil until soft (20-30 minutes.) Add groundnuts, chopped tomatoes and onions and cook for 5 to 10minutes Step 3: Each group displays what they have prepared and explain what they did Tasting and comments Facilitator wraps up the session by emphasizing the importance of legumes in the diet and encouraging the participants to use this method at home.

Rich in protein, vitamins and minerals. Good for the entire family.

Note: Participants should be informed in advance to come with cowpeas and the other learning materials for group practical work. Evaluation: Based on learning outcome Are the participants able to process cowpeas according to the method demonstrated to them?

SECTION V

Module 1

FARM POWER & MECHANIZATION

Post-harvest Processing

GRAIN CROP DRYING, HANDLING AND STORAGE The food production in one harvest period, which may last for only a few weeks, must be stored for gradual consumption until the next harvest, and seed must be held for the next season’s crop. In a market that is not controlled, the value of any surplus crops tends to arise during the off-season period, provided that it is in a marketable condition. The principle aim of any storage system must be to maintain the crop in prime condition for as long as possible. The storage and handling methods should minimize losses, but must also be appropriate in relation to other factors, such as economies of scale, labour costs and availability, building cost and machinery cost. Three Groups of Grain a) Cereals (maize, wheat, millets, rice) b) Pulses (beans, peas, cowpeas, etc.) c) Oils seeds (soybeans, sunflower, linseed etc.) 80

Flexibility: Drying system fall into two main groups. Natural drying Using ambient air temperature and either direct sunlight or natural air movement through the crop. Artificial drying This involves using mechanical means to move air through the crop, with air being either at ambient temperature or artificially heated. Drying can be considered in terms of thickness of the bed of grains being dried i.e. Shallow layer (thin layer) drying or deep – bed drying. Natural drying requires the grain to be shallow. NATURAL DRYING • • •

Drying in the field before harvesting Drying in shallow layers and exposing to sun and wind Drying in, or on a structure that has open sides to permit air movement through the mass.

Field Drying The method of leaving the crop standing in the field for drying is popular in areas REQUIREMENTS FOR SAFE STORAGE Crops left standing un-harvested start to show diminishing quantitative and qualitative returns through shatter loses and attacks by insects, mould, birds and rodents. • •

•

Complete harvesting as soon as possible Remove dust and contaminants, which can include insects, and vegetable materials, such as bits of straw and chaff and weed seeds. These will fill up pore spaces within the crop, inhabiting air movement and adding to any possible spoilage problem. Crop must be clean.

Moisture content Critical physiological factor in successful grain storage is the moisture content of the crop. High moisture content can damage the crop during storage. GRAIN STORAGE Parameters – the store must satisfy the following: a) b) c)

The grain must be kept dry The grain should be protected from insect attack Rodents and birds should be excluded.

SIZE AND TYPE OF STORAGE FACILITY This is dictated by: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Total volume of crop / produce to be stored. The storage requirements for the crop / produce to be stored The unit cost of various types of storage The form in which the crop /produce is stored i.e. Cob maize versus shelled maize.

The volume of the store required can be estimated form the expected yield and the land area. 81

CIRCULAR TRADITIONAL GRANARY The basket has to be more loosely woven, or the wall can be made slatted with at least 40% air be space with a diameter of up to 150cm, depending on the humidity of the air. RECTANGULAR TRADITIONAL GRANARY This has a rectangular structure and it is well ventilated. It is used for drying maize on the cob without the husk.

Vertical maize crop for drying maize on cobs. IMPROVED TRADITIONAL BINS

IMPROVED TRADITIONAL BIN IMPROVEMENT ON TRADITIONAL BIN • The floor is raised above the ground to avoid moisture • Supporting legs of hard wood are protect against rats . • Instead of mud , walls may be plastered with cement or mud mixed with cement or mud mixed with cement/ lime • Inlet and outlet should be made with air tight and lockable covers • Thatched roof to protect the bin from rain and strong sun • The area around the store should be kept clean Brick-walled silo Suitable for small – and medium – size stores .The wall may be made of bricks or blocks of mud, stabilized soil, burnt clay – bricks stones or cement.

