ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT CONSTRUCTION PLANNING OF REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING WORKS
1
MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO ESTIMATE HOUSING DEMAND IN TURKEY: MARMARA REGION CASE
4
A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE TOWARDS THE EDUCATION AND MANEGEMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY WITH COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN PROGRAMS
14
THE MODEL FOR DETERMINING THE MARKET VALUE OF OFFICE BUILDINGS IN TIRANA CITY
27
DETERMINATION OF THE RISK FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
36
DATA MODELING FOR DEVELOPMENT THE BIM – BASED AUGMENTED REALITY SYSTEM
44
HOSPITAL SYSTEM VULNERABILITY TO A MODERATE EARTHQUAKE
54
KEY FACTORS AFFECTING PROFIT AMOUNT IN UAE CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
60
KEY FACTORS FOR SUPPLIER SELECTION IN OIL AND GAS PROJECTS
69
CONTRACTOR PREQUALIFICATION AND SELECTION IN TURKISH CONSTRUCTION SECTOR
76
FINANCE OF WORK ACCIDENTS
85
ANALYSES OF PUBLIC PROCUREMENT DISPUTES IN TURKEY
90
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ANALYSES OF AN EDUCATIONAL BUILDING IN THE FIRSTCLIMATIC REGION OF TURKEY
98
HEALTH AND SECURITY IN EDUCATION BUILDINGS
104
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
CONSTRUCTION PLANNING OF REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING WORKS
Nihat Çetinkaya 1
1
Pamukkale University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Denizli, Turkey.
ABSTRACT Repair and strengthening of existing buildings is necessary due to their poor performance in the past earthquakes. These works will be done for the buildings which are in use. So, the time suitable for these works is very strictly limited. For school buildings it is only summer holiday time and there should not be any delay of handing over. Construction planning, work schedule is very important for these kinds of works. Unfortunately, it is observed that the work schedules are used only as an official requirement of the contract document. Because of lack of a well-studied work schedule, the work could not be completed in time, the quality of the work is being reduced to save time and many conflicts are faced between contractor and consultant. On the other hand, many repair and renovation works are being added in these contracts. So the construction planning is becoming more critical. In this study, these problems and solutions are investigated.
Key Words : construction, planning, work schedule, strengthening
1
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION Earthquakes are causing severe damages to the structures in the countries which are in the regions seismically very active [1]. To be able to protect the seismically prone structures they should be repaired/ strengthened as soon as possible. Besides the economic difficulties, the construction stage is very important to decide any repair and strengthening work, since the structures are in use. The construction works should be very well planned. The work should be done with minimum disturbance to the occupants if they have to live in the structure [2]. On the other hand, the completion of the construction work on time, without any delay is very important for many cases, such as schools, hospitals, factories. In addition to the problems faced due to lack of a good construction planning in the ordinary construction project, many others are being faced as the strengthening work is a very special kind of work. MATERIALS AND METHODS Problems Wrong Demolishing works are the problems at the beginning of Repair and Strengthening works. Then, miss the location of the holes for the anchor bars is becoming a problem. Height, diameter and inclination of the holes are another very important problem. Cleaning of the holes from dust, rubbish, dirt, oil etc. is most critical problem of low capacity. Selection of the Adhesive to be used in the holes is also one of the most important problems. Air holes in the adhesive used for fixing the anchor rebar is reducing the capacity. Curing time, pull-out test of anchor rebars. Steel works and Form work according to drawings of the Strengthening works. Pouring of concrete, Curing and removal of forms. Causes and Solutions of Problems Wrong Demolishing works are the problems at the beginning of Repair and Strengthening works. Insufficient demolishing around the structural element to be strengthened are being resulted as difficulties during drilling, fixing, form work etc.. Demolishing larger than required is simply, extra cost of demolishing and reconstruction. The reason of these is to start the work without studying the drawings and not calculating the necessary area for formwork, scaffolding, etc. Then, miss the location of the holes for the anchor rebars is a problem. Unfortunately, this stage is one of the most important stages of this work but it is done by the carpenters, not by qualified Civil Engineers. Civil Engineers should mark the places together with the technicians. Then, inspection of possible existing rebar should be done to finalize the location. Otherwise it is causing loss of time, damage to existing rebars and damage to the drill bit. If there is rebar underneath Engineer should decide the new location. Depth, diameter and inclination of the holes are another very important problem. Insufficient depth and diameter of the holes are directly reducing the anchorage capacity. Mistakes of reading the drawings for the diameter and depth of each anchor hole and ignorance of the quality and poor inspection by the responsible consultant engineer are some of the reasons. Dust, rubbish, dirt, oil etc.in the hole is also a very critical problem causing lower anchorage capacity. Dust and oil are forming a film layer between adhesive and concrete. Rubbish and dirt are acting as a blockage between adhesive and concrete/rebar. The hole should be cleaned very well by compressed air and brush. Selection of the Adhesive to be used in the holes is also one of the most important problems. There are many types of adhesives and many brands for each type in the market. So it is a very important decision to select the adhesive to be used. Air holes in the adhesive used for fixing the anchor rebars is another problem reducing the capacity. Air holes are due to improper placement of the adhesive and anchor rebar into the holes. Adhesive should be filled in to the holes slowly to allow the air to go out. Rebar should also be inserted into the holes slowly and turning. As it can be understand that this work could be done by experienced technicians under the supervision of civil engineer and with the inspection of the Consultant Engineer. Curing time of the adhesives is not well known. So there is too large range from one hour to one week. Actually the curing time should be checked from the manufacturer booklet. After the curing period, before starting to any other work, testing the pull-out load capacity of the anchor rebars is very important to see if the
2
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
work is done properly or not. This testing should be performed by independed certified labs and the records should be kept. Form work and especially Steel works are the potential problems as they are different than ordinary construction practice. They must be done very carefully according to the drawings of the Strengthening works. Formwork construction should also be planned considering the difficulties of pouring concrete inside the buildings. Pouring of concrete may be a very vital stage of the work. This work has to be planned before concreting. Poor vibration and resulting honey-combs and poor concrete quality are the problems faced in this stage. Concrete with high workability or Self compacting concrete should be used. Concreting must be done under the supervision and inspection of site and resident engineer. Curing and time for the removal of forms are also the problems as they are affecting the quality of work and duration of the project [3]. Especially the external strengthening elements are not cured well because of workmanship difficulties. But whatever the cost is a suitable curing must be done for enough duration. RESULTS Mainly, the construction works are not planned before starting the project. The work is not being done under the supervision of qualified Civil Engineers. Additionally, the inspection of the construction works on site is not done properly. In the absence of qualified, expert engineers in strengthening works, the works are being performed by the Foramens and Carpenters. DISCUSSIONS First of all the strengthening construction works could be done only by the Contractors having enough experience and qualified experienced Engineers and staff. Ways of keeping the Engineers of Contractor and the Consultant on the site full time must be founded to be able to get continuous supervision and inspection. Importance of Construction Planning and work scheduling is not understood by Contractors and Site Engineers.
REFERENCES [1] Kaplan, H., Nohutcu, H., Çetinkaya, N., Yılmaz, S., Gönen, H., Atımtay, E., (2009). “Seismic Strengthening of Pin-connected Precast Concrete structures with External Shear Walls and Diaphrams”, PCI Journal, V 54, N 1, 88-99, [2] Kaplan, H., Yılmaz, S., Çetinkaya, N., Atımtay, E., , (2011). “Seismic Strengthening of RC Structures with exterior shear walls”, Sadhana., 36, 17-34 [3] Turkish Standarts Institute, (2000), TS 500-2000-Code for Reinforced Concrete Structures,
3
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO ESTIMATE HOUSING DEMAND IN TURKEY: MARMARA REGION CASE
Halit Fatih Aydın1, A. Metin Ger1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Istanbul Aydin University
ABSTRACT Turkey has been experiencing a transition from an agriculture based society to an industrialized one since 1950’s. The socio-economic changes during this period of industrialization triggered two major issues, namely, unsystematic/disorderly development of urban areas and unrestrained migration to urban areas. These increased housing demand, as well as enhanced the role of the housing sector in national economy. Therefore the realistic estimates of the demand in housing sector is an important issue. There are several models, all regression based, available to estimate the demand. These models lack the flexibility of reflecting probable changes that may be effective in the future. In the model developed, the effect of interaction of the variables and changes in the trends, that is, different scenarios, can be scrutinized.
The model developed is essentially a modified version of FCM. The model, rather than predicting a stable future state of multi-variable network, facilitates the exploration of variation of variables in time. The model is tested using the set of relevant data available for Marmara Region of Turkey, which hosts about 1/3rd of the population and produces over 70% of the GNP. Key Words: Fuzzy Cognitive Map, Network Analysis, Housing
4
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION Housing, meeting the demand of shelter, has been one of the fundemantal issues of survival for the human race. Starting from 19th century and through 20th century, the ever increasing appeal of urban life enhanced the migration of rural to urban areas. This accentuated the housing issue as one of the most prominent and urgent problems of the date. The precise estimation of the demand for housing is therefore a major challenge. There have been several models, all based on regression analysis, made available to date (1,2,3). The predictions of these models are limited to the information embedded in the data available. In other words, these models lack the flexibility of handling different scenarios describing the future. That is, using these models one cannot compare the effect of what ifs of the future. Another drawback of these models is that they all use some econometric parameters which may exclude the effect of some social descriptors of the housing issue. In what follows an alternative approach for the estimation of demand for housing is presented. The approach is different then the available models in two ways. The first difference is that the set of variables include some social indicators. The second difference is the model developed for the estimation of the demand for housing permits incorporation of different scenarios shaping the future. At first a speculative analysis of the set of variables which include several non-econometric descriptors of the housing issue is given. Then, the model developed as an alternative mode of estimation is described in detail. Outputs of the model for number of scenarios are then presented and compared to demonstrate the flexibility of the alternative approach. DESCRIPTION OF THE HOUSING ISSUE: VARIABLES INVOLVED The following set of variables are chosen as descriptors of the housing issue. The set is neither exclusive nor complete. They are chosen for the sake of establishing a basis for the scrutinization of the model. TABLE 1: Variables chosen as descriptors of housing issue VARIABLE
DEFINITION
X1
Number of marriages held in a given year
X2
Number of divorces in a given year
X3
Number of committed suicides in a given year
X4
Size of the agricultural products imported in a given year in billion TL
X5
Size of total imports in a given year in billion TL
X6
Size of total exports in a given year in billion TL
X7
Number of existing schools in a given year
X8
Number of teachers in a given year
X9
Gross National Product per capita
X10
Number of housing in a given year
All the variables in the set, listed in Table 1 above, are included in the TÜİK’s data bank. An analysis based on semi-quantitative scrutiny of the data revealed the following network of relationships among the variables, the descriptors of the housing issue, as depicted in Figure 1, below.
5
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Figure 1. The network of relationships among the variables The links among the variables are directed and directions reflect the direction of causality. The examination of the network reveals the following: 1. Variable X9 has no direct involvement in determining the number of housing in demand, 2. Variables X3 and X5 have no direct effect on another variable. Therefore they do not cause any changes on the dependent variable. 3. Variable X6 does not effect any variable but X5 which has no effect on another variable. Therefore it does not cause any changes on the dependent variable. Thus, variables X3, X5, X6, and X9 are dropped out and the network of relations among the remaining set of relevant variables, listed in TABLE 2, assumes the form depicted in Figure 2. TABLE 2: The List of Variables as Relevant Descriptors of Housing Issue VARIABLE
DEFINITION
X1
Number of marriages held in a given year
X2
Number of divorces in a given year
X4
Size of the agricultural products imported in a given year in billion TL
X7
Number of existing schools in a given year
X8
Number of teachers in a given year
X10
Number of housing in a given year
6
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Figure 2. The final network of relationships among the set of relevant variables It is worth noting that X10, which is the only sink in the network, is the singled out dependent variable and X1, which is the only source in the network, is the singled out independent variable congruent with the objective of the study. The network of relationships among the relevant set of variables as depicted in Figure 2, once the links are assigned a strength value becomes very similar to a FCM (4). Since the objective of this study is to determine a set of plausible expected size of demand of housing in the future, the network is analyzed using the new approach presented below. The new approach, rather than predicting a stable future state of multi-variable network, facilitates the exploration of variation of variables in time. THE MODEL (5) The variation of the variables Xi constituting a network depicted in Figure 3 can be stated as X, = F X ,W, + X , (1) where X , and X , are the values of the variable at time t+1 and t, respectively, and W , is the strength of the link connecting the variables Xi and Xj. The function F, in FCM approach, is known as the threshold function.
Figure 3. Reference network Replacing threshold function by ∆X , one obtains X, = ∆X , + X , where ∆X , is the difference between the values X , Since neither X , X,
,
(2) and X , .
nor ∆X , values are known at time t Equation 2 is implicit. Thus, it can be reformulated as
= ∆X , , + X ,
; l = 1, … , L
(3)
7
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
where ∆X , , =
dX | ∆t dX
(4)
In general X may be dependent on all variables constituting the network such that X = f (X , X , … , X
,…,X )
,X
(5)
where f is the link transfer function. Therefore, dX ∂X | | ∆t ∂X dX
∆X , , =
(6)
which can be reduced to ∂X | ∆X , , ∂X
∆X , , =
(7)
Substituting Equation 7 in Equation 3 one obtains X,
,
=∑
| ∆X , ,
+X,
; l = 1, … , L
(8)
Once the following convergence criterion, Equation 9, is met, /
(∆X , , − ∆X , , the variables X , X,
=X,
,
)
≤ε
(9)
at time t+1 are defined as = ∆X , , + X ,
(10)
where L is the number of iterations required to have convergence criterion met. Assuming that Equation 5 can be reduced to =
∝,
,
(
)
, ,
= 1, …
(11)
where ∝ , is the strength of the link between variables Xi and Xj defined as ∝,=
Cov(X , X ) ∑ Cov(X , X )
(12)
such that ∝, =1
(13)
and
8
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
∝,=0
(14)
Substituting Equation 11 in Equation 7, one obtains ∂f X ∂X | =∝ , | ∂X ∂X
(15)
and ∆X , , =
∂f , X | ∆X , , ∂X
∝,
l = 1, … , L
(16)
Equation 16 can also be written as ∂f , (X ) ∆X ⎡ 0 α, … α ⎡ ⎤ ∂X ⎢ ⎢ ∆X ⎥ ∂f , (X ) ⎢ α , 0 … α ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ∂X ⎢ . ⎥ = … . … ⎢ ⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ α ∂f , (X ) α ∂f , (X ) … ⎢ . ⎥ , ⎢ , ∂X ∂X ⎣ ∆X ⎦ , ⎣
, (X ) ⎤ ∆X ⎤ ∂X ⎥⎡ ⎢ (X ) ∂f , ⎥ ∆X ⎥ ⎥⎢ . ⎥ ∂X ⎢ ⎥ … ⎥⎢ . ⎥ 0⎥ ⎢ . ⎥ ⎥ ⎣ ∆X ⎦ , ⎦
∂f ,
,
(17)
Eqution 17, subject to the convergence criterion – Equation 9, coupled with Equation 10 constitute the model. In other words, if X , values are known , values are determined using Equation 10 once ∆X , , values are obtained as the solution of Equation 16.
