Chapter 14 Sanctuary: A Fundamental Requirement of Wildlife Management Carol Buckley The Elephant Sanctuary in Tennessee The Elephant Sanctuary, operating on 2,700 acres near Hohenwald, Tennessee, is the nation’s largest natural habitat refuge specifically developed for elderly, ill or needy female African and Asian elephants retired from zoos and circuses. It is a nonprofit organization, licensed by the United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA/APHIS) and Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, and a member of The Association of Sanctuaries. Scott Blais and I founded the sanctuary in 1995 out of a concern for captive elephants fueled by our 35 years of combined experience in traditional elephant management. Our initial goal was to establish the sanctuary as an alternative to the traditional approach by creating an opportunity for solitary female elephants to live in a harmonious group of other similar females. Limits of traditional elephant management and exhibition Traditional captive elephant management is typically marked by human dominance, confinement in small, impoverished spaces and exhibition for our entertainment and education. Dominance is the traditional way that elephants have been managed for centuries. Human dominance over an elephant is attained through a variety of means: training, routine, positive reinforcement (reward), intimidation, deprivation, negative reinforcement (removal of an aversive form of stimulation) and corporal punishment. Dominance remains the standard approach today in nearly 50 percent of U.S. zoos and all circuses. Ron Kagan, director of the Detroit Zoo, aptly noted that elephants remain the only species in zoos that keepers are allowed to hit and chain. Traditional elephant management has done little to further an understanding of this species, instead serving mainly to enhance our ability to exhibit them. The limits of such a management tool are well described by Brambell (1973, p. 45): “Often the approach to animal management in captivity has been to perpetuate, without searching for improvement, methods which allow the animal to survive long enough for its death not to be an embarrassment to the manager” (as cited in Forthman 1998). Elephants have been exhibited in this country for over 200 years. Over these two centuries, however, conditions of their exhibition and confinement, like chaining, for example, have not changed appreciably. With the exception of certain progressive institutions, traditional elephant management programs continue to employ corporal punishment to manage their elephants. It is my perception that so long as dominance is considered a viable elephant management technique, negative reinforcement and corporal punishment will be defended as necessary tools of the trade.

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The Elephant Sanctuary’s approach to elephant welfare and management The relationship between an animal, its physical environment and the occurrence of medical problems has been well-documented (Brockman et al. 1988; Munson & Montali 1990). Recognition of this relationship, provision of a spacious tract of undisturbed land and staff commitment to non-dominance and positive reinforcement have enabled the sanctuary to develop an elephant management approach that places elephant welfare as our highest priority. Passive control (non-dominance) and positive reinforcement The sanctuary staff does not use dominance as a means to manage our elephants. On a dayto-day basis, it is our experience that elephants respond favorably and consistently to positive reinforcement in the absence of dominance. The sanctuary has formalized its philosophy and employs passive control in the management of our elephants. This non-dominant technique utilizes the barn and yard facilities, caregivers’ knowledge of the individual elephant and positive reinforcement to encourage cooperation. No ankus, weapon, chains or form of negative reinforcement is used or permitted. Our elephants are requested to cooperate but no retaliation or negative reinforcement results if the elephant elects not to cooperate. Caregivers do not give our elephants commands. Instead, caregivers ask our elephants to comply. Patience and insight into how elephants solve problems are keys to a favorable response. Each elephant new to the Sanctuary has responded favorably to passive control. Our facility’s design and management philosophy permit our caregivers to shape our elephants’ behavior to suit the caregivers’ needs. Positive reinforcement in the form of treats, physical interaction and verbal praise are the tools of our day-to-day elephant management. Upon arrival at the Sanctuary, each new elephant is managed by passive control techniques within protected contact. Within a short time (sometimes within a few hours of arrival), each new elephant has cooperated in our system with. Because of the flexibility provided by the design of our barns and yards, we are equipped to modify our management of each individual in response to her behavior over the course of her lifetime. Currently, all but two of the Sanctuary elephants are managed using free contact with passive control. One individual has been identified as suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and is currently being managed in protected contact with passive control. Several years ago, the sanctuary hired an elephant trainer versed in both free and protected contact management. The trainer, working in a protected contact environment, employed dominance as part of her training technique. One of our elephants immediately responded negatively. When the trainer approached this elephant’s stall, the elephant either was reluctant to cooperate or responded aggressively. However, when the identical training techniques were used without employing dominance (authoritative, demanding voice, withholding treats and interaction) the elephant was cooperative and showed no aggression. After some time experimenting with different training techniques and training personnel, we determined that this elephant was not responding adversely to the training itself but to what she perceived as human dominance. The stimulus that triggered the aggression was the attempted human dominance. In our experience, if an elephant is not dominated and we meet her basic needs for food, compatible others, a large space in which to exercise her freedom of movement and a sense of security, and she does not suffer from a psychotic disorder, she will be cooperative and non-aggressive.