82

Silo built of bricks laid radially (gravity wall) Steel bins Steel bins range from thoroughly cleaned steal oil Drums to commercial stores.

BAG STORAGE The most commonly used method of grain storage mostly is bag storage. The bags are stored in buildings with corrugated iron sheets.

Small block – built bag – store

Ventilated maize crib for storing shelled Maize in bags

CF using Ripper ADP Maintenance of farm equipment •

Ploughs 83

• • •

Cultivators Sprayers Engines-pumping, etc.

SECTION VI

Module 1

IRRIGATION PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE PLANNING TO IRRIGATION

Irrigation plays a major factor in increasing crop productivity by providing sufficient water supply to raise the yield per hectare per crop. Irrigation also allows for a second crop to be grown during the dry season when yields are potentially higher. This consequently increases income and profits. The development of irrigation depends upon several factors which are essential for the successful operation of an irrigation system.

CHOICE OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil to enhance crop growth. The principle irrigation systems in use are surface and sprinkler. The use of drip irrigation is also slowly becoming widespread. FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF IRRIGATION METHOD They are a number of factors that may influence the decision to use one system over the other. However it is important to find the cheapest method of supplying water to the crop with an adequate amount of water. Each irrigation system has some advantage over the other. Water Availability Ultimately, it is the amount of available water that determines the amount of land that can be irrigated. When water is limited, it is justifiable to optimize its use. Drip irrigation is the most efficient (90-95%), followed by sprinkler (75-80%) and surface irrigation (30-50%) depending on on-farm irrigation management practices. Infiltration rate Soils with a high infiltration rate like sand absorb water too quickly for the crop to use it hence most of it goals to waste. This situation can be worsened if surface irrigation is used. Type of crop For general guidance surface systems are preferred for deep rooted crops with sprinklers being suited for shallow rooted crops. However, surface irrigation can also be used for all crops. Cost of irrigation This is on a case-by-case basis. Where the source of water is at a higher level than the field to be irrigated, then water can be supplied directly to the field by means of gravity. If the water level is underground, it has to be abstracted using bucket or water pump. Water supplied from a source through a pipe can be discharged to a reservoir and then drawn off from there at a desired pressure. Topography Sprinkler and drip irrigation systems are more suitable for hilly lands as some degree of application uniformity can still be attained. The use of surface irrigation is not practical unless where levelling 84

can be done

SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS Overview This presentation looks at different surface irrigation methods common to the Zambian situation. As will be noted, the application of any one method will depend on several factors related to topography, water source, quantity and reliability. The principal surface irrigation methods are basin, border, furrow, corrugation, wild flooding, and spate and trickle irrigation. This presentation will only look at basin, furrow and corrugation BASIN IRRIGATION Characteristic It consists of a field divided into small areas enclosed by small earth banks between 30-50cms high (after settlement) and usually with inlet and outlet water controls. The top width is 15 cm. Basin Size Basin sizes may vary from one square meter to several hectares depending on the rate of water supply, slope, and soil texture. In principle, sand soils will have smaller basins compared to clay soils. Lateral Canal

Main Canal

basin Lateral Canal

FIG: showing an outline of Basin System of Irrigation Topographic and Soils Basin irrigation method is suited for flat land and especially heavy soils because percolation losses are minimal. This is to allow for uniform water depth during irrigation. Variation between the highest and lowest level in a basin should not be more than 6cm so that water is distributed most evenly. Watering Water is supplied to each basin from outlets in the supply channel until full. Alternatively, flow successively through a series of basins from a single channel outlet.

it can

Crops Suited for Basin Irrigation Rice is the most common crop under basin irrigation but is also suited for other crops such as maize, vegetables, and orchards where each tree can have its own basin. Disadvantages Banks may interfere with movement of agricultural equipment. 85