For the network defined to simulate the dynamics of housing demand as depicted in Figure 2, Equation 17 is further reduced to
∆ ⎡∆ ⎢ ⎢∆ ⎢∆ ⎢∆ ⎣∆
⎤ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎦,
⎡ ⎢ α ⎢ ⎢ α =⎢ α ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ α ⎢ ⎣ α
1 , (
)
, (
)
0 0
, , , (
)
, (
)
,
α
, , (
,
)
α
0 α
,
)
α
, (
0
0
0
0
0
, (
)
0
, (
)
0
α
0 0
)
,
0
, ,
0 , (
α
, (
0 , (
)
0
,
0
)
,
α
, (
,
)
0 ⎤ 0⎥ ∆ ⎥⎡ 0⎥ ⎢ ∆ ⎥ ⎢∆ 0⎥ ⎢ ∆ ⎥ ⎢∆ 0⎥ ⎣∆ ⎥ 0⎦
⎤ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎦
(18)
,
9
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
RESULTS The model is tested using the set of relevant data available for Marmara Region of Turkey, which hosts about 1/3rd of the population and produces over 70% of the GNP. The available data covering the period of 2003 through 2008 for Marmara Region (6) is normalized with respect to respective maximums of each variable in order to eliminate the effect of probable bias due to differences in the nominal sizes of the variables. Using the normalized values link strengths, α , , link transfer ,
functions, f , X , coefficients of links
entities are determined. They are listed in TABLE 3-5.
TABLE 3: Magnitutes of Link Strengths αi,j
j=1
j=2
j=4
j=7
j=8
j=10
i=1
0,000
0,000
0,000
0,000
0,000
0,000
i=2
0,375
0,000
0,280
0,345
0,000
0,000
i=4
0,501
0,000
0,000
0,000
0,499
0,000
i=7
1,000
0,000
0,000
0,000
0,000
0,000
i=8
0,330
0,360
0,000
0,310
0,000
0,000
i=10
0,000
0,508
0,000
0,000
0,492
0,000
TABLE 4: Link Transfer Functions = 0,3747(−0,0178 + 1,1115 − 0,012) + 0,2799(−1,9569 + 0,3453(0,404 + 0,741 − 0,0388) = 0,5013(0,8577
= 1(−0,3184
− 0,0095
+ 1,2216
) + 0,4986(0,8348
− 0,0077
) + 0,2799(2,8593
)
)
+ 0,048)
= 0,3296(−0,1194 + 1,1052 + 0,0095) + 0,3601(−0,4668 ) + 0,3601(1,353 + 0,0065) + 0,3102(0,2869 − 0,0213) = 0,50806 0,7568
,
+ 0,4919(−0,3471
+ 0,9594
)
+0,4919(0,0572)
10
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
TABLE 5: Coefficients of Links ∂f , X ∂X
i=1
i=2
i=4
i=7
i=8
i=10
j=1
-
-
-
-
-
-
j=2
1,11 − 0,03
-
2,85 − 3,91
0,80
j=4
1,71
-
-
-
1,66
j=7
1,22 − 0,63
-
-
-
-
-
j=8
1,10 − 0,23
1,35 − 0,93
-
0,57
-
-
j=10
-
0,4734
-
-
-
− 0,01
,
+ 0,74
+ 0,77
-
− 0,007
0,95 − 0,69
-
-
After the substitution of the values given in TABLES 3-5 reflecting the dynamics of housing issue of Marmara Region within the limits of assumptions made Equation 18 becomes ⎡∆ ⎢∆ ⎢ ⎢∆ ⎢∆ ⎢∆ ⎣∆
⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎥ ⎢0,37(1,11 − 0,03 ) 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0,5(1,71 − 0,01) = ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎢ 1(1,22 − 0,63 ) ⎥ 0,36(1,35 − 0,93 ⎥ ⎢0,32(1,10 − 0,23 ) , ⎦, ⎣ 0,5 0,4734 0
0⎤ 0⎥⎥ 0,49(1,66 − 0,007) 0⎥ 0 0⎥ 0 0⎥ 0,49(0,95 − 0,69 ) 0⎦ 0 0
⎡∆ ⎢∆ ⎢ ⎢∆ ⎢∆ ⎢∆ ⎣∆
⎤ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎦
0 0,27(2,85 − 3,91 0 0 ) 0 0
0 ) 0,50(0,80 + 0,74) 0 0 0,31(0,57 + 0,77) 0
(19)
,
To demonstrate the flexibility of the model in handling scenarios shaping the future six scenarios, shown in Figure 4, are used. The expected yearly increase in the number of marriages in any given year, ΔX1, is used in constructing the scenarios.
11
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
0,007 0,006 0,005
SCENARIO 1
0,004
SCENARIO 2
0,003
SCENARIO 3
0,002
SCENARIO 4
0,001
SCENARIO 5 2017-2018
2016-2017
2015-2016
2014-2015
2013-2014
2012-2013
2011-2012
2010-2011
2009-2010
0 2008-2009
YEARLY RELATIVE CHANGE IN NUMBER OF MARRIAGES
SCENARIOS
SCENARIO 6
Figure 4. Scenarios Expected variations of housing as predicted by the model, that is Equation 19 subject to the convergence criterion (Equation 9) coupled with Equation 10, for each of the scenarios are depicted in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Comparison of Predictions of the Model for the Scenarios
12
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
CONCLUSION The model developed is essentially a modified version of FCM. The proposed approach facilitates the exploration of variation in time of variables constituting the network. Modified FCM method developed is implemented to housing demand in Marmara Region in order to demonstrate the viability and utility of the modifications made to FCM method. As demonstrated, the modifications made to FCM method makes it possible to carry out a comparative analysis of a multi-variable field subject to different scenarios.
REFERENCES
[1] ÖZTÜRK
Nurettin, Türkiye’de Konut Piyasasının Belirleyicieri: Amprik Bir; Uygulama, Zonguldak Karaelmas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Surfaces 5.10 (2009) 23 Kasım 2011 [2] http://www.huduser.org/portal/publications/econdev/mkt_analysis.html
[3] DCLG “Estimating Housing Need”, Department of Communities and Local Governmen UK, 2010 [4] Stylios Chrysostomos D. and Groumpos Peter P., Mathematical Formulation of Fuzzy Cognitive Maps, Proceedings of the 7th Mediterranean Conference on Control and Automation (MED99) Haifa, Israel - June 28-30, 1999 [5] AYDIN H. Fatih, Türkiye Konut Sektörünün Matematiksel Modellenmesi, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, T.C. İstanbul Kültür University, July 2012 [6] TUIK Data Base
13
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE TOWARDS THE EDUCATION AND MANEGEMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY WITH COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN PROGRAMS
Mustafa ALTIN1
[email protected]
1
Selcuk University Higher School of Vocational and Technical Sciences, Konya, Turkey
ABSTRACT In this study, a work programmed with three phases were prepared for education based on computer-aided design (CAD) and Virtual Reality (VR) given to candidate people for working in construction engineering, architecture, construction sector and as construction technicians. Evaluations belonging to these independent applications were made. Instead of carrying out studies that are not economical in terms of time and financial, the necessity for using CAD programs whose accuracy rate are high was given comparatively with experimental studies. That all the candidates for working in construction sector need to have a great education and these individuals utilize from today’s computer technologies in their education are seen to be important in terms of fulfilling more accurate works in the sector and using time efficiently.
KEYWORDS: Computer-aided Design (CAD), Virtual Reality (VR), Engineering education, 3D models, Construction Management.
14
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
1. INTRODUCTION The education is a must because of scientific and technological improvements stemming from the desire for improving life standards. This desire and technological and scientific changes give way to using different methods and techniques in education. As in the developed countries, Computer-aided Education is being used increasingly in our country. The method for Computer-aided Education is frequently being used in order to determine the differences of success in academic researches carrying out surveys and works on different experiment groups [1]. Information technology in 21st century is an obvious and untapped source for construction engineering and technology classrooms. Because today’s students are associated with the desire for the interactivity mouse and keyboard, engaging method learning is seen to be important in classrooms. Nowadays, construction industry is getting more and more complex because project sizes are increasing but its duration is decreasing. What is more, designers are making more complex designs whose drawings cannot be understood with 2D drawings [2]. Teaching subjects about civil construction has new perspectives using virtual reality techniques in the development of educational applications. The research needed the geometric modeling and virtual reality techniques to get models simulating visually the construction process of two types of construction work [3]. About education validity, an engineering school needs updating computational resources frequently used in professions. The application of virtual reality (VR) technology as a complement to three-dimensional (3D) modeling enables better communication in vocational training, education or in professional practice. In the development of models about construction process, 3D modeling and VR techniques were used. The 3D models for supporting rehabilitation design are really important tools for controlling structure anomalies and helping decisions about visual analyses of alternative sources [4]. In making optimal decisions and designing complex construction operations, simulation modeling and visualization are essential when the traditional methods are ineffective and inapplicable [5]. On time schedule of construction activities in each case and technical drawings of the project, a construction building has been conventionally supported. With the application to construction planning, a prototype based on virtual reality (VR) technology was applied. This model can present the project as 3D connected to construction planning schedule, being essential in controlling construction activity development related to construction planning. [6] Before the construction of the building, using construction simulation through computers is essential. [7] Computer visualization usage can involve process of a product from initial concepts to final stages and extend the issue of maintenance in architecture, engineering and construction industries. From hand drawn sketches in first phases of designing, three-dimensional walkthroughs can be formed. 3D models can be utilized by design teams in order to communicate design intent to client and users in order to compare and make an evaluation of design options [8]. In the earthquakes occurred in all over the world, damages exist and as a result of these damages, thousands of people die. Harms of million dollars occur and the most important one is that people face physiological problems which will not heal for years. Getting rid of destructive effects of earthquakes and constructing less damaged buildings are possible. Developed countries have succeeded especially in minimizing these damages. (Because of legal gaps, not having regulations or having deficient regulations in developing countries, they are frustrated after earthquakes. Being protected from earthquake damages and constructing safe buildings can be enabled by removing the insufficiencies in education of construction engineering and architecture. In the education of engineering, applied education needs to be given equivalently as well as theoretical education. When the curriculums of departments in Turkey with regards to the education of construction engineering are examined, theoretical education is always seen to be more important than applied one. It is considered that the effects of earthquakes can be decreased by making more experimental studies and enabling students to have better education. In order to make more applications, great difficulties are faced in terms of both time and economical. On the other hand, not only engineers but also professions such as doctors, teachers, lawyers, accountants and those who started working as laborers in constructions before and then as subcontractors and those named as builder contractors offer construction engineering services. Any exact impeding law telling that they cannot be contractors does not exist. For instance, the residences constructed by a literature teacher collapsed in the earthquake in Izmit and he was charged for the death of 195 people and sentenced [9].
15
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Buildings and structures in Turkey have recently failed or damaged because of their own weight or any other load. The utmost important failure was in Konya when nine-story Zumrut Apartment collapsed on February 2nd, 2004 and 92 people were dead [10]. In this study, education and construction management based on CAD and Virtual Reality (VR) programs and given to candidates for working in construction engineering, architecture, construction sector and as construction technicians and also their results are examined. 2. MATERIAL AND METHOD In this study, three-phased study was prepared and independent evaluations belonging to these applications were made. In these studies, AutoCAD 2010, Autodesk3DS Max 2009, ANSYS Ver. 13, SAP2000 Ver. 15 programs from package programs of computer-aided design (CAD) used commonly in our country and in the world were used and visual files were prepared. 2.1. Brick walling forms, one of the most important elements forming masonry wall, experiment results done about masonry wall and making comparison based on CAD: Masonry walls constitute about 60% of world construction stock in especially undeveloped countries. More than 50% of construction stock in our country was constructed as masonry constructions and this is continuing. Basic bearing elements of masonry constructions have become generally bricks and brick walls are constructed with different knitting types. The difference of knitting types causes their load that can be carried to decrease and increase. In the experimental studies [12, 13], these differences were put forward. The data obtained during the experiment were compared with the results obtained in the programs based on CAD and above 90% the same results were obtained. By telling students about both experimental study and the study based on CAD in lessons, an important deficiency in more earthquake resistant building design is considered to be overcome. In Figure 1 and 2, two different knitting types and knitting rules commonly used are indicated. In Figure 3 loading form of the experiment samples and in Figure 4, the beginning of experiment, image during experiment and image at the end of experiment exist [12, 13].
Fig 1 Cross Knitting
Fig. 2 Lock Knitting
Fig. 3 Loading Form of the Experiment Samples
16
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Fig. 4 The beginning of experiment, image during experiment and image at the end of experiment exist In this study with regards to brick knitting types and pressure resistance, ANSYS programmer as CAD programmer was used and data were obtained. Data obtained and data obtained from the result of experimental study were compared. That the results obtained with CAD based programs without carrying out experimental studies were found to be meaningful as about 90% makes think this will set an example for other studies [12, 13]. In Figure 5, suture-brick combination modeling acceptance, in Figure 5 image about stress distribution from ANSYS programmer, in Figure 7 shear resistance-displacement graphic and in Figure 8 comparison of experimental and analytical study are seen.
Fig. 5 Mortar-brick joint interface modeling
Fig. 6 Principal Stress distributions for specimen type 1 Experimental Analitical
180
60000
160 140 120
40000 Load
F (kn/mm2)
50000
30000 20000
100 80 60 40
10000
20
0 0
0,5
1
1,5
2
d (mm)
Fig. 7 The shear resistance-displacement comparison for specimen type 3
2,5
H K D
0 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Displacement
Fig. 8 Load versus displacement
graphics
2.2. The comparison of experimental frame system made against earthquake forces and the results of CAD programmer with experimental results:
17
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
As known, our country places on one of the most active seismic belts. As many destructive earthquakes occurred in our country in the past, it is a fact that we will have great loss of life and properties with frequent future earthquakes. According to seismic zone map, it is known that 92% of our country is in seismic zones, 95% of our population live under earthquake risk, and 98% of big industry centers and 93% of our dams are in seismic zones. In the earthquakes occurred in the last 58 years, 58.202 citizens died, 122.096 people were injured and about 411.465 buildings collapsed or were severely damaged. As a result, it can be said that averagely 1.003 citizens died and 7.094 buildings collapsed in earthquakes each year [14]. In transferring earthquake phenomenon and principles of earthquake-resistance construction design to all the individuals receiving education, experimental studies have a great place. Today’s constructions engineering calculations and analyses, CAD based software about preparing drawing sheet are well-developed and they can quickly give results. The most important ones of these used commonly in our country and in the world are SAP2000, AutoCAD, Etabs, IdeCAD, Probina and Sta4CAD. Comparing experiment results via CAD based programs is inevitable without beginning the experiment process. Carrying out experimental studies in forming regulations and deciding regulations by examining the results are also indispensable. However, it is not possible that individuals who will receive education and implementers follow these experiments continuously and analyze the results. When the data obtained from earthquakes are evaluated, the biggest reasons of damages stem from implementers’ errors not the regulations. Giving certainly virtual education in the situations where applied education is not given and giving applied education as well as theoretical education in implementers’ education saves us from loss of time and intensive efforts. The most important contribution of these educations will be undoubtedly in applications. In the thesis study prepared by Ulku Sultan Yılmaz, samples were prepared in order to determine errors commonly seen in available reinforced concrete constructions in our country and to learn pressure breakage of columns with scaled of 1/3. Two reinforced concrete frameworks were prepared that are insufficient for seismic resistance, not ductile, two-spanned two-storeyed frames having similar. . One-way reinforced concrete outside shear wall was added to available same two reinforced concrete frameworks. Behaviors of reinforced system under reversible-repeatable horizontal load simulating earthquake effect were experimentally examined. Experimental data obtained were evaluated. Analytic studies were made on same experiment mechanisms and their pushover analyses were made on SAP2000 programmer by using real material strength of experiment elements. Suggestions were made comparing the results of experimental studies and analytic studies [18]. When compared the results of experimental studies and analytic studies, it was stated that same results were reached at the rates of 80% and 95%. It is important that desired results were reached at the accuracy rates of 80% and 95% by using Computer-aided Design (CAD) without making experimental studies. Studies and evaluation graphics made during doctorate studies are given below stage by stage. In figure 9, the preparation of experimental mechanism and in figure 10, the form of preparation of experimental mechanism based CAD is given. Figure 11 the image of experiment study phase and the end of experiment. Moment-curvature graphic of S101 column obtained as a result of experiment is given in figure 12. The figure belonging to analytic studies is given in figure 13. In figure 14, graphic outputs belonging to analytic studies and in figure 15, the comparison of graphic results of experimental study and analytic studies are given.