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No chains In our experience, chaining is an unsound husbandry practice. Chaining adversely affects an elephant’s physical health by restricting mobility and potentially contributing to joint and bone disease. Chaining can be equally destructive to an elephant’s psychological health by preventing individuals from making their own choices and socializing in the complex way that ensures their psychological well-being. Modern facility design and our management philosophy alleviate the need for this archaic and detrimental tool. Housing options We have found that the application of innovative facility design coupled with a deeply intuitive management philosophy results in a high success rate of rehabilitation of captive elephants. Our facilities are designed to optimize each elephant’s quality of life. Knowing the species’ natural history and each individual’s life story permits us to design and utilize facilities in a manner that maximizes the quality of their lives. Wild elephants spend their entire life outside, immersed in and migrating through a diverse habitat. It is our experience that in order to experience a full recovery, captive elephants must be afforded not only a diverse, vast area but they must also be given the freedom to make the choices that influence every aspect of their lives. Currently we have four on-site barns. Our goal is to provide safe freedom so that each elephant can recover and reclaim her true nature. The design process for each new barn contributed to our knowledge of available building materials as well as our understanding of how to achieve our goals, sometimes through unconventional means. We have abandoned traditional cinderblock walls for transparent polycarbonate sheeting that allows natural light to flood the barn. The heat captured from this innovative application of insulated plastic can be used to heat the barn. The barn roof is designed to funnel and capture thousands of gallons of rain water, which are used for cleaning purposes and to fill ponds. By providing not only interconnected interior stalls, but an auxiliary bypass chute which extends the full length of the barn, elephants can put as much distance between themselves and another elephant as they need to feel comfortable. Providing multiple options for accessing and exiting the barn is of primary importance. This option makes elephants feel safer and less restricted, thereby reducing stress levels and the incidence of intimidating overtures between non-bonded individuals. In our experience, the free-choice-access feature is most essential. Our new Asian Elephant Health and Welfare Institute/Quarantine facility is comprised of two barns on 200 fenced acres. The Phase I quarantine barn is a two-stall barn designated for medical treatment and quarantine. The Phase II quarantine barn is a six-stall barn designed for elephants whose health status is unknown, questionable, or for those who have successfully completed treatment for a transmittable disease. Our quarantine facility currently houses seven elephants with barn space for 11. The African facility has a five-stall barn on 300 fenced acres. It currently houses three elephants with barn space for five. The newly expanded Asian facility has a nine-stall barn on 2,200 fenced acres, with nine more interconnected stalls that create a chute the length of the barn. It currently houses seven elephants with barn space for 30 elephants. The land has a total carrying capacity of 100 elephants. To realize that population, additional barns would need to be constructed. Room to roam Elephants are migratory animals and require vast space to roam. The argument made by some that captive elephants do not need room to roam because keepers provide their basic needs of food, water and shelter is specious (e.g., Poole & Granli, Chapter 1). The provision of food, water and 193