Draining off excess water may be difficulty in very flat land Not suitable for crops that cannot withstand prolonged standing water Allows breeding of mosquitoes FUROW IRRIGATION Characteristic Small furrows carry water down or across the slope of the land to wet the soil and crops are grown on ridges between furrows. Furrow irrigation only wets part of the soil. Furrows are usually v shaped in cross section, 25-30cm wide at the top and 15 to 20cm deep. Wider U-shaped furrows with greater wetted area can be used on soils with low infiltration rates. Spacing between furrows will depends on the type of crop grown, space needed between rows for tillage and weeding and lateral movement of water. It ranges between 0.35 and 1m. The ridges may be flat or rounded, with 1 or 2 crop rows. 25 to 30cm

Water level 15 to 20cm

0.75 to 1.00m

FIG: showing furrow irrigation Topographic and Soils Furrow irrigation is suited for deep, moderately permeable soils with uniform and relatively flat slopes (preferably not steeper than 3%). The diagram below shows that if sufficient water is to reach the roots, spacing in sandy soils must be kept closer than in heavier soils. Watering Water is admitted to the head of each furrow either one at a time or in groups. The rate of water flowing should be enough not to overflow along the furrow, and that the required amount of water should have seeped in after water has reached the end of the furrow. The excess is drained at the tail end. Experience by the farmers plays an important role here as soil intake rates are also different. Crops Suited for Furrow Irrigation Suitable for crops that do not tolerate standing water like a, vegetables, maize, potatoes

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING Overview The goal of irrigation is to avoid depleting the soil water below a critical limit throughout the irrigation season. The Irrigation scheduling indicates: • • •

How much irrigation water has to be given to the crop When to apply How often

Irrigation scheduling is important so that plants do not suffer from moisture stress at any time as this 86

would affect crop yield. In irrigation, it is recommended that water should be applied when approximately half the available water content of the root zone has been depleted. Hence the amount of water applied in irrigation simply replaces that which has been used by plants since the previous irrigation. DETERMINATION OF IRRIGATION FREQUENCY The irrigation frequency will depend on the amount of water to apply as influenced by: Soil Type The irrigation frequency on soils with a high water holding capacity like clay is lower and the irrigation frequency is high for soils with a lower water holding capacity like sand. Crop root depth This influences the maximum amount of water that can actually be applied and stored in the root zone. Shallow root system will require more frequent irrigation than deep rot system. Crop growth stage Crops need less but water but more frequent watering during the initial growth stage. The mid season stage is the most sensitive to water shortage and the period of highest water need. The frequency however reduces as the root depth increases. HOW TO DETERMINE WHEN TO IRRIGATE Various methods are used to determine when to irrigate and all are stress-based indicators. They include, plant observation, estimation, soil moisture measurement, leaf temperature measurement. This reason will look at the first two Plant observation method This is the most common method among farmers but requires a lot of experience and knowledge of field circumstance. This method is based on observing changes in plant characteristics such as changes in color, curling of leaves and ultimately plant wilting. The disadvantage with this method is that by the time signs occur, some damage may already have been done to the crop and ultimately crop yields are affected. Estimation method This is an approximate guide to irrigation interval for various crops and takes into account the following: • • • •

Different climatic periods Different crop growth stages Different soil types Amount to irrigate

Below is the guiding table. TABLE SHOWING IRRIGATION FREQUENCY FOR DIFFERENT CROPS, CROP STAGES, SOIL TYPES AND CLIMATE CONDITIONS CROP

Cabbage

Carrots

Chinese Cabbage

CROP STAGE Climate Soil

INITIAL STAGE Hot Moderate Cool

DEVELOPMENT STAGE Hot Moderate Cool

HARVETSING Hot Moderate

Cool

Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy Light

2 3 4 2 3 4 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2 1 1 2 2

3 3 3 2 2 3 3

3 4 5 3 4 6 3

3 4 6 3 5 6 3

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2 2 2 2 2 3 3

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Eggplants

French Beans

Lettuce

Green Maize

Onions

Rape

Tomatoes

Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy

3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 5 2 2 3 2 3 4 1 2 3

5 6 2 3 4 6 6 6 2 2 3 6 6 6 2 4 5 3 4 5 2 3 4

5 6 3 4 5 2 3 3 6 6 6 2 4 5 3 4 6 2 3 4

2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1

3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3

3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3

3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1

3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3

Hot climate = August to December Moderate climate = January to April Cool climate = May to July