18
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Fig. 9 The phases of preparing of experiment mechanism
Fig. 10 Preparation of experiment mechanism based on CAD
Fig. 11 The image of experiment study phase and the end of experiment
19
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Fig. 12. Moment-curvature graphic of S101 column obtained as a result of experiment
Fig. 13 Images of analytic study
Fig. 14 The graphic obtained as a result of analytic study
Fig. 15 Results of experimental study and analytic study
2.3. Designing an overpass with CAD and VR technology phase by phase and following its construction phases in its place according to this design. In this study, pedestrians passing to AGM firm centered in Ankara by Konya Metropolitan Municipality were enabled with ramps and stairs as total 155-meter-length overpass, 42-meter-length footbridge piper interval, and prefabricated carcass system. It was prepared as a pedestrian overpass connecting Kultur Park and business centers upon Konya Vatan Street. [16]. In the project being prepared, the necessity of 4D modeling come out because of width, technically and the fact that the place to be constructed is on one of the most important streets of the city. In addition to modeled offerings in AutoCAD 2010 programmer as 2D and 3D projects
20
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
prepared by AGM firm, a work schedule was prepared by using VR modeling techniques and Autodesk 3DS Max 2009 programmer. A common work was carried out with construction firm, Ali Iner Construction Commerce Ltd. Company and all the works were modeled with VR modeling techniques. In modeling, excavations started from footbridge pipers and whole process was prepared as an animation until the usage of footbridge. According to the animations prepared, daily work schedules was prepared considering that traffic is heavy and moving and the work should be finished in a short time. Because the system used in the footbridge is different and there are differences in width crossing, the need of preparation of special steel molds has come out. Projects were prepared by using 3D modeling techniques with millimetric error margin in order molds to be faultless and according to the projects, molds were formed. Via VR modeling, the phase of construction of work was continuously followed and work was completed according to work schedule determined. With regards to all processes done from begging phase of project of work, VR modeling prepared, videos and photographs of work construction phases, work programs were used as materials for the individuals who will work in construction engineering and construction technologies. That students see the phases of animation and applications together gives idea about the way in a new different project and materials prepared visually are observed to be more permanent [17]. In Figure 16, there are 3D modeling images prepared by the firm in the offering phase.
Fig. 16 3D modeling images offered of overpass construction In the study, because of the reasons such as the project was made with posttensioning system that was started to be applied newly, the width of overpass is much, the width crossings of the overpass are erratic, the place where the overpass will be made has the most heavy traffic among Konya center streets, construction of the overpass needs to be completed quickly. Thus, three-phased construction was made and durations in each phase were arranged. In the construction phase, these durations were paid attention. In Figure 17, there are threephased plan prepared and its appearances.
21
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Fig. 17 Plan, appearances, phases of overpass construction
Usage of different crossings in the overpass construction emphasizes works of mold and framework creating the utmost cost in rough construction works. Considering a possible error in mold labor and frame system cost much, the system was formed with the acceptance as millimetric error rate in the project prepared and details. In Figure 18, crossings and details belonging to the overpass in its construction exist.
Fig. 18 Crossing and system details prepared for the overpass
VR modeling pictures prepared belonging to overpass construction and images in construction phase were given comparatively in Figure 19. Both modeling animations and all the pictures and images in the construction phase were transferred to the students as course material. Thus, this enabled students to understand the lesson completely. By showing animations again and again, possible questions were totally answered
22
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
a.
The phase of digging the foundation of the overpass, the image of digging the foundation of the overpass.
b.
The phase of placing formwork and reinforcement, the phase of animation of formwork and reinforcement
c.
The phase of scaffold erection, the phase of animation of scaffold,
23
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
d.
The phase of finishing the overpass, The phase of animation of finishing the overpass
Fig. 19 Overpass construction and VR modeling phases
CONCLUSIONS Absolutely giving education to those who desire to work in both education of construction engineering and construction sector and not working those who do not have certificate should be a must. Despite existing in our laws, uneducated people construct our constructions because of the deficiencies in supervision and so these buildings cause big problems as damaged. Vocational education includes deep and noteworthy matters. It is always not possible to do an experimental study. Nowadays, Computer-aided Design Programs (CAD) gives the same results as experimental studies as 90% or 98%. Instead of carrying out serious experimental studies, subjects of vocational education and the problems that might be faced in application can be easily expressed with the programs based on CAD programs. 3D modeling techniques are commonly used in architecture, engineering and applications. Economical solutions are put forward by doing accurate works in terms of both time and economy. Educating students and watching information about projects that they can confront in real life after graduation accurately and visually are more permanent. In experimental study, these studies done Computer-aided Design Programs (CAD) and VR modeling techniques, Technical knowledge and informative aspects were included in the model and it was worked out. Therefore, this indicates that the model is going to be utilized by associate students of Construction Technology so the model the model can have an important place in supporting teachers about illustrating footbridge construction using PCs. It is observed that students can learn the subjects accurately in a short time. Error margins of personnel of the firm applying overpass construction and official institute authorities were minimized. Using and preparing different visuals in different subjects, watching as much as wanted enable great conveniences. In any error in experimental study, redoing the study causes losses in terms of both economy and time. The importance of usage of computer-aided design techniques, giving education and students’ starting to use design techniques come out. Natural catastrophes like earthquakes are one of the biggest problems in the world. Thus, it is essential that all the individuals working in construction sector should receive great education, they need to construct earthquake-resistant buildings, in accordance with real ones, and accurate knowledge and techniques with visual education should be given more accurate and faster. It is not possible all the
24
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
students who received education involve in various experimental studies but with well-prepared visual education, a good education can be given. Developments in internet usage are considered to be also used in education of students who are candidates for working in construction sector at any time. As a result, instead of studies that are not economic and loss of time, the results of these experimental studies can be obtained using CAD programs whose accuracy is very high. It is crystal-clear fact that all the people who might work in construction sector should receive a great education. In education of these people, using today’s computer technologies very well is considered. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study has been supported by Scientific Research Unit of Selcuk University.
REFERENCES [1] Yilmaz M. F., Yesilyurt M., Odabas A., “Meta-analysis of the computer aided studies in mathematics: A sample of Turkey” Energy Education Science and Technology Part B: Social and Educational Studies, 2013 Volume (issue) 5(2): 739-748 [2] Mohammed E. Haque, n-D Virtual Environment in Construction Education, the 2nd International Conference on Virtual Learning, ICVL 2007, 1-6 [3] Alcinia Z. Sampaio, Pedro G. Henriques, Pedro S. Ferreira, Virtual Reality Models Used in Civil Engineering Education, ACTA pres Anaheim, CA, USA http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1169188 [4] Alcínia Z. Sampaio, Miguel M. Ferreira, Daniel P. Rosário, Octávio P. Martins, 3D and VR models in Civil Engineering education: Construction, rehabilitation and maintenance, Automation in Construction 19 (2010) 819–828 [5] Vineet R., Kamat1 and Julio C. Martinez, “Visualizing Simulated Construction Operations In 3 3d”, Journal of Civil Engineering and Construction Technology Vol. 2(6), pp. 125-137, June 2011, Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/jcect [6] A. Z. Sampaio and J. P. Santos, “Construction Planning Supported in 4D Interactive Virtual Models”, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture Av. Technical University of Lisbon, Rovisco Pais 1049-001, Lisbon – Portugal. [7] Aizhu Ren, Yang Wen, Chi Chen and Jianyong Shi, “Modeling of Irregular Structures for the Construction Simulation in Virtual Reality Environments Based on Web”, Automation in Construction, Volume 13, Issue 5, September 2004, Pages 639–649 [8] Bouchlaghem D., Shang H., Whyte J. and Ganah A., “Visualisation in architecture, engineering and construction (AEC)”, Automation in Construction, Volume 14, Issue 3, June 2005, Pages 287–295 [9] http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_G%C3%B6lc%C3%BCk_depremi [10] Kaltakci, M., Kamanli, M., Ozturk, M., Arslan, M., and Korkmaz, H. “Sudden Complete Collapse of Zumrut Apartment Building and It's Causes”, J. Perform. Constr. Facil. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE) CF.19435509.0000337 [11] Altın M., “Contribution of Computer Aided Design Programs to the Perceptions of the Students of Construction Lessons in Construction Project Drafting and Techniques at Vocational Higher Schools”, International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications 11-13 November, 2010 AntalyaTurkey ISBN: 978 605 364 104 9 [12] Kamanlı M., Döndüren M.S., Çöğürcü M. T., Altn M., “Experimental Study of Some Masonry-wall Coursework Material Types Under Horizontal Loads and Their Comparison”, Materials and Technology, Volume 45, No:1, pp. 3-11, Jan. Feb. 2011, Slovanıja, ISSN: 1580-2949
25
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
[13] Kamanli M., Döndüren M.S., Çöğürcü M. T., Altin M., “Modeling and Experimental Behavior of Walls Produced by Different Knitting”, Material Testing in Civil Engineering, Volume 53, pp. 376-381, 6/2011, ISSN: 0025-5300. [14] http://www.deprem.gov.tr/sarbis/Deprem/DepremNedir.aspx#KONU2 [15] Kaltakci M. Y., Arslan M.H., Yılmaz U.S., Arslan H. D., ”A new approach on the strengthening of primary school buildings in Turkey: An application of external shear wall”, Building and Environment 43 (2008) 983–990. [16] http://www.agm.com.tr/06_01_page1.html [17] Altin M., Tasdemir S., “Design and Construction of an Overpass with Computer-Aided Design Software and its Use in Construction Technology Education”, Academic Journal of Science, CD-ROM. ISSN: 2165-6282: 1(2):15–20 (2012). [18] Yilmaz U. S., “Strengthening Non-Ductile Reinforced Concrete Frames By Columns Failure In Compression By Appending External Shear Wall”, Selcuk University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of Civil Engineering, Ph.D. Thesis, (2007).
26
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
THE MODEL FOR DETERMINING THE MARKET VALUE OF OFFICE BUILDINGS IN TIRANA CITY
Ph.D. Eng. Elfrida Shehu1, Ph.D. Eng. Igli Kondi1, Ph.D. Eng. Julian Kasharaj1
[email protected];
[email protected];
[email protected]
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Civil Engineering Faculty, Polytechnic University of Tirana
ABSTRACT Commercial properties represent the second biggest group of real estate in Tirana City after residential ones. As an important part of the real estate market there is a need for the evaluation of these buildings for different purposes. The main basis of evaluation of real estate is the market value. Market value is function of market conditions and the conditions of the property itself. Individual properties can be viewed as consisting of a bundle of attributes, some related to the physical features of the dwelling, such as its size and facilities, others related to the location both in terms of regional position and in terms of access to local facilities, and a third group related to the building design. This paper attempts to present a model for determining the market value, based on the property characteristics. The model is built using hedonic methodology, which is extensively applied for explaining price or rental price variations of the real property. The paper tests the results provided by using the model that is proposed with the results provided by professional appraisers and gives the appropriate recommendations. Keywords: commercial property, hedonic price, regression analysis
27
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION Real estate is most commonly defined as land and any improvements made to or on the land, including fixed structures and infrastructure components. The need for evaluation of the real estate in Albania was born when the country embraced the path towards the open market economy and when the real estate was turn into a commodity. The final result of the process of real estate valuation is the determination of the value. The type of value is determined by the purpose for which the evaluation is requaired, while the aim of valuation depends on customer requirements. During the last 20 years, apart from birth, configuration and empowering the real estate market, there has increased also the range of purposes for which the assessments are carried out. People need property valuation mainly for purpose of selling and buying, mortgage purposes, finance reporting, compensation, etc. The most required kind of value and the main basis of evaluation of property is the market value. Market value is the estimated amount for which a property should exchange on the date of valuation between a willing buyer and a willing seller in an arm’s-length transaction after proper marketing wherein the parties had each acted knowledgeably, prudently and without compulsion [1] [2]. There are also known acceptable differences in values reported by different estimates for the same property at a given moment of time and for the same purpose of valuation, precisely because each appraiser has its "space" and its own way of analysis and interpretations. This "space" is due to the fact that we base our valuations on International and European Standards of Valuation that provide standards to be applied and the methods to be used in the valuation, but say nothing about methodologies. Evaluation is the art of giving a judgment on the value that a real estate would have if it would be part of the market. Market produces prices, but each property possesses a unique set of features, such that the evaluation process should be analyzing and interpreting other transactions conducted under the optics of market characteristics that each property has. This paper defines the model of inclusion of the property characteristics in the process of determining the market value of the commercial properties in the actual conditions of the property market in Albania, in order to narrow the differences. MATERIALS AND METHODS Commercial properties and method of valuation Property as an investment is attractive because it offers long-term capital appreciation and a hedge against inflation. In total stock of properties (even in Albania), residential properties make up the largest group, followed by commercial properties (Fig 1). Offices, shops and industrial premises are part of commercial properties. The commercial properties are considered as one of the main areas of investment; the ownership interest is separated from the occupation interest [3]. The Investment Method of Valuation is used for evaluation of commercial properties. This method is based on the principle that annual value and the capital value are related to each other, and that given the income a property produces, or its annual value, the capital value can be found [3]. The market value of a property (the capital value) is function of market conditions, locations and terms of the property itself. Different properties have different values, because every property has its own qualities and characteristics. The market value of a property is variable in time because it depends on the supply-demand ratio for that type of property in a certain moment of time. Hence, in a certain moment of time, the income resulting from a property in the form of rent, depends on market conditions and on the characteristics of the property. Here we are interested about the dependence from the characteristics of the property. Which are these characteristics and how they influence the value? Baum suggested components defining the quality of a building: configuration (plan layout, floor to ceiling height); internal specification (services and finishes); external appearance (exterior and common parts); durability of materials (resistance to external and internal deterioration) [4] [5]. The property characteristics that affect its market value as perceived by the stakeholders in Albania, besides of location are: configuration, internal specifications, parking spaces, exterior specifications, physical depreciation [6]. So the location,
28
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
configuration, internal specification, parking spaces, exterior specification and physical depreciation are the property characteristics used to build a model for determining the value. The market value of a property (the capital value) is a function of market conditions, locations and terms of the property itself. Different properties have different values, because every property has its own qualities and characteristics. The market value of a property is variable in time because it depends on the supply-demand ratio for that type of property in a certain moment of time. Thus, in a certain moment of time the income resulting from a property in the form of rent depends on market conditions and on the characteristics of the property. Here we are interested about the dependence from the characteristics of the property. Which are these characteristics and how they influence the value? Hedonic Price Model The heterogeneous nature of real estate properties justifies the use of the Hedonic Price Model for estimating their value. The Hedonic Price Model takes into account the properties of real estate separately and estimates prices based on the assumption that these properties could be separated into characteristics as attributes of spatial unit, location attributes, quality of design and architecture, etc. Regression analysis and related estimation approaches are common in Hedonic Price Models [7]. The model of multiple linear regression is well known and widely used in the valuation of real estate. The regression model is presented as an equation, with the dependent variable on the left-hand-side of equal sign, and a sum of terms on the right-hand-side consisting of the explanatory variables each multiplied by a parameter whose value is estimated by hedonic regression and that relates each explanatory variable to the dependent variable. [8] This model identifies the degree of importance of each variable, indicates the relative importance of each variable in the order of entry into the equation and shows how well the model works [9]. The model of multiple linear regression is: =
+
∗
+ ⋯+
∗
where: y is the dependent variable ( rent) ; x1... xn are n independent variables (locations, property characteristics); b0 is constant b1… bn are the value rating for the independent variables. The model has to be understandable and explainable and it should predict rent value as close as possible market prices. Accuracy of the model depends on both the variables included in the model replicating market value and the market data used for calibrating the model. The data sample The data includes 12 office buildings (Fig. 1), involving the office areas of 80 to 200 square meters and monthly rental rates of approximately 12 Eur to 22 Eur per square meter. These are the main and the most important Business Centers in Tirana City The data was obtained by carrying out a survey among the current users of the rental office space and are summarized in Table1. A group of 14 office evaluated recently by professional valuers is used to test the results provided by using the model that is proposed. Data preparation Location and property characteristics cannot be evaluated quantitatively, but only qualitatively. Location is evaluated based on the perceptions of appraisers on its importance, the significance of the road where the property is situated, accessibility, the connecting with the center and main roads, etc. Property characteristics are valuated based on physical inspections. They were assessed using the scoring system. Thus 5 = very good, 4 = good, 3 = fair, 2 = bad and 1 = very bad. The quality for each of the characteristics is evaluated by taking into consideration not only the actual conditions, but and the expectations of stakeholders.