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shelter addresses only a portion of an elephant’s needs and fails to take into account the “psychological well-being” of elephants. The sanctuary’s 2,700 acres provide a protected, natural habitat for our three populations of elephants. All elephants have unrestricted, free-choice access to their habitats. Our observation is that given access to a diverse, vast space, captive elephants will engage in continuous activities consistent with their wild counterparts. We do not suggest that providing a healthy environment for captive elephants is easy; however, it is much less complicated than attempting to provide a healthy environment for elephants without adequate space. By following a comprehensive set of guidelines that addresses the physical, psychological, emotional and mental needs of elephants, the effort can be successful. There appear to be three key requirements for success; multi-hundred-acre diverse habitat where elephants are allowed to roam freely; free-choice access to lush and abundant species-appropriate vegetation; and social groupings of a minimum of five individuals. We are confident that the prototype we have developed can be utilized by others to improve captive elephant welfare. Live vegetation During the growing season at the Sanctuary, nearly 10 months of the year, 80 percent of our elephants’ diet is made up of the wild vegetation of their choice. Their access to a vast area to graze, browse and explore creates the opportunity for them to engage in this natural behavior much as they would in the wild, where they spend up to 20 hours a day selecting, collecting and eating their food (see Poole and Granli, Chapter 1). During the dormant season, our elephants derive only 30-40 percent of their diet from foraging. The opportunity to select, collect and ingest vegetation of their own choosing is an important aspect of any elephant’s life, captive or free. We have observed how painstaking particular elephants are when selecting their food. Each blade of grass is individually identified and harvested. The selection process takes concentration and patience. Elephants casually scan the vegetation with the tip of their trunk hovering over the area of choice, picking only a few pieces of vegetation from any one location. This continual highly selective process keeps them moving, always in search of “greener pastures.” Despite the fact that the elephants gather much less live vegetation during our few weeks of winter, we observe that their activity budget for grazing, foraging and exploring remains constant. Consequently, it is our perception that food gathering is only one of many factors causing them to forage and explore their physical environment and that they are deriving substantial psychological and social benefit from engaging in this natural behavior. Herd environment Our elephants are not related. Some have lived together for decades, others for only a few years. Their social needs drive them to develop relationships and strong bonds. The unfortunate fact that they are not related does not prevent them from developing deep attachments that mirror those of their wild counterparts. Room to maneuver—to advance and retreat safely—has a huge impact on an elephant’s social development. This ability to determine the degree of interaction an individual has with another is important for building confidence. Over time, even socially inept elephants can develop appropriate social skills, learning how to relate in a healthy way to other elephants and caregivers. The larger the herd, the more opportunities individuals have to bond. It is our experience that every elephant develops a strong bond with one other elephant and that this is their primary relationship. This special individual is the elephant that they rely on during times of insecurity and with whom they engage in play and exploration. Bonded individuals develop caring relationships with other members of the herd; their relationship is not exclusive, but it is the 194

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primary relationship in their lives. Freedom of choice Without freedom of choice in all aspects of their daily and nightly life, captive elephants fail to recover and discover their true self. When decisions are made for them, processed diets provided, or routines imposed which contradict their natural inclinations, elephants fail to blossom to their full potential. When they are allowed to make their own decisions, ones integral to their basic needs—food, water, friends and companions and activities—they build confidence, reduce stress and strengthen their immune system. This results in an ability to recover more easily from past trauma and to remain healthy. Decisions may be as sublime as when to take a drink and from what water source, when to nap, where and with whom, or what area of the habitat to explore. What is critical is that all of those decisions are made without human intervention. Not only do elephants heal rapidly in such an environment, most aggressive elephants do not feel the need to act out when they have the freedom of choice. Our elephants Who are our elephants? Tarra, our first resident, was the inspiration for the Sanctuary and moved in the day we purchased the land. Barbara was homeless when she came to us. She had been rejected by two breeding facilities and was living alone in her owner’s backyard. Jenny was next, crippled and living outside the jurisdiction of any regulatory agency that could protect her. It took us 16 months to get Jenny released to the Sanctuary. Shirley was not listed in any record I could find, but there she was, residing in a small zoo in the South. The zoo had kept her alone for 23 years and was overjoyed to learn about us. The zoo made arrangements to have Shirley moved within weeks. Bunny followed three months later. Bunny had spent more than 44 years alone in a small zoo in Indiana. The zoo management supported the move but the community was reluctant to let her go. Bunny’s relocation was a five-year project for us. Bunny proved all the concerned zoo supporters wrong by bonding with all of the resident elephants within hours and leading them to the swimming hole for her first swim in 30 years. Next came Sissy. Sissy was a complete surprise. She was not living alone, and we were not informed that the zoo had any intention of moving her to us. The zoo called us in the wake of a public outcry following the disclosure of a tape showing Sissy being beaten by zoo staff. Six weeks later, Sissy became our sixth resident. Several months later, Winkie, an elephant that captured the media’s attention when she injured a visiting veterinarian, was allowed to retire to the sanctuary. The arrival of these seven elephants was spread out over five years, enabling us to gain knowledge and confidence regarding our specialized work. Over the next five years, our property expanded from 100 to 2,700 acres, three separate multi-acre facilities were carved out of the habitat, two additional barns were built and our elephant population increased by 15. Instead of receiving a solitary elephant with minor physical problems, we were now engaged in multi-elephant rescues, many with serious physical and emotional conditions. In 2003 we rescued two elephants with terminal cases of osteomyelitis: Tina from a zoo in Canada and Delhi from the Hawthorn Corporation in Illinois. Delhi’s rescue was the first time that the USDA had ever confiscated an elephant. In 2004 we received Tange, Zula and Flora, our first African elephants, and Lota and Misty, two tuberculosis-positive elephants from the Hawthorn Corporation. Lota succumbed to her disease fewer than three months following her arrival. In January of 2006 we took custody of eight circus elephants. All had been exposed to tuberculosis.