Module 2

WATER MANAGEMENT TECHNICS

INTRODUCTION The need to properly manage irrigation water resources among small-scale irrigators has become a very important to due to the following: • •

The economic cost attached to water, especially when using pumps. Limits in irrigation water supply caused by declining water reserves over time in the dam, underground, or due to limited pumping capacity.

Irrigation management is responsible for managing crop production to satisfactory levels. Over and under irrigation can cause plant stress. Therefore, optimisation of water use becomes the sole goal.

MANAGING IRRIGATION WATER When irrigation water is limited and pumping costs are high and no more investment is being made, the following strategies-at planning and implementation levels- can be adopted in managing water supply. Selection and Optimisation of Cropping Calendar to Water Availability In planning the cropping calendar, two points should be considered: 1.

The peak period (flowering stage) is of concern to irrigation farmers ed agriculture as it determines the maximum capacity at which irrigation water should be supplied to the field. One of the commonest mistakes is to grow vegetables at the same time in a field and then have no capacity to supply the right amount of water during the peak demand period.

The above condition can be avoided by dividing the field and stagger the planting dates so that the system capacity will be reduced. 2.

The amount of available water for irrigation tends to decrease as the irrigation season progress due to non-replenishment at the source (dam, river, underground). It is common for water sources to deplete before the crop is mature. 88

It is important for the farmer to have knowledge of available water at source at the beginning of the irrigation season. Early planting, taking advantage of the cool season, is also encouraged so that plants are mature before water sources are depleted. It is also necessary for the farmer, through experience, to make a good estimate of the appropriate field size that can be adequately irrigated within the available supply. Farmers need to have Knowledge of the Kind Of Irrigation System A lot of water is normally wasted during irrigation. The application efficiency for furrow is quite low (40%~60%) due to a high rate of losses. The irrigation efficiency for overhead irrigation is 70- 80%, and 90-95 % for drip irrigation. Irrigation efficiency is affected by: 1.

Conveyance losses that take place as water is being transported from the water source to the field. It takes place through spill, seepage, percolation and evaporation in an open channels (or leakage in pipes).

To avoid this situation, water flow channels should be constructed properly according to standard design recommendations. Water loses in a channel can significantly be reduced by lining with concrete, PVC or polythene sheet, etc. However, all linings tend to be very expensive. 2.

Field losses that are a result of evaporation, runoff and deep seepage. This tendency increases due to over-irrigation as a result of poorly laid field or lack of knowledge of irrigation requirements.

Having this knowledge should stimulate a farmer to follow the recommended system operation, if not the choice of irrigation system. Adopting Efficient On-Farm Water Management Technics Irrigation water supply rate and quantity The rate at which water is supplied determines the rate at which it is being absorbed in the soil. If water is allowed to flows too fast into the field, it will overfill before being absorbed into the soil. If water flows too slowly, they will be deep percolation before the whole furrow is watered resulting in huge losses. Adjusting or controlling the amount of water coming into the field can solve this problem. Deciding how much to irrigate can be based on time of application. A farmer may know by experience that it takes him half a day to irrigate a particular plot. He may, among other factors, qualify this when the flow from the supply is running at normal rate. Deciding when to When to irrigate The small-scale farmer, in his limited capacity, can only tell if it is necessary to irrigate by monitoring the leaf condition of the crops in the field. But this may vary from one portion to another because of variability in soil types. Knowing when to irrigate can reduce crop damage from over or under irrigation of crops. Also during hot weather, the best times to irrigate is during the evening or in the night so that evaporation losses are reduced Irrigation system application uniformity No irrigation system is able to irrigate the soil uniformly. This results into over irrigation or under irrigation in some parts of the field. The application uniformity can be affected by varying soil topography and soil type, poor field layout, plant density, etc. The application efficiency can be improved by maintaining well-leveled soils and correct furrow size and slopes. The farmers’ experience can also be most useful.