29
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
The model for determining the rent as function of property characteristics and location is: =
+
∗
+
∗
+
∗
+
∗
+
∗
+
∗
∗
+
∗
+
∗ +
where: R is Rental Value C is Configuartion IS is Internal Specifications PS is Parking Spaces ES is External Specifications PD is Physical Depreciation L is Location Including the surface area as characteristic, the model is; =
+
∗
+
∗
+
∗
+
∗
where SA is Surface Area The goodness of fit of the model should be evaluated by some statistical tests Coefficient of determination ( R2) This is the proportion of variation of rent value explained by the regression model. The values of R2 range from 0 to 1. Small values indicate that the model does not fit the data well. On the other side, when the R2 equals 1, all variation in values are explained by the regression equation. F-statistic The F-statistic is used to test whether or not individual regression variables are significant in predicting the dependent variable, rent value. In general, an F-statistic of 4.0 or larger indicates that a variable is significant in predicting rent value at 95 % confidence level. Critical probability (p-value) It is the measure of the probability that the result is "worse" than actual outcome (renting with deviations larger than those observed) If Pkr < α , hypothesis is rejected and if Pkr > α hypothesis is accepted. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Using data from table 1 and using regressive analysis, we get the following results. The equation that gives the relationship between rental values, location and property characteristics is:
− . − .
+ . ∗
∗
+
.
∗
+ . (1)
∗
++
.
∗
+ .
∗
By examining the data resulting from the linear regression (Fig. 2), the coefficient of determination R2 = 0.99, indicating that the equation explains 99 % of the distribution of observations. The equation obtained is valid, statistical probability F = 6.35233E-05 < 0,05. An explanation of the factors affecting the rent is sufficiently satisfactory. All the variables have the expected signs, and the linear form of the equation means that the individual coefficients can be interpreted as showing the contribution of a one-unit increase in the level of the to the overall price [10].
30
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
The equation that gives the relationship between rental values, location, surface area and property characteristics is: =− . + .
+ . ∗ −
∗ .
+ . ∗
∗ + (2)
.
∗
+ .
∗
+ .
∗
Configuration
Internal specifications
Parking space
External Specifications
Physical depreciation
Location
Surface area sqm)
ETC ABA Volswagen Tirana Tower GKAM VEVE Twin Tower Drini Tower Gjergji Center AK EGT Tower Sky Tower
RENT (Eur/sqm month)
Property
per
(
By examining the data resulting from the linear regression (Fig. 3), the coefficient of determination R2 = 0.99, indicating that the equation explains 99 % of the distribution of observations. The equation obtained is valid, statistical probability F = 0.00052 < 0,05. An explanation of the factors affecting the rent is sufficiently satisfactory. The coefficient before Surface Area is so small that can be overlooked. The estimated equation (1) is then used to derive property valuations for the 14 properties in our survey by means of information extracted from valuation reports for mortgage purpose. The hedonic and professional valuations are compared in Table 2. As the key to Table 2 shows, the professional valuers have prepared valuation for mortgage purpose and it is known that quick sale value, that is the base of valuation for this aim, is lower than open market value. Excluding case 7 (the property is used as a shop more than an office) and the case 9 (the surface is too small), the average hedonic valuation is 10.2 Eur/sqm and the average professional valuation is 9.6 Eur/sqm, approximately 6 %. These results are regarded as indicators that the hedonic method provides a promising and cost-effective way of valuing residential properties. This is particularly true because the professional valuations are, of course, not necessarily accurate. On the other hand, the use of a model for determining the market value, based on the property characteristics, is a good way to bridge differences in values reported by different evaluators for the same property, as it "limit" their freedom only in assessing characteristics, while the participation of any characteristic is unified. The model provides the user with an average, expected value for an office premise. It should not be thought that we are suggesting that everyone can, with the aid of statistical techniques, provide as good a valuation of properties as can professional valuers with many years' experience, mean while the price at which a property finally changes hands depends on the degree of interest potential buyers show in it. TABLES AND FIGURES Table. 1 Evaluation of property characteristics
20 20 10 10 15 14 22 14 12 13 13 15
4 4 3 3 4 3 4 3 3 4 4 4
4 5 3 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3
3 4 4 1 3 1 3 3 2 3 2 3
5 5 3 3 5 3 5 4 5 5 4 4
2 1 3 3 2 3 1 2 2 2 3 2
2 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 2
200 150 80 200 180 100 185 160 145 200 150 170
31
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table. 2 Comparing the estimated rent and valuated rent Surface Area PROPERTY ( Eur/sqm per month) Estimated Rent 1 141.3 9.5
Valuated Rent 9.5
2
180
10.1
7.5
3
145
8.83
8.1
4
184
6.1
5.6
5
190
19.1
10
6
220.8
11.6
12
7
459
13.8
20
8
102.77
6.1
6.9
24
1.5
7
18.1
13.4
8.7
160.1
8.2
7.5
198
13.8
10.3
13
330.8
12.1
13.4
14
256
8.7
8.2
9 10 11 12
Banesa Ndertesa tregtare Ndertesa Industriale Hotele Te tjera
Fig. 1 Distribution ( %) of properties by types ( Source INSTAT)
32
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
SUMMARY OUTPUT Regression Statistics Multiple R
0.995377
R Square
0.990775
Adjusted R Square
0.979705
Standard Error
0.55619
Observations
12
ANOVA df
SS
MS
F
Significance F
Regression
6
166.1199
27.68665525
89.50030953
6.35233E-05
Residual
5
1.546735
0.309347033
Total
11 Coefficients
167.6667 Standard Error
t Stat
P-value
Intercept
-17.4854
4.241989
-4.121985086
0.009156184
Configuration Internal specification
3.928406
0.450576
8.718633357
0.000328637
2.228538
0.392372
5.679656987
0.002356575
Parking spaces Exterior specification Physical depreciation
1.591813
0.341216
4.665123779
0.005506659
2.129267
0.507915
4.192176711
0.008553817
3.390454
0.863737
3.925330244
0.011122302
Location
-4.70683
0.483242
-9.740108852
0.000193931
Fig. 2 Regression analysis of the model: Rent–characteristics- location
33
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
SUMMARY OUTPUT Regression Statistics Multiple R
0.995902635
R Square
0.991822058
Adjusted R Square
0.977510658
Standard Error
0.585484491
Observations
12
ANOVA df
SS
MS
F
Significance F
Regression
7
166.2954983
23.7565
69.30294
0.000519525
Residual
4
1.371168358
0.342792
Total
11
167.6666667
Coefficients
Standard Error
t Stat
P-value
Intercept
-18.750203
4.802427756
-3.90432
0.0174775
Surface Area
0.005065242
0.007077737
0.715658
0.5137567
Configuration Internal specification Exterior specification
3.794295139
0.509985012
7.440013
0.0017429
2.222338943
0.413129206
5.379283
0.0057714
2.174429904
0.538377896
4.038854
0.0156188
Parking spaces Physical depreciation
1.775522536
0.441486772
4.021689
0.0158422
3.678175646
0.994150195
3.699819
0.0208387
Location
-4.86772959
0.556164158
-8.75233
0.0009392
Fig. 3 Regression analysis of the model: Rent–characteristics – location-surface area
34
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES 1.“European Valuation Standards”, Seventh Edition, TEGoVA, 2012. 2. International Valuation Standards Committee (IVC), 2007. International Valuation Standards. 8th Edition. International Valuation Standards Committee. August London. UK. 3.Millington, A.F., “An introduction to property valuation”, Fifth edition, Estates Gazette, 2000. 4.Baum, A., 1993. “Quality, Depreciation and property performance”, Journal of Real Estate Research, Vol.8 lss:4, fq 541-566 5.Baum, A., Quality and property performance. Journal of Property Valuation and Investment, Vol.12 lss:1,1994, 31-46 fq. 6. Shehu, E., “Study of technical factors influence in the real estate market value”, published PhD thesis , Polytechinic University of Tirana, 2013. 7. Herath, Sh., Maier, G., 2010, “The hedonic price method in real estate and housing market research”. A review of the literature. SRE - Discussion Papers, 2010/03. WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna. http://epub.wu.ac.at/588/ 8. Geltner, Pollakowski, Fisher, Elkin, White, Mc Gill &Wolf (2006), “A Set of Indexes for Trading Commercial Real Estate Based on the Real Capital Analytics Transaction Database”. ( available on https://mitcre.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/MIT-wp-r2.pdf) 9.Nathans, Laura L., Oswald, Frederick L., & Nimon, Kim (2012). Interpreting Multiple Linear Regression: A Guidebook of Variable Importance. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 17(9). Available online: p://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=17&n=9 10. Dodgson, J. S. and Topham, N. (1990) “Valuing residential properties with the hedonic method: A comparison with the results of professional valuations”, Housing Studies, 5: 3, 209 — 213
35
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
DETERMINATION OF THE RISK FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Hande ALADAĞ1
[email protected] 1
Yıldız Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, Division of Construction Management.
ABSTRACT Today construction industry is considered as locomotive of economy in every country because of the direct connection with production of hundreds of product and services, intense use of workforce, and contribution to socio-economic welfare of the countries. In order to cope with challenges such as changing industry and applications, construction companies have to develop parallel management concepts according to the changes in the sector. The success of projects in the construction sector is determined by if the resources are used wisely until the end of building process, or if the project is finished under a certain time, budget, and if it has exceeded quality expectations. In this regard, construction companies that are operating in a highly competitive environment which have lots of uncertainty in it should define related risks in construction projects, do analysis, and take necessary precautions. However, the case that success criteria are changed from the perspective of consumer invalidates the “classic risk management” concept which is based on classic success criterion (time-costquality) that is used on the past as “golden triangle”. Therefore, in order to increase project and company performance and to be able to tell that there is an effective risk management method in the construction industry, numerous new elements should be included in the systematic risk management models in addition to elements that are affecting the time, cost and quality. In this context, a comprehensive literature survey is conducted in order to determine mentioned additional risk factors. As a result of this literature survey, it is observed that in the scope of the models that is developed for the performance measurement, not only time-cost-quality related indicators is evaluated, but also strategic management, organizational quality, environmental and social effects, consumer happiness, employee happiness, communication among stakeholders, transparency, smooth delivery, business performance, health and safety, stakeholder performance, knowledge and analysis, personnel management, resource management, intellectual capital management, business culture and process management etc. are evaluated in both company and project level. Considering every criterion can be evaluated as a risk factor that can affect project and company performance in positive or negative way, determining and evaluating risk factors that can affect project performance in the construction industry constitutes this studies main goal. Key Words: Construction industry, performance management, project success, risk management.
36
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION Concept of risk that is defined as “significant uncertainty” [1] in the most simple way, can be defined as “cumulative effects of uncertain events that affect project goals negatively” [2]; [3] in the construction industry. When it isn’t managed well, concept of risk can be a threat to the company and project success; on the other hand, if it is managed properly, risks can deliver opportunities that bring competitive advantages and profits to the company and project [4]. Therefore, a systematic “risk management” process that consists of identifying and analyzing risk, risk reaction and risk control phases [5] reveal highly possible risks that can cause great financial consequences. “Risk management” process is also helpful for an establishment to determine acceptable/beneficial risks in order to accomplish objectives and have competitive advantages [6]. Risks and uncertainties are more common in construction industry than other industries due to complexity of processes, multipartite structure, nature of environment and organizations [7], [8]. Therefore, since risk is accepted as one of the main elements that affects project success, risk management is seen as a critical success factors in construction industry [9]. In this context, in order to gain advantage and leverage in project management with the effects of increasing profitability of project, satisfying employer and shareholders, using experiences in the past as tool for reducing/increasing risks or opportunities in the future projects, taking precautions in the project application preparations to reach budget-time-quality goals and to increase project and company performance in indirect ways by providing more competitive advantages, achieving more preferability, making correct strategic decisions, construction firms must determine and manage risks. Continual performance measurement must be essential for construction companies in order to keep added-value and employment that are created by construction industry to execute “successful and effective” manufacturing processes and to provide critical feedback that helps continual improvement for future success. Nowadays, the essential question which directs performance measurement studies is not “what is” an organizations performance; it is “how” to provide performance [10]. Herein, considering evolved criteria of success, nonfinancial indicators have to be handled by companies besides financial indicators [11]; [12]; [13]. Because performance measurements that consider only cost and time dimensions, fall short of measuring “correct performance” [10]. When examining literature, it is observed that many researchers focused on quality, time and cost measurements in performance measurement models [14]; [15]; [16]; [17]; [18]. However, considering their possible effects on project success every risk factor that can affect customer satisfaction (product and service), shareholders’ satisfaction, job changes, work performance, accident rate, labor productivity, shareholders’ performance, term of sale, predictability, flexibility, strategic management, organizational qualities, future potentials, communication between shareholders, smooth delivery, health and safety, knowledge management, human resources management, resource management, business culture and process management, even sustainability principles [13]; [15]; [16]; [19]; [20]; [21]; [22]; [23]; [24]; [25] must be considered as a performance indicator. In this regard, construction companies should consider risks related to additional success indicators that will be presented in this study besides indicators about time, cost and quality in order to meet project performance goals. Only this way it can be ensured that there is an effective risk management. MATERIALS AND METHODS Systematic risk management aims that projects to be finished in determined time, budget and quality standards [26]. Similarly, projects that are failed to deliver under the conditions of contract (within determined time-cost quality) are considered as “unsuccessful” at performance perspective. However, today, “success” criteria are changing and classic risk management approaches that focuses only products production time and costs are seen as insufficient among performance evaluating models. In this context a comprehensive literature survey will be conducted in order to determine additional risk factors such as employer relationships, satisfaction of user group, smooth delivery, health and safety, environmental effects etc.