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Eight of our elephants have documented histories of repeated acts of aggression toward keepers prior to moving to the Sanctuary. In all but two cases, these behaviors ceased after their move to the Sanctuary. All but one of the 22 elephants displayed stereotypical head bobbing and swaying upon arrival. In all cases the stereotypical head bobbing and swaying halted immediately when the individual was engaged in species-typical activities like walking, foraging and interacting with other elephants. Nearly half of the elephants that retreat to the barn for short periods of time at night display the stereotypical head bobbing and swaying while inside. Eighty-two percent of the elephants arrived at the Sanctuary with nail and foot pad problems, some of them life threatening. Foot health directly reflects the degree to which a captive elephant’s habitat is species-appropriate. Diseased feet remain the number one cause of death in adult captive Asian elephants. Without exception, each of our elephants had lived in a restricted space with little or no access to natural substrate. In one especially severe case, records accompanying the elephant indicated a 25-year history of chronic abscesses in every nail. After six months at the sanctuary, this elephant’s nails and pads were completely healed. She has been in residence for eight years and her feet remain healthy with minimal routine foot care. With the exception of osteomyelitis, all foot and nail problems have been remedied in a matter of months. Elephants that arrive with osteomyelitis receive care and treatment but we recognize that they are receiving hospice care as osteomyelitis has not yet been cured in elephants. Seven out of 23 elephants relocated to the sanctuary lived solitary lives prior to their arrival. One individual was solitary for less than a year, but others were solitary for most of their lives— from 20 to 46 years. Without exception, each solitary elephant bonded with another elephant within 24 hours of their arrival at the sanctuary. Within our three herds (17 elephants in total at the time of writing), we have seven primary relationships and two functioning herds. The African herd, our only deficient herd size, has only three members, one of which is the individual identified with PTSD. Following a recent visit to the sanctuary, Katherine Payne, Director of the Elephant Listening Project, stated, “Identical relationships of bonded individuals have been observed in herds of wild elephants. Some of the Sanctuary’s elephants exhibit herd behavior identical to that of their wild counterparts.” Conclusion The Elephant Sanctuary has existed for 13 years, overseen by a staff with 65 years of combined experience in captive elephant management. Aggressive elephants have moved to the sanctuary and their aggression has subsided. Elephants plagued with foot health problems have moved to the sanctuary and their feet have healed. Elephants with stereotypical behavior have come to the sanctuary and over time, their compulsive bobbing and swaying have been replaced with species-typical behaviors. Elephants who have lived their entire captive lives in isolation retire to the Sanctuary and bond with other resident elephants within hours. What we have learned at the sanctuary can be applied to the management of other captive elephants. For those elephants with behavior and physical problems that prevent them from thriving in a traditional exhibit environment, an alternative is available.

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References

Brambell MR. 1973. The requirements of carnivores and ungulates in captivity. In: The welfare and management of wild animals in captivity. Potters Bar, UK: Universities Fed Anim Welf. p. 44-49. Brockman DK, Willis MS, Karesh WB. 1988. Management and husbandry of ruffed lemurs (Varecia varigata) at the San Diego Zoo. 3. Medical considerations and population management. Zoo Biol 7:253-262. Forthman DL. 1998. Toward optimal care for confined ungulates. In: Shepherdson DJ, Mellen JD, Hutchins M, eds. Second nature: environmental enrichment for captive animals. Washington DC and London, UK: Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 236-261. Munson L, Montali RJ. 1990. Pathology and diseases of great apes at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol 9:99-105.

Carol Buckley has over 30 years of experience in the care and management of Asian and African elephants. In 1995, Carol co-founded The Elephant Sanctuary in Tennessee, the nation’s first natural-habitat refuge for sick, old and needy endangered Asian and African elephants. Carol and her staff have built an organization that has rescued 23 elephants and has over 73,000 members. Carol was honored for her innovative work by the 2001 Genesis Awards and as A Hero For The Planet by TIME magazine. She has been the subject of recent features in The Chicago Tribune, People, The New York Times Magazine, and CNN, and has authored two children’s books on elephants. Carol attended the Exotic Animal Training and Management Program at Moorpark College in California, and is licensed by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency. She is a well-known speaker on the subject of elephant care. She may be contacted at P.O. Box 393, Hohenwald, Tennessee, 38462 or at [email protected] or at http://www.elephants.com.

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