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a)

Water Pricing

This is a deliberate strategy to make water users responsible to the water that they are using in an irrigation scheme. Each farmer should be able to pay for the water used, or have a water right, so that the money can be used for operation and maintenance of the scheme. b)

Cultivate High Value Crops

Owing the high cost of irrigation, farmers are encouraged to grow high value crops that can bring them enough profit margin offset the running costs. c)

Water Conservation

Traditional water conservation techniques have basically centred on improving the water storage condition of the soil. Soil management practices are achieved by: •

•

Minimising soil evaporation through mulching and this can take the form of crop residual and where possible plastic films. This provides shade from solar radiation and reduces temperatures hence reducing the evaporation. Decreasing runoff losses through tillage and conservation tillage.

Module 3

WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS

INTRODUCTION Improved management is a prerequisite for sustainable development of the irrigation systems’ full potential. To overcome the potential conflict between different water uses requires creating an effective set of rules and regulations for managing the water resources within an adequate policy and legal framework.

FORMATION OF WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS Purpose of WUA The primary reason behind having water user associations is to • •

Ensure that users’ groups accept full responsibility for O&M from the outset. Let the users manage their own affairs thus allow for greater user commitment. This is expected to lead to more efficient use of the resources by helping to overcome many of the problems that public irrigation systems face.

Functions Of Wua The functions of the Water User Association is to address issues of: System Operation & Maintenance Water for irrigation has to be used in the most efficient way to avoid losses and avoid unnecessary bills Collect User Fees Water pricing is a management tool required for the following reasons: • •

An irrigation System has a limited lifespan after which it becomes unusable due to wear (Depreciation) Routine maintenance work and sometimes special repair work need to be carried out as you 90

•

encounter breakdowns You may also need to employ someone to operate the system

Conflict Resolution Some of the problems encountered in irrigation schemes include: • • • •

Inequitable water distribution, Inefficiency and poor O&M Irrigator are not usually willing to pay unless forced There is poor collection of fees & poor accountability that leads that leads to poor o&m hence greater reluctance to pay. This makes irrigation seem unviable and less attractive. Plan For Production And Marketing

Composition And Structure The WUA is mainly composed of farmers who are irrigators. They form a management committee to manage all the operations of the irrigation system. The group is responsible for the day to day functions of the scheme ensuring its economic and financial sustainability. All positions should be elective by voting. BY LAWS The WUA is organized as a legally registered institution with by laws that guide its operation depending the size of the irrigation. Group participation and consensus in the formulation of the rules is very important.

GUIDELINE FOR MAKING RULES AND GUIDELINES IN AN IRRIGATION SCHEME WHAT’S A SERVICE AGREEMENT A service agreement is a form of contract and contains agreed set of rules and regulations to be used by the farmers for the day to day operation of an irrigation scheme. The amount of water user fee to be generated by the farmers depends upon the scheme operation and maintenance costs and the WUA should liaise with MACO to determine this. DETERMINING FACTORS OF SERVICE AGREEMENT The input into the service agreement is for the benefit of the farmers and will depend on the overall irrigation, agricultural and organization plans as shown below: Water right In the Zambian context, the water rights are mostly based per area of land assuming that divisions are the small. Consequently, those who own more pieces pay more. Water requirements Water requirement is the factor, which formulates a guideline for the service specification. MACO needs to workout CWR data for different crops to support irrigation requirement. Water availability Where available water for irrigation is limited, it must be specified the periods when the water will be available for use, i.e the time the irrigation season will start and end.