37
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Risk Factors Affecting Performance of Construction Projects Projects in construction industry come up against risks that have different sources and effects. Every project is unique and therefore every project has different risks elements. However, in this study, with a holistic approach it is aimed to determine risks that can affect performance of construction projects. In traditional project success measurements, performance of a construction project in other words project success consists of golden triangle that includes time, budget and quality [27]. In this context risks about quality, time and costs which are frequently seen in construction projects are highly related to project performance evaluation criterion. Main risk factors that affect construction projects performance apart from time cost and quality can be discussed in these topics; Physical conditions: Physical risks include unexpected grounding condition, extreme weather conditions, material and equipment damages. Continual rain may cause changes in working schedule by replacing outdoor works and indoor works. Strong winds may cause changes in structural steel construction program. Low temperatures may change order of processes in the concrete casting. These risks that belong physical environment can cause delays in projects therefore they can be named as time wise risks as well. Despite physical environment is not controllable, risks that are emerged from physical conditions can be identified and therefore construction companies can take precautions in order to decrease effects of these risks. For example, during the pricing stage of an underground construction project, contractor must prepare an allowance for the possible grounding problems that may encounter in the future. Some percentage of risks about the possible unforeseen field conditions or insufficient geological knowledge of the field can be transferred to the employer from the contractor, or by adding a risk premium in costs a defensive attitude can be developed by taking precautions against risk. Force Majeure: Even though their low probability to happen uncontrolled risks like flood, earthquake, fire and etc. are important risk sources with their big effect on project’s time and budget. For these kinds of risk sources, using insurance and transferring risk to the insurance company is an appropriate action. Employee health and safety management: Any accident that cause a bodily injury or any harm because of faulty working systems can affect performance of project in a negative way. Therefore by taking precautions like providing physical protection, enhancing work-sites working conditions, educating personnel etc., must be a necessity to determine relevant risks. Contract management: Contracts that are not prepared correctly can cause risks alone. Furthermore, when they can’t deliver solutions to the conflicts and disagreements in the subject of transfer and distribution of risks, they affect project performance negatively. In contracts, attention must be paid to these subjects; risk bearer must be the appropriate party which can handle that specific risk, risk must not be loaded to the one party using one sided contract language, all the parties must be clearly informed about their risks and responsibilities so the project performance is not negatively affected, a company must not be hold responsible for financial responsibilities above of its financial capacity, and with clear statements it has to be revealed who is the risk bearer and in which extent risk transfers can be done [28]. The effectiveness of a contract relies on the ability about making “clear assignment” of risks among parties. Parties that have not same understanding of risk distribution can manage risks wrongly by sharing wrong responsibilities and consequences. A mismanaged situation can lead relationships to end up in court and can lead project failure by affecting project management negatively with the increase on costs [29]. Project management abilities of companies affects project performance directly. Risk factors within the scope of 9 Project Management Knowledge Areas [30] which is determined by Project Management Institute (PMI) are below:
38
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Time management: Estimations about project completion time or work packages can be exceedingly optimistic. Decision about time estimations and confirmation processes can affect time of delivery and they should be handled as main risk factors with their uncertainties. Cost management: Failure in completing project on budget due to unexpected price increase in workforce and material, unexpected inflation, etc. means that the project doesn’t meet expected performance standards. Quality management: Hidden deficiencies and mistakes in the construction due to bad workmanship, being not suitable for function, dissatisfaction of technical standards about protection of environment and safety, not using quality materials that are stated by contract, being unable to deliver the operating needs, mistakes due to insufficient attention paid during assembly, etc., show that project failed to deliver expected performance standards. Nowadays, with evolving quality management concept, it can be said that processes’ quality is as important as final product quality. Therefore, in the perspective of performance measurement systems, focusing on employee satisfaction and statistical control of processes brings up an important topic [15]. Human resources management: Estimations about workforce are generally optimistic. These estimations are affected by irrepressible work interruptions, transfer of workers to other projects due to limited staff, and uncertainties resulted by incompatibility of efficiency predictions to the job/area. Therefore, to avoid from the risk of failure in construction projects, an efficient human resources management should be performed. Risk management: Risk management is considered as one of the critical success factors by many researchers [31]. Especially in the large and complex projects, when it comes to project success lack of awareness about risk management and lack of informed and experienced employees in the area of risk management are the main risk factors on their own [4]. Integration management: Inadequacy in project integration can lead to project failure. For this reason to execute complex projects, division of the project into smaller and manageable parts, and identification of related risk about these integrated parts must be considered as important success criteria. Supply management: Supply chain management is one of the important aspects of construction projects in order to achieve a satisfactory project performance because of the existence of complex supply chain in construction industry [10]. Therefore, workforce efficiency of selected supplier, qualification and sufficiency of contractor/subcontractor, unit prices etc. must be considered well. For example, instead of distributing the construction job to the subcontractors if one contractor that hasn’t enough technology, workforce and sources handles the construction that means construction project faces an important project risk. Likewise, late delivery of an important supply due to faults on the supply chain can create a risk of late completion in design or construction phases. Communication management: An effective communication between shareholders must be provided in order to ensure project success. For example, lack of communication between mechanical engineering subcontractor’s drawings and suspended roof subcontractor’s drawings that decrease project performance can be counted as one of the typical risks that occurs frequently in the construction industry. Similarly, there can be delays due to lack of harmony even the designs are done by different companies or same problems can occur when there is a lack of communication between contractor and operators on the field. In consequence, risk elements that affect communication management negatively should be eliminated.
Project management abilities that can cause risk outside of project management knowledge areas; Knowledge management: All the project plan and expectations are developed according to knowledge at the initiation phase of the project. Uncertainty in knowledge can create project definition risk, technical management risk, cash flow risk and etc. Similarly incorrect knowledge management leads projects to fail due to insufficient information and knowledge.
39
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Resource management: Resources that are mandatory for a construction project are procured by subcontractors, suppliers and other parts of organization. The risk that corporation resources can’t satisfy project needs or failing to find necessary resources and materials on time and amount can lead project to be unsuccessful.
Strategic decisions of companies can affect project performance as well as corporate performance. Partner and employer selection and project management strategies within the scope of these company strategies affect project performance directly. For instance in accordance with a determined strategic alliance if a merge between companies makes project financing and planning insecure this situation will affect project performance negatively. Environmental factors: International relationships, macro-economic environment, legislation, politic and legal conditions (legal strikes, changes in agreements, changes in government policies), socio-cultural conditions, sectorial conditions (competition among companies, strength of suppliers, strength of employers, demand conditions, recently entered companies) can affect project performance as well as corporate performance. Satisfaction of shareholders: If a project can’t satisfy the needs of end user, project can be described as unsuccessful. Concurrently, in order to mention about project success during and after construction phase, satisfaction of design and application teams as well as employer satisfaction should be ensured [20]. Relationships among project shareholders: The quality of the relationship between project shareholders influences customer satisfaction; hence it leads project success or failure [14]. Especially in the large and complex projects; opportunist and/or non-collaborative attitudes, inequalities in payments, lack of trust and transparency can lead relational risks that cause loss of performance [4]. Therefore risks about project shareholders that might affect project performance should be analyzed well. Project performance and success of shareholders: Performance of shareholders (audit, contractor and design companies, institutions about project management etc.) is an important factor for the success of the project [32]. Therefore every element that reduces shareholders’ performance can be counted as risks that affect project success. RESULTS Considering technological advancements, new management techniques and evolved standards of success in recent years, in order to reach desired performance targets construction firm should pay more attention to the risks that are related to supplier relationships, communication with project shareholders, customer satisfaction, changes in business, performance of shareholders, environmental factors, strategic decisions, contracts, resource management (workforce, material, equipment), integration management, supply management, knowledge management, and etc. instead of risks that only rely on time, budget and quality. In this regard, presented as main titles in this study, risk factors that can affect construction projects’ performance should be uniquely analyzed on the basis of each project. This is the best possible way to ensure that there is an effective risk management that increases construction projects’ success. DISCUSSION In this study, that is conducted with the view of every criterion that affect project performance in a positive or negative way should be considered as risk factors, risk factors that can affect construction projects’ performance are analyzed from a holistic perspective. Presented in this context, risk factors that affect project performance can be used as a base for future studies. Similarly as further studies the main risk factors that are presented in this study can be detailed or studies about determining which risk factors can affect project
40
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
performance considering project type can be conducted. Besides as a next step of this study, risk management models that study interaction of risk factors with each other can be revealed specific to each type of project.
41
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES [1] Uğur, L.O., (2007), “TMB üyesi inşaat firmalarının planlama yapı maliyeti hesaplama ve risk yönetimi yaklaşımları seminer notları”, Türkiye Müteahhitler Birliği. [2] Faber, W., (1979), Protecting giant projects: A study of problems and solutions in the area of risk and insurance, Willis Faber, England, Ipswich, UK. [3] Albayrak, B., (2005), Proje yönetimi, Nobe Yayınları, İstanbul. [4] Lehtiranta, L., (2011), “Relational risk management in construction projects: Modeling the complexity”, Journal of Leadership and Management in Engineering, 2011: April, 141- 154. [5] Wood, G.D., Ellis, R.C.T., (2003), “Risk management practices of leading UK cost consults” Engineering Construction and Architectural Management, 10(4), 254–262. [6] Wang, S.Q., Dulaimi, M.F., Aguria, M.Y., (2004), “Risk management framework for construction projects in developing countries”, Construction Management and Economics, 22, 237-252. [7] Akintoye, A., MacLeod, M.J., (1997), “Risk analysis and management in construction”, International Journey of Project Management, 15(1), 31-38. [8] Al-Bahar, J., Crandall, K.C., (1990), “Systematic risk management approach for construction projects”, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 116(3), 533-546. [9] Öngel, B., Tanyer, A.M., Dikmen, İ., (2010), “İnşaat şirketlerinde risk yönetim süreçlerinin olgunluğunun değerlendirilmesi ”, 1.Proje ve Yapım Yönetimi Kongresi, 29 Eylül – 1 Ekim, Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Ankara. [10] Kagioglou, M., Cooper, R. and Aouad, G., (2001). “Performance management in construction: A conceptual framework” Construction Management and Economics, 19(1), 85–95. [11] Ittner, C.D., Larcker, D.F., (1998), “Are nonfinancial measures leading indicators of financial performance? An analysis of customer satisfaction”, Journal of Accounting Research, 36, 1–35. [12] Bititci, U., Nudurupati, S., (2002), “Using performance measurement to drive continuous improvement”, Manufacturing Engineer, 81(5), 230–235. [13] Bassioni, H.A., Price, A.D.F. and Hassan, T.M., (2005). “Building a conceptual framework for measuring business performance in construction: An empirical evaluation”, Construction Management and Economics, 23, 495-507. [14] Ward, C.S., Curtis, B., Chapman, C.B. (1991), ‘‘Objectives and performance in construction projects’’ Construction Management and Economics, 9, 343–354. [15] Neely, A., Mills, J., Gregory, M. and Platts, K., (1995), “Performance measurement system design-a literature review and research agenda”, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 15(4), 80-116. [16] Alarcon, L.F., Ashley, D.B., (1996), “Modeling project performance for decision making.” Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 122(3), 265–273. [17] Love, P.E.D., Holt, G.D., (2000), ‘‘Construction business performance measurement: The SPM alternative’’, Business Process Management Journal, 6(5), 408–416. [18] Gann, D.M., Salter, A. J., Whyte, J. K., (2003), “Design quality indicator as a tool for thinking”, Building Research & Informatıon, 31(5), 318–333. [19] Formoso, C.T., Lantelme, E.M.V. (2000). “A performance measurement system for construction companies in Brazil’, International Journal of Project Management, 6(3), 54-60. [20] Nudurupati, S., Arshad, T. and Turner, T., (2007). “Performance measurement in the construction industry: An action case investigating manufacturing methodologies” Computers in Industry, 58(7), 667–676. [21] Yu, I., Kim, K., Jung, Y, Chin, S., (2007), “Comparable performance measurement system for construction companies”, Journal of Management in Engineering, July 2007, 131-139. [22] Morris, P.W.G., Hough, G.H., (1986), “The preconditions of success and failure in major projects (Technical Paper No. 3), Oxford: Major Projects Association. [23] Lim, C.S., Mohamed, Z.M., (1999), “Criteria of project success: an exploratory reexamination”, International Journal of Project Management, 17(4), 243–248.
42
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
[24] Shenhar, A.J., Dvir, D., Levy, O., Maltz, A.C, (2001), “Project success: A multidimensional strategic concept”, Long Range Planning, 34(6), 699–725. [25] Constructing Exellence, 2010, www.constructingexcellence.org.uk (Accessed: 01.02.2014) [26] Mills, A., (2001), “A systematic approach to risk management for construction”, Structural Survey, 19(5), 245-252. [27] Westerveld, E., (2003), “The project excellence model: Linking success criteria and critical success factors”, International Journal of Project Management, 21(6), 411–8. [28] Sertyeşilışık, B., (2010), İnşaat sektöründe sözleşme yönetimi, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Yayınları, İstanbul. [29] Hartman, F., Snelgrove, P., (1996), “Risk allocation in lump-sum contracts-concept of latent dispute”, Journal of Construction Engineerıng and Management, September 291-296. [30] Project Management Institute; (2004), A guide to the project management body of knowledge (PMBOK Guide), 3rd ed. Newtown Square, PA. [31] Arıkan, A.E., Dikmen, İ., Birgönül, M.T. (2005), "Bütünleşik bir risk yönetim karar destek sistemi", 3.Yapı İşletmesi Kongresi, İnşaat Mühendisleri Odası İzmir Şubesi, 29 - 30 Eylül 2005, İzmir. [32] Wang, X., Huang, J., (2006), “The relationship between key stakeholders project performance and project success: perceptions of Chinese construction supervising engineers”, International Journal of Project Management, 24, 253-260.
