Theme: Student Actions Component#147: Teacher encourages students to persevere in solving problems by modeling this perseverance (LearningToBe) Strength: Weak Feasibility: Moderate Classical social learning theory states that “new patterns of behavior can be acquired through direct experience or by observing the behavior of others” (Bandura, 1971), and a number of research has long established that children and students do indeed learn by and via imitation, observations, and interactions (e.g., Kahn & Cangemi, 1979; Frayer & Klausmeier, 1972). More recently, researchers have also connected social learning theory with theories in motivation, in part explaining the mechanisms for these learning behavior (e.g., Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). In addition to theoretical perspective, researchers have also sought to demonstrate the use of modeling empirically. For example, Higgs and McMillan (2006) examined how four schools were able to teach and promote sustainable practices such as composting, recycling, and reusing. By conducting observations, interviews, and document reviews, they identified “teachers and staff as individual role models” to be one of the key means to modeling sustainability. As another example, Hamann and Walker (1993), in a survey study of 811 African-American high school students enrolled in music classes, found that a higher proportion of students with a music teacher role-model would consider making music their major, taking music classes, or participating in a music ensemble compared to those without music teacher role-models; the authors make a case in which a music teacher (especially if he or she is a role model) can influence students’ perseverance in music classes, programs, or groups. Yet a couple of challenges exist in studies of teachers as role models, let alone teachers as role models of perseverance. One challenge is the finding that students tend to prefer role models of their own gender and race (Hamann & Walker, 1993). However, it is not simply enough to have a teacher of the same gender and race. Rather, such studies need to take into consideration students’ perceptions and reactions to teachers (Maylor, 2009). As noted by the Department for Education and Skills in London (2007), “[mentors] need to be credible to individuals, collaborative in approach and supportive.” Such relationships take time to build and studies will need to be able to take advantage of already existing relationships. Just as how imitation and modeling have been long established to be ways students and children learn, perseverance, often defined as voluntary continuation of action or behavior that is goal directed and typically in the face of difficulty or obstacles (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) has been linked to academic achievement. This non-cognitive trait sometimes known as “grit” has been shown to be highly predictive of educational attainment and outcome. In fact, a study with over 1,500 adult participants showed that grit accounted for an average of 4% of variance in success outcomes (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007). Additionally, multilevel analyses of PISA scores and motivation effects of students across 41 countries demonstrated that those who scored higher in mathematics tend to report higher perseverance, among other traits (Chiu & Xihua, 2008). Not only is perseverance linked to higher test scores, students themselves also believe it to be needed for success in math (Schinch, Neale, Pugalee, & Cifarelli, 2010). For this component to be strong, we need to show that students will model/imitate teachers or others, perseverance is positively linked to achievement, and that perseverance can be taught via modeling. Unfortunately, literature regarding how perseverance can be taught via

modeling is lacking. Although perseverance is potentially teachable (Duckworth, 2013), to date (as far as we know), no empirical research has been conducted examining whether teachers’ demonstration of perseverance can be translated into student perseverance. References Bandura, A. (1971). Social Learning Theory. New York, NY: General Learning Press. Chiu, M. M., & Xihua, Z. (2008). Family and motivation effects on mathematics achievement: Analyses of students in 41 countries. Learning and Instruction, 18(4), 321-336. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.06.003 DfES (Department for Education and Skills). 2007. Gender and education: The evidence on pupils in England. London: DfES. Duckworth, A. L. (2013). Can perseverance be taught? Big Questions Online. Retrieved from https://www.bigquestionsonline.com/content/can-perseverance-be-taught Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 10871101. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087 Frayer, D. A., & Klausmeier, H. J. (1972). Modeling as a technique for promoting classroom learning and prosocial behavior. Washington, D. C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Ed073409) Hamann, D. L., & Walker, L. M. (1993). Music teachers as role models for African-American students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41(4), 303-314. Higgs, A. L, & McMillan, V. M. (2006). Teaching through modeling: Four schools’ experiences in sustainability education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 38(1), 39-53. Khan, K. H., & Cangemi, J. P. (1979). Social learning theory: The role of imitation and modeling in learning socially desirable behavior. Education, 100(1), 41-46. Maylor, U. (2009). ‘They do not relate to Black people like us’: Black teachers as role models for Black pupils. Journal of Education Policy, 24(1), 1-21. Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill-Prentice Hall. Schinch, A. G., Neale, H. W., Jr., Pugalee, D. K, & Cifarelli, V. V. (2010). Using metaphors to unpack student beliefs about mathematics. School Science and Mathematics, 108(7), 326333. DOI: 10.1111/j.1949-8594.2008.tb17845.x

Good Literature Review (Adequate Research) Number of sources ❑

⌧3

≤2 Different types of sources (i.e. journal, publication, peer-reviewed)

❑

⌧3

≤2 Word Count

⌧500+ words

❑ ≤ 499 words

Adequate level of evidence indicating effectiveness of component (Relevancy) Feasibility of Implementation ❑No evidence

⌧Minimal evidence

❑Strong evidence

❑Overwhelming evidence

Applied to a Variety of Subject Areas ❑No specific subject areas ❑No evidence

❑1 subject area

⌧2 subject areas

Increases student achievement ⌧Minimal evidence ❑ Strong evidence

❑3+ subject areas

❑Overwhelming evidence

Helps teacher to understand students’ needs ❑No evidence

⌧Minimal evidence

❑Strong evidence

❑Overwhelming evidence