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Rate, duration and frequency of supply There are no hard and fast rules except that this will among other things be determined by water availability, system design, and capacity. Rate: This specifies the Duration: This specifies the time allocated per irrigation turn. Some schemes will open a section of the canal the whole day and irrigators in that particular area can go to irrigate at the time they fill like. Others will give specific time schedule, i.e. mornings of afternoons only, yet others may also consider night time. Frequency: This determines how regularly water will be made available for farmers to irrigate their fields. The irrigation interval should be made clear weather it’s once or twice per weekly so that everyone is duly aware. All this depends upon the agreed flexibility and adequacy. SUPPLY MONITORING Supply monitoring is one of the major tools to achieve the sustainability in agreed service specifications. The WUA must monitor the supply through appointed people under the O & M sub-committee. They should monitor water supply to ensure that are not irrigating more land than is allowed, or illegally operating the system. QUALITY OF SERVICE The preconditions for good water management are: Reliability The supply of water should be reliable in that the agreed time table should be adhered to strictly without unnecessary changes. Water should be available in the right quantity and at the right times. A good communication system should be in place for any adjustments. Incentive could be considered for operators. Equitable The period of water supply should be the equal for all irrigators/irrigation blocks as agreed. Adequacy Adequacy means to meet the water demand for optimal plant growth. It depends upon the following factors agreed irrigated area, irrigation losses, system ability, crop evapotranspiration depending on the season. Flexibility The degree of flexibility depends upon the ability of users to choose the duration and the frequency. Crops grown will be different requiring different amounts of water. The proposed on request allocation and volumetric water right in scheme requires reasonably high flexibility. Convenience Where farmers share water by use of hydrants, convenience of the clients should always be the motto of the service provider. This implies providing water to each farm at the convenient location in terms of easy access. 92

CONDITIONS FOR USING WATER (SERVICE DELIVERY) A farmer should only access water under certain condition that has to be agreed upon by both the parties. The main condition that applies to the water delivery will be as follows: Cost of supply, Billing and Frequency of payment Each farmer has to pay a water user fee as decided by the community based on investment and operational cost (O&M cost)- cost recovery scheme. In an irrigation system, irrigators may be charged based on type of crop or the amount of area cultivated. The frequency of the payment is preferably monthly. This will prevent the farmers to pay huge amount of money if payments are annual. Supply restriction During the dry season water availability may not always be sufficient enough to meet the demand. Both parties should agree upon supply restriction. The formulated conditionality is to supply equitable distribution of shortage. Close of irrigation season This mostly occurs at the star of the rain season and is common where time has to be given for more water to collect at the source, i.e. dam. Service provision during the year Before the start of the next irrigation season, no water supply should be allowed for irrigation until annual maintenance works are carried out on the system and its infrastructures. Hence a service agreement will be made in the form of contract considering the above stated factors, which contain all the details the obligations of WUA and and process of resolution of conflicts. A sample of agreement letter between the IA, WUA and the farmers is presented as follow: Article 1.

Services

Article 2. Procedures for Request and Delivery of the Services Article 3. Procedures for Monitoring Service Level Article 4. Services in Times of Water Shortage Article 5. Service Fee Article 6. Billing Article 7. Penalty of delayed payment Article 8. Duration of the Agreement Article 9. Disputes WATER PRICING

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Module 4

PROCEDURES FOR OPERATION IRRIGATION SCHEMES

&

MAINTENANCE

OF

OPERATION PROCEDURES IN IRRIGATION The three fundamental causes for the poor operation of an irrigation system are lack of technical skills in planning, implementing and monitoring the system, poor man-management and technical deficiencies in the physical system. This topic on operation is mostly concerned with the technical skills necessary for suitable operation of an irrigation scheme. Main Objectives of an Operation Service Timely delivery of the irrigation water necessary to satisfy crop water requirements. Main activities: There are three main activities under operation service • • •

Planning Implementation Monitoring

PLANNING To match supply with demand as closely as possible. Under Operation Service, this should be the first activity or step to take before the irrigation season commences. The planning exercise can be done in a farmer (or management committee) meeting and the following three steps followed: 1.