43
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
DATA MODELING FOR DEVELOPMENT THE BIM – BASED AUGMENTED REALITY SYSTEM
Sebastjan Meža, Ph.D Candidat1 ,Dr. Žiga Turk, Professor1 , Dr. Matevž Dolenc, Associate Professor1
[email protected]
1
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering
ABSTRACT In this paper, we present findings obtained by the testing of a mobile component-based augmented reality system (AR), i.e. a system in which a generic AR display component is used to augment the reality in which the user is located. At first the structure and functioning of the mobile BIM – based Augmented Reality system [1], which bases on the existing modules is presented. This is followed by the critical evaluation individual of modules which are used for mappings between various file structures. Thematically, the paper refers to the data modelling of the models suitable to be displayed with generic AR display engines. Performance evaluation is focused on the review of data loses which occur during the automatic transformations. Keywords: Data modeling, augmented reality, BIM, AEC, construction informatics
44
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION The idea to augment the reality (AR) with the building information models is not new. The very beginnings of AR date back to the sixties of the last century [2]. In the meantime AR is only recently becoming practically feasible since the technology has evolved to the stage that it is possible to merge digital data with the real world. Meeting the hardware capacity is only the first step, now the software has to be developed to capitalize the existing opportunities. We believe that the opportunities offered by modern mobile devices have not been completely exploited. In the paper [1] we have already presented the idea on how it is possible to create a BIM based AR system. On the other hand, this paper focusses on the data modeling process; we analyze how data suitable to be displayed with generic AR programs can be generated with existing software modules. The hypothesis of the paper is that a semi-automatic mapping between IFC models and models suitable to be displayed with generic AR display software. One of the goals of this paper is to measure the data losses that occur during the automatic mappings. It has been established that, although the model can be generated, there still remain some anomalies that need to be considered before one is to use such system in daily practice. BACKGROUND In this section we present the theoretical background, the process of data modeling is defined, the concept of augmented reality is outlined and the industry foundation classes are presented. The purpose of this chapter is to lay the foundations for the subsequent discussion. Data modelling Data modeling is a technique for exploring the data structures needed to support the desired processes. The product of the data modeling is the data model which records and indicates the context shape, size and rules of the data. The data model, therefore serves as a blueprint of the creation of database structure and or for the definition of file recordings. The data model focuses on what data is required and how the data should be organized [3]. In our case the initial data is stored as the IFC model and on the other hand the final product of the data modeling process is the L3D model. Augmented reality Augmented reality is a method of visualization that allows synchronous display of real environments with the addition of virtual elements. It has three essential characteristics: (1) computer generated virtual objects and real environment appear in aggregated form, (2) virtual objects are created in real time, their appearance and the response must be dependent on the user, and (3) if there are changes in the environment, real and virtual object must act in concert [4] [5] [6]. Industry Foundation Classes – IFC The IFC standard has formed, as a response to the initiative of business-related construction industry, which begins to deal with the problem of data exchange among incompatible software. The development of IFC standards began over 20 years ago. Currently, the standard IFC 2 x 3 is most commonly used. IFC 2 x 3 was first presented in 2004. The last version, IFC 2 x 4, was defined in 2012, with ISO/PAS 16739 [7] [8]. Prototype Implementation There are several software development methods, one of which is the component-based software engineering (CBSE). The CBSE is based on the idea that the most appropriate components are chosen, if necessary, modified, and then assembled into a new, complex system [9]. Since it has been established that components needed to build a system that meets our goals already exist we have chosen the most suitable ones and composed them into a functioning whole. The component based structure of the prototype system is shown in Figure 1. The initial data needed to establish augmented reality environment is stored on BIM and FTP servers. The data includes e.g. building information model, the proposed real location and orientation of the model, construction schedule. The IFC – L3D component is a web service that prepares the model suitable to be
45
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
displayed with the AR application Layar. Mobile application serves us as a user interface on a mobile device and finally we use the AR display unit Layar to establish the augmented reality environment. In this paper we will focus our attention mainly on the functioning of the IFC – L3D web service, which is marked with green. A more in depth description of system conceptual design can be found in paper “Component based engineering of a mobile BIM-based Augmented Reality system” [1].
Figure 1: System component diagram Testing of the IFC – L3D web service component In the prototype, the L3D model is generated automatically using IFC – OBJ / MTL and OBJ / MTL – L3D transformers. Mappings from IFC to L3D are performed sequentially. We used Autodesk Revit to create the IFC model. As a basis, we took a sample project that comes with the program. The model consisted of standard and non–standard entities. We assumed that using the Revit sample model could exclude as many problems as possible that come with the creation of the IFC model. Although Autodesk claims Revit is fully compatible with IFC standard, problems start to appear if you export the model to IFC format, and after that, import the same model into the program. The problems start to arise when non–standardized elements and, in particular, non–standard properties of objects such as materials are being used. The initial model is shown in (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Initila Revit model We analyzed the transformations on one of the exterior walls, defined in line #6612 of the IFC model. It had a unique identification number GUID: 1uW$gl5OPDyQcMzCMPM_oV. How the materials are contained in the IFC file is shown in Figure 3.
46
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Figure 3: IFC material definition The model materials were defined with Siding and Wood. The link between the wall and the material were defined in line #172317, with the command IfcRelassociatesMaterial. The set of materials that belong to the wall was defined in #6669. It was also defined by how the materials are ordered. The actual composition of the set was defined in line #1846 IfcMaterialLayerSet. Our wall, 'Basic Wall: CORR,' was surrounded with the material 'Siding (20 mm) and Wood - Stud Layer' (200 mm). The final materials were defined by the detail entities IfcSurfaceStyle, IfcSurfaceStyleRendering, and IfcColourRGB. Parameters IfcColourRGB represent the red, green, and blue. Both of these materials are very small, which in turn, means that the material is black in color. The corresponding IFC model is shown in
47
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
(a) The source file (b) The IFC model
(c) The automatically generated L3D file (d) The final modified L3D model Figure 4: Semi-automatic generation of the L3D model
The automatic mappings First we use IFC, an open source, open shell file converter, to convert the IFC file to an objective file. Objective files consist of OBJ and MTL files. The OBJ file is a simple, standardized format, which contains the code that defines the geometry of 3D models. The MTL on the other file contains a code that defines the material properties of individual 3D model faces. This transformation has proven to be extremely inefficient. Although the geometry of the model remained intact, the majority of data about the material properties was lost. After the first mapping is completed, we use the Layar L3D model converter to generate the L3D model. Tests have shown that the geometry and material do not get lost in this transformation. Therefore, the L3D model suitably corresponds to the objective file (Figure 4 c). The production of the final model and on – site display After the automatic transformation, we tried to create an L3D model that best suits the initial Revit model. We manually set the material definitions, which are located in the MTL file. We fixed all fourteen materials to get the final L3D model (Figure 4 d). We will demonstrate the process of amending material properties, in this case, for one wall. All other transformations were done in the same manner. We fixed the material properties with the following procedure. First, we reviewed the material properties of each individual material defined in the initial Revit model. In the initial Revit model, the material is defined as a wood coating, which uses a jpg image texture for rendering purposes. This texture is unfortunately already lost when exporting the IFC model. After all the transformations, we obtain the model with material properties defined in the MTL file. Kd value defines the diffuse color, Ks the matte color, Ka the ambient color, Ns the shine of the material, and Tr and d define the transparency of the material. We set all values so that they best suit the initial values. We also added a link to an image with the texture wood.jpg (Table 1).
48
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 1: MTL file update The Definition of Materials in the Original MTL File newmtl IfcWallStandardCase Kd 0.9 0.9 0.9 Ks 0.2 0.2 0.2 Ka 0.1 0.1 0.1 Ns 10 Tr 1 d 1 D1
The Definition of Materials in Modified MTL File n newmtl IfcWallStandardCase Kd 0.5 0.5 0.5 Ks 0.0 0.0 0.0 Ka 0.5 0.5 0.5 Ns 0.0 Tr 1.0 d 1 map_Ka wood.jpg map_Kd wood.jpg
Finally we show the real situation of how high-quality images can be obtained with the currently commercially available hardware. In testing, we used Google's Nexus 7 tablet, version 2013. Visualization of the test case Revit is shown in Figure 5
Figure 5: AR Visualization of Revit Project DISCUSSION In this paper, we have shown how semi-automatic mappings can be used to produce a model suitable to be displayed in the augmented reality environment. Tests have shown that initial minimal expectations were met; however, there is much to be done before such systems can be used in everyday practice. It has become apparent that the errors do not only occur in the mapping performed in our system, but mainly also in the production of the baseline IFC models. For the most part, major building information modeling software providers are responsible for this issue. The authors believe that it is necessary to develop prototypes such as the one presented in this paper, in parallel with the commercial software. The authors' opinion is that, if the AR systems will be developed to the point that would allow highly efficient view of BIM on site, the major
49
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
software providers will be forced to either develop their own AR systems to improve the compatibility of their software with internationally recognized standards. In both cases, this is good for the construction industry. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research work presented in this paper was funded by the Slovenian Research Agency. Their support is gratefully acknowledged.
50
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES [1] Sebastjan Meža, Žiga Turk, and Matevž Dolenc, "Component based engineering of a mobile BIM-based Augmented Reality system," Automation in construction, 10.1016/j.autcon.2014.02.011, 2014. [2] I. Southerland, "A head mounted Three dimensional display," AIPFS conference proceedings, pp. 757 764, 1968. [3] P. Ponniah, DATA MODELING. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2007. [4] Sebastjan Meža, Žiga Turk, and Matevž Dolenc, "Razširjena resničnost v grajenem okolju," Gradbeni vestnik, 2013. [5] S. Feiner, B. MacIntyre, T. Höllerer, and A. Webster, "Knowledge-based augmented reality," Communications of the ACM - Special issue on computer augmented environments: back to the real world, pp. 53-62, 1993. [6] K. Roche, Pro iOS 5 Augmented Reality, 14302391239781430239123th ed. Berkely: Apress Berkely, 2011. [7] ISO. (2005) IFC standard ISO. [Online]. http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=38056 [8] T. Pazlar, Preslikave med arhitekturnimi in računskimi apsekti v informacijskih modelih zgradb, Doktorsko delo, Ed. Ljubljana: FGG, 2008. [9] G. Pour, "Component-based software development approach: new opportunities and challenges," Proceedings Technology of Object-Oriented Languages, pp. 375-383, 1998. [10] NBMS. (2013) The National http://www.nationalbimstandard.org/
BIM
Standard-United
States™.
[Online].
[11] BuildingSMART. (2013) Open BIM. [Online]. http://www.buildingsmart.org/openbim
51
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
52
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
53
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
HOSPITAL SYSTEM VULNERABILITY TO A MODERATE EARTHQUAKE A.Messabhia1 and A.Abdulhamid Rahal2- G.Sauce2- P.Perrotin2
[email protected]
1 2
Civil Engineering Applied Laboratory, Tebessa University, Algeria Laboratory LOCIE. Polytech’Savoie University, French
ABSTRACT: This research aims at proposing to the technical manager of a hospital, a method for assessing the vulnerability of the hospital system in the case of a moderate earthquake. A primary case study on a Hospital Centre has allowed us to define the methodological basis. Also, it concludes to the need for a systematic method due to the complexity of hospital system and the specific involved knowledge. This method exits: "Screening method" but it is applicable to the context of a major earthquake, where the main objective is to save life, while ours is to guarantee the continuity of hospital services. Other aims are to adapt this method in order to introduce the concept of a moderate earthquake, to take into account the environmental interactions of the hospital system and to improve the knowledge base. Subsequently, a software tool was developed to facilitate the implementation for the technical manager. keywords: Vulnerability, moderate earthquake, Method, lifelines, hospital system
54
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION During the earthquake of 1994 Northridge in California, several major hospitals had to be evacuated, not because of structural damages, but because of the failure of emergency generators, air regulators and the fall of ceilings fixtures. In Canada, the 1988 earthquake in Saguenay, the strongest earthquake in eastern North America recorded during the last 50 years, has caused little structural damages. The vast majority of injuries, damage and financial loss had been caused by the failure of operational and functional building components [1]. The percentage of the cost of non-structural elements at a total cost of construction is much higher in hospitals than in other buildings. Indeed, the non-structural elements represent about 60% of the value of residential housing, whereas for hospitals values range are from 85% to 90%, mainly due to the cost of medical equipment [2]. The seismic risk management requires a multidisciplinary process [3], in particular engineering, and it exhibits a multi-steps cycle in which the vulnerability assessment is a very important one [4]. The overall objective is to find relevant information to assess hospital performances in seismic zones in order to detect the actions needed to reduce the vulnerability for a moderate earthquake. While in countries where seismicity is low or moderate, the collapse of hospitals has not been occurred, these establishments had suffered significant non-structural damages that have put hospitals out of service. Our research is directed towards understanding the hospital system, including hospital services, in order to enable the hospital technical manager to better prevent potential functional danger in case of a moderate earthquake. Based on a case study, realized on a Hospital Center, we define the methodological requirements which are influenced by two key parameters: the cost and the competence. This document successively presents the methodological approach for the case study and the main conclusions, sums up the characteristics of an existing method, very close to our problematic, and exposes the evolution of this one to adapt it to the vulnerability assessment of the hospital system in the case of a moderate earthquake. State of the art Most existing methods and approaches of vulnerability assessment focus on the structural part: 1- Probabilistic approach using Damage Probabilistic Matrix [5], 2- Deterministic approach using vulnerability or fragility curves[6], 3- Classification of structure vulnerability using vulnerability indices, the most representative [7]: Wind cross (Cv), quality of materials (Mq), Irregularity in elevation (Ie), Irregularity in plane (IP), Quality of execution (Eq), Intervention on buildings (Is), Short column (Cs), soil conditions (Sc)…). The vulnerability index (V) for each structure is equal to the sum of products at all levels of assessment of vulnerabilities on their weights. In return, the vulnerability of non-structural elements or functional ones is briefly developed, aside fault, causes and events trees. Notion of moderate earthquake The structures are designed and built against the major earthquake (Statutory), but through the whole structure’s life this major earthquake has a little probability to occur. On the other hand, a moderate earthquake has a high probability to occur, and even several times during the building’s life. In this context we can distinguish a moderate earthquake of the major one in relation to the responsibility of the State and the technical manager. 1- State’s responsibility: usually the State takes care of major natural disasters (against property) or humanities (against persons); otherwise, it is responsible of large scale disasters that exceed individuals’ or society capacity (floods, fires, earthquakes…). 2- Technical hospital manager’s responsibility: The technical hospital manger is a person liable when the earthquake doesn’t reach the regulatory level, when it puts down necessary services provided by his establishment. Effectively, the hospital manager is responsible for providing services, at least, of which critical ones after a non-major earthquake.
55
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Furthermore, after a major or catastrophic earthquake, injuries will be transported to the nearest region that have suffered less damages, i.e. which have suffered a moderate earthquake. Vulnerability assessment Process The approach that has been used for hospital vulnerability assessment, developed in our case study, is organized as follows [figure 1] Characterize hospital system A hospital is a very particular building, in its structure as well as in its organization involving a very complex industrial process. This stage aims at defining to an exhaustive way the hospital’s organization, i.e. the medical hospital corps and all attached services [8]. Generally, components constituting a hospital are classified as follows: - Structural system (frames, beams, colons, floors…) - Functional hospital system (patients’ flow, units’ care, sterilization’s ones…) - Technical hospital system (lighting, heating, air conditioning, elevators…) - Biomedical system (diagnostic equipment's, therapeutic equipment's…). Identify critical systems After the earthquake, the technical hospital manager is responsible for ensuring the continuity of services, and then the question is: how much hospital systems, required for emergency services, are critical? Several visits to the studied Hospital Centre, in cooperation with its technical staff have allowed us to characterize these critical services such as the lifelines (water, electricity, oxygen and void…). Hospital
Characterize hospital system
Hospital model
Identify critical systems Danger Systems technical model
Experts’ competence
Critical systems
Analyze critical systems vulnerability
Vulnerability of systems
Analyze interactions between systems
Transversal vulnerability
Synthesize the vulnerability of the hospital system
Vulnerability of hospital system
Figure 6- Process of hospital system vulnerability analysis Analyze critical systems vulnerability The analysis at a primary level is based on visual remarks, favorable or unfavorable, in relation to the seismic response of each component of every critical system. This analysis is similar to "walk-down" one [9]. Eventually, scoring the vulnerability of a system essentially depends on our skill. Analyze interactions between systems (transversal vulnerability) Considering that often networks and pipelines are grouped in cages or under the ceiling, falling or damaged one can be affect the other networks. These interactions are, first of all, analyzed in a visual way. Secondly, the interactions guessed dangerous are subject to a deeper analysis. Synthesize the vulnerability of the hospital system The judgment of the vulnerability of vital networks, and consequently the vulnerability of the hospital system are done by the analyzer, based on points favorable compared to those unfavorable. The judgment remains, at the limit, subjective, meaning it may be different from an analyzer to other one.