Estimating future water supply

The meeting makes general analysis how much water supply is available in the dam, river or underground (depending on your water source) at the start of the irrigation season based on observed situation at that time. As an example, it should be observed whether a dam is full, half-full; or the current level of water in the river or wells. 2.

Estimating water demand

At this stage, it is expected that farmers have already indicated to management (i.e. Water User Association) the crops they would want to grow, area and the timing. This give the expected cropping calendar and this information is then examined in terms of water requirements (demand). Allowances for irrigation losses during irrigation must be taken into account as on experience of scheme operation. 3.

Matching Supply and Demand

Based on the information received under Supply and Demand in STEP I and II, a decision can now be made on how to match the two. In most cases, the demand is bigger than the supply since most schemes occasionally experience moderate water deficit in the dry season and during dry years. In this case restrictive measures that can be put to match supply and demand and related to: •

Crops Grown And The Cropping Pattern

The scheme management should have in place suitable regulation regarding what types of crops to grow, the timing of cultivation (with fines for defaulters) so as to have enough authority to match supply with demand. •

Reducing The Irrigation Area

Management should agree by regulation to reduce the irrigation area per farmer (though easily 94

achieved through reduced water supply/irrigation interval, eliminating the areas furthest from the distribution point, and giving water to certain sections/preferential crops of the command area only) •

The Water User Fees

Farmers should pay water fee based on or plot size. Note that three restrictive mentioned above are not mutually exclusive and a combination can usually be recommended. IMPLEMENTATION This is the distribution of water and is linked to the scheme design. The most common is system in our schemes is rotational system where all canals receive water by turns and farmers on the secondary canals or watercourses receive water at a pre-set time and in the allowed quantity as determined by management. This involves the use of selected members to Operators have to be put in place MONITORING Comparing the actual pattern of water distribution with what it should have been and helping to identify reasons for divergences; (Short term) Amassing information as a guide to next season planning and implementation. (Long Term) The operation and maintenance committee should put in place people to open and close intake gates or valves, collection of the water requests, control of the canals and watercourses to avoid unauthorized use of water, etc. delivery of water bills. Where pump-sets are used either for lifting groundwater or surface water, pump operators are needed to start and stop engines and motors, operate engines or motors under the most suitable conditions and times, provide for the regular maintenance of pump and engines/motors. The pump operator should have been provided provided short training courses on the operation of pump-sets. It is desirable that pump operators have mechanical training. This committee should be the main communication channel between the scheme management and the farmer. Tasks They can also carry out maintenance work during the off-season such as cleaning of the irrigation canal and ditches, small repairs in the small hydraulic works (intakes, siphons, joints, etc.), -supervision of workers doing any needed major repairs, - repairing and maintaining gates. The number of water guards depends on scheme size.

MAINTENANCE SERVICE The irrigation network is a costly element of an irrigation scheme and is designed to last a long time. This chapter provides some guidelines for the planning and undertaking of the maintenance work by the farmer groups. Maintenance is greater in earth canals constructed irrigation schemes than in concrete lined canal. There are several reasons for poor maintenance and the most important are; • •

Insufficient funds for servicing and repair; Lack of interest by the farmers in participating or collaborating in the maintenance work;

This occurs the farmer does not realize the importance nor does he know how to do it, or he feels that his work benefits others rather than himself. The feeling of ownership may also be lacking. To improve such situations, each case should be analyzed to discover the reasons for non-participation and the assistance of sociologists can be helpful in determining them.

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•

Poor organization of the work.