56
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
VULNERABILITY ANALYSES – CASE STUDY Results of approach proposed At the end of this diagnostic vulnerability analysis, we find, as experts, that constructive dispositions against the effects of moderate earthquake are incoherent, insufficient and inadequate [figure 2]. Without describing in detail the result of this experiment, let us resume the main conclusion: - This judgment is very subjective: two experts could produce quite different results. - Without a specific organization this diagnosis could be very long. - It requires expert knowledge, usually not available in the technical services of the hospital - More detailed are the results, more complex is the analysis. - The cost: To have recourse to a specialist (office) it is expensive. In conclusion, the need for assistance methodological is very real because
Figure 7- Transformer on rolling support and bottles of air without strap Advantageously, this methodological basis previously is already existent: "Screening Method"[10]. Screening Method description This is a method developed by the Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER) during a program to reduce earthquake losses [11], defined as follow: “This method recapitulates several years of research to develop a detailed methodology to evaluate and improve the reliability of systems equipment functional after the earthquake. It is envisaged that this method be used by engineers, asset manager, owners, technicians and others interested in evaluating and improving the functional capacity of systems and equipment. The approach is quite simple as it is described below: 1- Systems Definition: Requires input from appropriate facility operators and engineers to identify which systems are required fore life-safety purposes and which systems are required for normal operations. For each system, graphically sketch system process in a logic diagram, identifying critical components, system dependencies, and redundancies. 2- Evaluation of Individual Components: perform a rapid visual screening inspection of each of system components. 3- Systems Evaluations: Develop the scores for each subsystem and system in conjunction with the logic diagram using the scores for the individual components. The logic diagrams will help to identify weak links in the system. The scoring methodology for an individual component uses the following logic: 1- Each component is assigned a basic score that is a function of the performance history of that type of equipment, and the seismicity of the site. 2- The basic scores are modified by Performance Modification Factors (PMFs) which indicate the decrease of reliability due to specific configurations or details that may be present in an equipment installation. 3- The evaluation and checklist are completed such that the basic score and all applicable PMFs are identified. 4- The equipment item is assigned a score equal to its basic minus the largest (worst case) applicable PMF.”
57
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Advantages and drawbacks of screening method Screening Method allows a rapid assessment of the seismic reliability, neither very strict nor very detailed, is intended to industrial and nuclear fields. However, it can be extended to urban areas (buildings) because in some types of buildings are found in equipment, systems (networks) more or less similar to those in factories. For example hospitals include systems is quite complex, biomedical (network oxygen, avoid…) or technical (water, electricity, air conditioning…). The seismicity site In the method, the seismicity of the site is divided into four zones, corresponding to several intensity of a major earthquake. The localization of component The method divides the building into three thirds (lower, middle, upper), whatever the height of the building (the number of floors), Dependency of PMFs PMFs are considered as independents, but it seems that this is not necessarily the case. For example, if the anchor is defined as inadequate and the component is timeworn, it is obvious that the damages are augmentatives. EVOLUTION OF THIS METHOD We propose to adapt this method to our problematic, into two directions : The knowledge base Corresponding with our main hypothesis named a moderate earthquake, we consider only one seismic zone. This hypothesis leads to simplify the generic form of each critical component. We propose a specific approach to enrich the data base of component, especially when there is a lack of disaster data. In order to systemizing the analyses the behavior of a component in case of earthquake, an guide based on its main characteristics (geometry, mass, materials, type of anchorage, functionality, …) allow to defined the score of this generic component. The method itself Specific adaptation of the method are added to take into account : - The ageing of the component. - Cumulative effect of PMF - The importance of moderate earthquake is considered at the project level likewise the site effect. - The weight of the location of a component in the building depends on its height. - Capacity of defining generic model of a system, in order to accelerate the application. CONCLUSION The objective methods that treat the vulnerability functional of buildings are rare relatively to those that focus on the structural vulnerability. Even when a methodological support exists, another difficulty appears for the achievement of the method, it is the insufficiency of knowledge (shortcoming of data). Beside, the data available are often come from a major earthquake more than a moderate one. This method is dedicated to the technical staff of a hospital, giving them the ability to draw up a rough analysis of the vulnerability of the system. This short cut allows them to gain time and money, and then they will have recourse to specialist only for specific and critical analysis.
58
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES [1] NAUMOSKI, N, FOO, S and SAATCIOGLU, M (2002) «Évaluation et atténuation des risques sismiques liés aux composants fonctionnels et opérationnels des bâtiments : une perspective canadienne » document rédigé pour le Bureau de la protection des infrastructures essentielles et de la protection civile. Université d'Ottawa, Canada. [2] WHO (2004), Guidelines for Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Hospitals Kathmandu, Report of World Health Organization and National society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET) [3] FACCIOLI, E.and PESSINA, V (1999) Le projet Catane : Scenarii sismiques pour une zone de haut risque en Méditerranée. Colloque national N°5: Génie parasismique et réponse dynamique des ouvrages, pp.909-925. Cachan, France. [4] MEBARKI, A (2003) Risques sismiques : aléas, vulnérabilité et aide à la décision par cartes SIG. Colloque International "Risque Vulnérabilité et fiabilité dans la construction. Vers une réduction des désastres", pp82-97, Alger, Algérie. [5] WHITMAN, R.V, REED J. W and HONG S.-T (1973) Earthquake damage probability matrices, 5th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, P 2531-2540; Rome, Italia. [6] HAZUS, (1997), Earthquake Loss Estimation Methodology, Technical Manual, National Institute of Building Sciences for the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Washington, USA. [7] GNDT, (1993). Rischio Sismico di Edifici Pubblici – Parte I: Aspeti metodologici. Gruppo Nazionale per la Difesa dai Terremoti. Cento Serviri Quasco, Bologna. [8] MICHEL, P (1992) Hôpitaux, documents Techniques de l’Ingénieur, Dossier C 4095. [9]. PORTER, K- A, (2003), Seismic Vulnerability Handbook Earthquake Engineering, Wai-Fah Chen Charles Scawthorn USA. [10] Gayle S. JOHNSON, S. G (2003) Equipment and systems Handbook Earthquake Engineering, WaiFah Chen Charles Scawthorn USA. [11] Gayle S. JOHNSON, SHEPPARD, R.E, Marc D. QUILICI, D. M, EDER, S. J and SCAWTHON, C. R (1999).Seismic Reliability Assessment of Critical Facilities: A handbook, supporting documentation, and Model Code provisions” Technical Report MCEER 99-0008.USA
59
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
KEY FACTORS AFFECTING PROFIT AMOUNT IN UAE CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS Sameh El-Sayegh1, Ahmad Abbas1, Hussam Fansa1, Ahmad Al-Salti1, Eman Hamaideh1
1
Civil Engineering Department, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
ABSTRACT Contractors add profit to the total estimated cost to come up with the bid price. It is important for contractors to make profit on their projects in order to stay in business. There are several factors that affect the profit determination. The objective of this paper is to identify and evaluate the key factors that affect the profit amount in the construction projects in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Thirty factors are identified through literature review. A survey is then developed. Data was collected through interviews with professional in the construction industry. Thirty one surveys are completed and used in the analysis. The thirty factors are grouped into 6 categories including project characteristics, technical requirements, required resources, company characteristics, bidding situation and economic environment. Based on the average weight, the top ten factors include availability of qualified staff, project duration, market conditions, availability of funds, cash flow, availability of equipment, availability of qualified labor, availability of material, experience in similar projects and availability of resources in the market. Five factors, out of the top ten, are in the required resources category which indicates the importance of this category to contractors as they estimate their profit. From the project characteristics group, the project duration is the most important factor. Cash flow is the most important factor in the technical requirement group. The overall economy is considered an important factor especially given the current market conditions. Surprisingly, the number of bidders and their competitiveness are not in the top ten. Keywords: Bidding, profit, cost estimating, UAE, construction industry.
60
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION There are different means how profit is measured; the most known mean is money. Others may consider profit a greater good for humanity and an improvement of the living standards, or to obtain products from a project and exchange them with other rare products (Patrascu, 1988). Moreover, the definition of construction profit in economic terms is the business profit minus the implicit costs of capital and any other provided inputs, such as office overheads and the opportunity cost for the efforts put (Farnham, 2006). Profit is considered to be the one of the incentives for any contractor to perform or join in constructing different types of projects. According to Hegazi & Moselhi (1995), 44% of general contractors define the contractors’ markup as profit only. Figure 6.1 shows the percentage of respondents and their definition of the contractors’ markup, which is taken from a survey in Canada which has included 427 general contractors in Canada and the United States. This shows that profit is essential for contractors. In order for a contracting firm stay in business and compete with other contractors, the firm need to gain “profit in the long run” (Seydel & Olson, 1990). The element of risk is one of main concerns of contractors (and any other business firms) so the amount of profit is considered to be one of the incentives for a firm to accept the risk (Littleton, 1928). A successful project is a profitable one (Hanna, 2007). Furthermore, the amount of profit that a contractor makes is a measure of the contractors’ successes, so in order for contractors to become more successful in their profession they need to increase their expected profits, return a certain percentage of investment, minimize losses, and win the projects’ contract since construction projects are the contractors’ business (Abdul-Hadi, 1990). There are many factors that affect the profit amount. Several studies have been conducted in other countries about the factors affecting the bidding process, markup decision as well as the cost performance. Yet, these studies include factors that affect the profit amount in construction project. A study made in Saudi Arabia about the factors affecting bidding showed that the importance of the factors differs and changes depending on the size of the project (Abdul-Hadi, 1990). A survey conducted in Canada and the United States shows the factors affecting the mark-up decision. The survey included 23 factors grouped into four categories. The top five important factors according to the survey were need for work, market condition, job complexity, job uncertainty and firm capability (Hegazi & Moselhi, 1995). The objective of this research is to identify and evaluate the key factors affecting the profit amount in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) construction industry. MATERIALS AND METHODS The key factors affecting profit amount are identified through literature review. A total of thirty factors were identified. A questionnaire was then constructed to solicit the feedback of professionals in the UAE construction industry. Thirty one surveys were completed by professionals inside the country, most of whom were project managers and construction managers. The conducted survey was filled by 12 professionals in Abu Dhabi, 12 in Dubai and 7 in Sharjah. The responses are analyzed using a 5-point Likert scale (5 being most important and 1 least important). The weighted average of all responses are then calculated and ranked. Figure 1 shows the respondents’ profile in terms of years of experience. 55% of the respondents work in local companies while the remaining 45% work for international companies.
Years of exeriance 10%
More than 20 years 35%
16%
Between 11 - 20 Between 5 - 10
39%
Less than 5
Figure 1. Respondents Profile - Years of experience
61
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
RESULTS The thirty factors, identified through literature review, were grouped into 6 categories. Category A includes factors related to the project characteristics such as project size, type, duration, location and owner. The size of the project is used to determine the extent to which project management practices are formally applied to the project. A large project may require a small percentage of margin-size, as the actual amount in monetary value will be high (Ling, 2005). The type of project (housing, building, industrial or infrastructure) has an impact on profit. Ling (2005) considered that the most important factor is “type of project". Contractors may prefer long duration projects to allow their resources to be in revenue generating state, (Ling, 2005). Project location is important because it affects a contractor's familiarity with the market, quality and availability of labor, subcontractors and materials (Ling, 2005). Category B “Technical Requirements” includes factors such as cash flow, project complexity, degree of hazards, completeness of documents and owners’ special requirements. Cash flow is very important to contractors as it helps them to pay for the resources and ensures their survival (Ling, 2005). The large contractors are usually involved in bigger and more complex projects; hence they viewed the degree of difficulty and safety to be more critical in deciding their mark-up (Dulaimi, & Shan, 2002). Since the project drawings and specifications are complete the contractor might have the enough confidence to decrease the amount of markup (Chan & Au, 2009). The owners’ special requirements and requests results in change orders, if these change orders were reasonable it can lead to good profit. Category C “Required Resources” includes factors such as availability of funds, qualified staff, equipment, qualified labor and material. Availability of funds within the contractor decreases the amount of profit (Chan & Au, 2009). The performance of the staff affects margin size, and therefore profit, significantly (Ling, 2005). Category D “Company Characteristics” includes factors such as experience in similar projects, current work load, need for work, expected benefits and relationship with the client. Experience makes the contractor aware of the risks involved in the project and this advantage reduces the amount of profit that is assigned to the project (Chan, & Au, 2009). The current projects that the contractor have in hand, high work load leads to high profit (Chan & Au, 2009) since there is the risk that the contractor is not able to complete some projects on time due to high work in hand that are in need for the contractors attention. If the contractor is in need for work, the contractor would decrease the profit in order to win a bid. If the company is trying to build a reputation in a market, the margin, including profit, on projects in this market would be set low (Chan & Au, 2009). Category E “Bidding Situation” includes factors such as the number and identity of competitors, bidding method, availability of work and contract type. Category F “Economic Environment” includes factors such as market conditions, government regulations, investment risks, anticipated rate of return and availability of resources in the market. Table 1 presents the thirty factors ranked in order of importance based on the construction professionals’ responses. Figures 2-7 show the weight and ranking for each of the categories.