Main functions The Maintenance Service is entrusted with the overall responsibility for keeping the irrigation and drainage systems working in a satisfactory manner, within the limitations imposed by the initial design. The main functions to be undertaken are: • • •

Planning; Implementing; Monitoring:

PLANNING THE MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES Planning the activities to be undertaken in the following year is particularly important especially where resources are limited. All required works should be continuously noted by the committee and plans made for their repair. IMPLEMENTING UNFORESEEN

THE

MAINTENANCE

ACTIVITIES

PLANNED

AND

THOSE

Maintenance activities can be undertaken more easily during the off-season. If farmers are engaged in maintenance work on their own land for their own benefit, they are more likely to work willingly. MONITORING THE ABOVE MENTIONED ACTIVITIES The Maintenance Service need to regularly monitor the state of the irrigation system, noting in advance what service and repair works need to be done for the different units and determining the cost. This data is useful for realistic planning. Types of maintenance There are three main types of maintenance, namely Routine or normal maintenance, Special maintenance and Rehabilitation. Routine or normal maintenance includes all work necessary to keep the irrigation system functioning satisfactorily and is normally done annually. In this training, we will be mostly concerned with routine or normal maintenance Maintenance activities The maintenance activities should be clearly spelled out in the by-laws of the irrigation scheme. The maintenance activities, grouped according to the major elements of an irrigation system, are described below. Dam and reservoir 1. Reservoir • Controlling aquatic weeds • Removing large debris (e.g. tree trunks) floating in the water that may damage hydraulic works • Monitoring the solid deposition in the bottom of a reservoir. 2. Dam Wall • Weed control once or twice a year

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Irrigation Network Concrete - lined canals The routine activities include: replacement of joints and damaged concrete slabs, weed control in joints and on the surface of concrete slabs, control and removal of silt. Heavy rain may cause deposition of solid materials if the berms are not properly formed. The most effective way of preventing this type of silting is to install barriers to rainwater intrusion. Removal of silt from the canals can mainly be done manually. It can also be removed by flashing with fast flowing water. The main problem in concrete-lined canals is cracking of the lining and eventual eruption of concrete slabs due to sub pressure. Apart from repairing the damaged lining, corrective action must be taken. Earth canals There are four main problems in earth canals requiring maintenance attention and, although they are closely interrelated, they will be treated separately. Silting Excessive sedimentation is perhaps the most common problem affecting the performance of earth canals. Weed infestation Weed infestation can seriously impede the flow of canal water. Some weeds can be transported to the field and they reproduce rapidly and become a serious problem because of the difficulty of eradicating them. Another hazard of weed infestation is the shelter and good breeding conditions they offer for vectors (mosquitoes, snails, etc.) of debilitating diseases. Water infiltration Water leaks through canal banks can be caused by burrowing rats or by rotting plants and roots which were not removed from the canal bank seat during construction. Ants are also known to be a problem even in concrete-lined canals. These leaks can be repaired by following the path of the leak through the bank by hand digging and once the path has been found, the trench must be carefully backfilled and compacted. Water seepage through porous soils may also be a major concern. Seepage through banks can be considerably reduced by trenching them and burying a plastic membrane or thick slurry made from the excavated material. The trench is backfilled with sand after the barrier has been interred. Erosion of banks Canal banks can be eroded by heavy rainfall, abrupt and rapid shutting off of canal water, stock grazing or passage by drinking animals. Seeding of grasses in the unwetted part of the canal is a cheap and effective protective measure. Erosion of canals can be repaired manually by re-building the worn canal banks. However, care should be taken to construct a proper join between the old and the new part; otherwise the canal will deteriorate at the same place. The most effective measures are of a preventive nature: such as seeding grass fencing the canals, and constructing special places for animal watering and bathing. Drainage network 97

For practical purposes, the maintenance of open drains is very similar to that of earth irrigation canals. However, all too often drainage networks receive much less attention than the irrigation ones. The result is that during heavy rain, when they are much needed, they do not work as they should. Pump stations The operators must be given clear instructions on safety measures, on the methods of starting the pump motors and the way in which they must be brought into full operation. Electric motors sometimes require to be stepped up in speed manually at a strictly controlled rate. Also canals may be damaged if all pumps come rapidly into full operation. They must also be given a programme of irrigation quantities to be pumped. In case of an emergency, there must be some system for easy communication between the pump house operator and the manager - either telephone or signal or runner.

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