62
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 1. The 30 factors in order of importance No 1 2
Factor
Weight
Availability of Qualified Staff
4.55
Project Duration
4.42
3
Market Economic Conditions (Overall Economy)
4.42
4
Availability of Funds
4.39
5
Project Cash Flow
4.36
6
Availability of Equipment
4.29
7
Availability of Qualified Labor
4.29
8
Availability of Material
4.26
9
Experience in Similar Projects
4.26
10
Availability of Resources in the Market
4.16
11
Project Size
4.13
12
Degree of Project's Difficulty/Complexity
4.13
13
Availability of Work
4.1
14
Investment Risks
4.07
15
Contract Type
4.03
16
Degree of Hazards (Safety)
3.97
17
Current Work Load
3.97
18
Project Type
3.94
19
Completeness of Documents
3.94
20
Anticipated Rate of Return
3.87
21
Government Regulations
3.84
22
Owner's Special Requirements
3.81
23
Relationship with the Client
3.81
24
Need for Work
3.78
25
Bidding Method
3.77
26
Expected Benefits in terms of Company Reputation
3.71
27
Number of Competitors in the Bid
3.68
28
Identity and Competitiveness of Other Bidders
3.61
29
Project Location
3.58
30
Project Owner
3.52
63
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
4,6
Project Characteristics
4,4 4,2 4 3,8 3,6 3,4 3,2 3 Project Size
Project Type
Project Duration
Project Location
Project Owner
Figure 2. Category A “Project Charactersistics” 4,6
Technical Requirements
4,4 4,2 4 3,8 3,6 3,4 3,2 3 Project Cash Flow
Degree of Project's Difficulty/Complexity
Degree of Hazards (Safety)
Completeness of Documents
Owner's Special Requirements
Figure 3. Category B “Technical Requirments”
64
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
4,6
Required Resources
4,4 4,2 4 3,8 3,6 3,4 3,2 3 Availability of Funds
Availability of Qualified Staff
Availability of Equipment
Availability of Qualified Labor
Availability of Material
Figure 4. Category C “Required Resources” 4,6
Company Characteristics
4,4 4,2 4 3,8 3,6 3,4 3,2 3 Experience in Similar Projects
Current Work Load
Need for Work
Expected Benefits in Relationship with terms of Company the Client Reputation
Figure 5. Category D “Company Charactersistics”
65
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
4,2
Bidding Situation
4 3,8 3,6 3,4 3,2 3 Number of Identity and Competitors in the Competitiveness of Bid Other Bidders
Bidding Method
Availability of Work
Contract Type
Figure 6. Category E “Bidding Situation” 4,6
Economic Environment
4,4 4,2 4 3,8 3,6 3,4 3,2 3 Market Economical Conditions (Overall Economy)
Government Regulations
Investment Risks
Anticipated Rate of Return
Availability of Resources in the Market
Figure 7. Category F “Economic Enviroment”
66
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
DISCUSSION It is noticeable from Table 1 that 5 factors out of the top 10 factors are under the required resources category, which indicates the importance of this category to contractors while they estimate their profit, where the average importance of this category is 4.35, considering 5 as very important and 1 as not important. Figure 2 shows the importance of each factor classified under the Category A “Project Characteristics”, where the most important factor is project duration and least important is project owner, which is also the least important among all factors. This category has an average importance of 3.92. Factors under Category B “Technical Requirements” are shown in Figure 3. The project cash flow is considered as most important and owner’s special requirements factor as least important in this category. Form results shown in Figure 2 and 3, it can be noticed that the project owner and his/her special requirement is considered, by UAE contractors, to have the least impact on the profit amount. Through interviewing UAE contractors, the degree of hazards (safety) factor is considered to be getting dramatically more important from one year to another; however it is still as much important to profit as other factors, where it has an importance of 3.97. This category has an average importance of 4.04. All factors under category C “Required Resources” are among the top 10 factors. Availability of staff factor is the most important among all factors with an importance of 4.55 and the least important in this category is availability of materials as shown in Figure 4. Factors under category D “Company Characteristics” has the experience in similar projects factor as the most important and the benefits from company reputation factor as least important as shown in Figure 5. Moreover, the need for work factor was expected to be one of the most important factors to UAE contractors, especially with the current conditions of the economic crisis, but it was one of the least 10 factors with an importance of 3.78. This category has an average importance of 3.91. Figure 6 shows the importance of the factors under category E “Bidding Situation”. The availability of work factor is considered as the most important in this category with an importance of 4.09, and the competitiveness of other bidders as the least important with an importance of 3.61. This category has an average importance of 3.84 and is considered as least important category according to the results. Factors that go under category F “Economic Environment” has the overall economy factor as the most important, which was expected with the current market conditions, and the government regulations as least important, which reflects the flexible regulations of the UAE (Figure 7). This category has an average importance of 4.07. Based on the average weight, the top ten factors include availability of qualified staff, project duration, market conditions, availability of funds, cash flow, availability of equipment, availability of qualified labor, availability of material, experience in similar projects and availability of resources in the market. Five factors, out of the top ten, are in the required resources category which indicates the importance of this category to contractors as they estimate their profit. From the project characteristics group, the project duration is the most important factor. Cash flow is the most important factor in the technical requirement group. The overall economy is considered an important factor especially given the current market conditions. Surprisingly, the number of bidders and their competitiveness are not in the top ten.
67
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES Abdul-Hadi, N. H. (1990), Factors affecting bidding and markup decisions in Saudi Arabia, Informally published manuscript, College of Graduate Studies, KFUPM, Dhahran, KSA. Retrieved from https://eprints.kfupm.edu.sa/9558/1/9558.pdf Chan, E., & Au, M. (2009), “Factors influencing building contractors pricing for time-related risks in tenders,” Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 135(3), 135-145. Dulaimi, M., & Shan, H. (2002), “The factors influencing bid mark-up decisions of large- and medium-size contractors in Singapore”, Construction Management and Economics, 20(7), 601-610. Farnham, P. (2006), Economics for Managers, Prentice Hall. Hanna, A. S. (2007), “Achieve greater project success and profitability with pre-construction planning”, Contracting Business, 64(6), pp 98–100. Hegazi, T., & Moselhi, O. (1995), “Elements of Cost Estimation: A Survey in Canada and the United States”, Cost Engineering, 37(5), pp 27-33. Ling, F. Y. Y. (2005), “Global factors affecting margin-size of construction projects”, Journal of Construction Research, 6(1), 91-106. Littleton, A. C. (1928), “What is Profit?”, The Accounting Review, 3(3), pp 278-288. Patrascu, A. (1988), Construction Cost Engineering Handbook. New York, NY: CRC Press. Seydel, J., & Olson, D. L. (1990), “Bids considering multiple criteria”, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 116(4), pp 609-623.
68
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
KEY FACTORS FOR SUPPLIER SELECTION IN OIL AND GAS PROJECTS Bushra Lozon1 and Sameh El-Sayegh2
1 2
Engineering Systems Management, American University of Sharjah, UAE Civil Engineering Department, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
ABSTRACT The decision of buying is very important because a high percentage of money is spent on purchased items or materials. Selecting the right material supplier is an important decision that has an impact on project’s success. Working with unqualified suppliers may have drastic impacts on the both the project and the company as a whole. Supplier selection is a difficult decision that requires looking at several factors. The objective of this paper is to identify and evaluate the key factors for selecting suppliers for the oil & gas projects in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Based on literature review, 23 Criteria are identified and used as a starting point of the research. A survey is then developed and distributed to professionals in oil and gas Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) companies in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Out of 105 distributed surveys, thirty surveys are completed and used further in the analysis. Respondents indicated that they currently use 3 to 4 criteria but recommended the use of six criteria in the selection. Based on the weighted average score, the top six criteria included price, delivery, quality, technical capability, warranties and service. The paper also presents a comparison of the factors based on years of experience and project size. This study is important as it sheds the lights on the key factors that need to be used in evaluating suppliers in the oil and gas industry. Keywords: Supplier selection, oil & gas projects, United Arab Emirates.
69
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION Companies aim to satisfy their customers and make profit. The objective of satisfying customers may be accomplished by delivering products with time efficiency and superior quality. Profit generation is potentially achieved through a reduction in operating expenses, with aim to increase revenues. Expenses may be direct {e.g. money} or indirect {e.g. quality and time}. In order for any company to incrementally decrease expenses, a decision should be taken regarding scheduled timings of deliveries and consideration for the most appropriate supplier with specific materials. This decision originates in the procurement or the purchasing department. The chosen department is responsible for purchasing products and materials from suppliers. Those who sell materials or parts are called suppliers. Supplier selection is one of the prime decisions that must be ascertained to aid in company revenue generation. The decision of buying is very important because a high percentage of money is spent on purchased items or materials. A high percent of the total operating cost is spent on purchasing (Weber et al. 1991). Some companies spend over 50% of the total product cost on procurement (Che et al., 2010). Other companies use sales revenue to spend on purchasing. For example, 80% is spent in the petroleum industry, while 25% is spent in the pharmaceutical industry as mentioned (Huang and Keskar, 2007). It is important to focus on procurement activities because of the high percentage spent on it (Huang and Keskar, 2007). One study was conducted on large utilities in the United States (USA), and claimed that $1 billion is spent annually for coal purchases (Weber et al., 1991 and Weber & Current, 1993). Many of the United States manufacturing companies spend 40-60% of the production cost on raw materials (Weber et al. 1991 and Wadhwa & Ravindran, 2007). The procurement department is responsible to decrease this cost by selecting the suitable suppliers who will provide the required items (Yang and Chen, 2006). Many factors, both subjective and objective, are considered during the selection process. There are many occasions where some criteria might conflict with other criteria like having a situation where a supplier offers the best quality and a high price or vice versa. There will be a trade-off between conflicting criteria to select the best suitable supplier for companies (Aissaoui et al., 2007). Dickson (1966) is one of the first scholars who studied selection criteria and listed 23 main vendor selection criteria. The criteria are considered as starting benchmark by companies. It is validated by the response of 170 managers and purchasing agents (Babu and Sharma, 2005). Even though more than 30 years passed after Dickson’s study and analysis, these criteria are still valid and used in different ranking order (Weber et al., 1991). Other authors suggest the selection of suppliers according to the lowest quoted price and other additional privileges like discounts. Discount is seriously taken into consideration in supplier selection (Che et al., 2010). Manoliadis and Tsolas (2009) use in their research the criteria of: financial capability, technical capability and the ability of supplier to perform the work. Moreover, price, quality and service are the key factors used in the selection process as suggested by Ghodsypour and O'Brien (1998). Huang and Keskar (2007) consider three chief selection criteria of product, supplier and society related categories. Ünal and Güner (2009) recommend using the following criteria: implementation approach, costs, functionality, support, organizational credibility, flexibility, experience, future strategy and customer focused. This research focuses on the most used supplier selection criteria in oil and gas EPC (Engineering, Procurement and Construction) companies in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Various clients in the oil and gas field deal with such companies. Each client has its own specifications and standards, which are followed. Those companies may use third party suppliers to acquire some items, materials and parts to execute the respective projects. The third parties must have sufficient experience and the capacity to provide such materials and items. Employees in the procurement department are responsible of the purchasing and supplying activities. The objective of this research is to identify and evaluate the key criteria used in oil and gas project in the UAE.
70
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
MATERIALS AND METHODS The key selection factors are identified through literature review. A questionnaire was then constructed to solicit the feedback of professionals in the UAE oil and gas industry. The responses are analyzed using a 5point Likert scale (5 being most important and 1 least important). The weighted average of all responses are then calculated and ranked. The total number of distributed surveys is 105. Thirty responses were received and analyzed. To determine the number of criteria currently used and the recommended number of criteria suggested by participants, the frequency is counted for criteria used and required criteria suggested by participants for each group. Values from first step are multiplied by number of criteria used or required as suggested by participants in each group. The resulting values are then divided by total number of criteria in each group. The overall average values for the criteria used and recommended are calculated for all the thirty surveys.
RESULTS Figure 1 shows the average number of criteria used and recommended based on years of experience. The average number of criteria used is 4.13 (rounded to 5) while the average number of recommended criteria is 5.5 (rounded to 6).
Figure 1: Average number of criteria based on years of experience 6,5
7 5.63
6 5 # of Criteria
4
4,75 3,75
4.63 4
4.33 4.33 Average No. Of Criteria Used for each Experience
3 2
Average No. Of Criteria Recommended for each Experience
1 0 <5
5-10
11-20
> 20
Experience
71
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 1 presents the overall ranking of the selection criteria based on the weighted average. It also provides comparison based on the years of experience of the respondents.
Table 1: Criteria ranking based on years of experience Years of Experience <5
5-10
11-20
> 20
Criteria
Weight
Rank
Weight
Rank
Weight
Rank
Weight
Rank
Weight
Rank
Price
4.667
1
4.500
2
4.818
1
4.750
1
4.333
2
Delivery
4.600
2
4.625
1
4.636
3
4.625
2
4.333
2
Quality
4.533
3
4.375
4
4.727
2
4.500
3
4.333
2
Technical Capability
4.333
4
4.500
3
4.091
4
4.375
4
4.667
1
Warranties & Claims
4.000
5
4.000
6
4.091
4
3.750
6
4.333
2
Service
3.967
6
4.125
5
4.000
6
3.750
6
4.000
6
Production Capability
3.867
7
3.875
7
3.818
7
3.875
5
4.000
6
Performance History
3.133
8
3.125
9
3.182
9
3.125
8
3.000
16
Financial Position
3.100
9
3.125
9
3.273
8
2.625
13
3.667
8
Geographical Location
3.100
9
3.375
8
3.000
10
2.750
10
3.667
8
Reputation & Position in industry Procedural Compliance
2.867
11
3.125
9
2.818
11
2.625
13
3.000
16
2.833
12
2.875
14
2.727
14
2.625
13
3.667
8
Amount of Past business
2.800
13
3.000
13
2.818
11
2.500
17
3.000
16
Attitude
2.800
13
2.750
16
2.727
14
2.750
10
3.333
12
Impression
2.767
15
2.500
18
2.818
11
2.750
10
3.333
12
Communication System
2.683
16
2.750
16
2.182
20
2.813
9
3.667
8
2.667
17
2.875
14
2.364
17
2.625
13
3.333
12
2.567
18
2.500
18
2.545
16
2.375
18
3.333
12
Desire for Business
2.467
19
3.125
9
2.273
18
2.000
20
2.667
20
Reciprocal arrangement
2.267
20
2.375
20
2.273
18
1.875
21
3.000
16
Training Aid
2.133
21
2.250
21
2.000
21
2.125
19
2.333
22
Packaging ability
2.000
22
2.250
21
1.818
22
1.875
21
2.333
22
Labor relationship
1.833
23
2.125
23
1.636
23
1.500
23
2.667
20
Facility
Management Organization Operating Controls
&
&
72
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 2 presents the overall ranking of the selection criteria based on the weighted average. It also provides comparison based on the project size. Table 2: Criteria ranking based on project size (I US$ = 3.67 dirhams) Project Size 101,000-500,000,000 dirhams
> 500 Million dirhams
Criteria
Weight
Rank
Weight
Rank
Weight
Rank
Price
4.667
1
4.818
1
4.579
2
Delivery
4.600
2
4.727
2
4.526
3
Quality
4.533
3
4.364
3
4.632
1
Technical Capability
4.333
4
4.091
4
4.474
4
Warranties & Claims
4.000
5
3.727
6
4.158
5
Service
3.967
6
3.727
6
4.105
6
Production Facility & Capability
3.867
7
3.909
5
3.842
7
Performance History
3.133
8
2.636
10
3.421
8
Financial Position
3.100
9
2.727
9
3.316
9
Geographical Location
3.100
10
3.091
8
3.105
10
Reputation & Position in industry
2.867
11
2.636
10
3.000
15
Procedural Compliance
2.833
12
2.636
10
2.947
16
Amount of Past business
2.800
13
2.273
14
3.105
10
Attitude
2.800
13
2.636
10
3.053
13
Impression
2.767
15
2.273
14
3.053
13
Communication System
2.683
16
2.000
19
3.026
12
Management & Organization
2.667
17
2.273
14
2.895
17
Operating Controls
2.567
18
2.182
17
2.789
18
Desire for Business
2.467
19
2.182
17
2.632
19
Reciprocal arrangement
2.267
20
2.000
19
2.421
20
Training Aid
2.133
21
1.727
21
2.368
21
Packaging ability
2.000
22
1.727
21
2.158
22
Labor relationship
1.833
23
1.545
23
2.000
23
DISCUSSION Selection Criteria (Used vs. Recommended) Based on Figure 1, it can be noticed that average number of criteria used is between 3.7 and 4.6. Because the criteria cannot be fraction then approximation for numbers to higher integer value is taken. Thus, the average number of criteria used is between 4-5 criteria. Also, the average number of suggested criteria is 4.3 to 6.5 and approximating these numbers will give average of 5-7 suggested criteria. Selection Criteria (Based on Years of Experience) This discussion is based on the results presented in Table 1. For the first group (< 5 years), it can be seen that delivery is the most important criteria because it has the highest average of all the 23 criteria. On the other hand, labor relationship is the least important as it has the lowest average of all criteria. For the second group (5-10 years), it can be seen that price is the most important criteria because it has the highest average of all the 23 criteria. On the other hand labor relationship is the least important because it has the lowest average of all
73
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
criteria. For the third group (11-20 years), it can be seen that price is the most important criteria because it has the highest average of all the 23 criteria. On the other hand labor relationship is the least important because it has the lowest average of all criteria. For the fourth group (>20 years), it can be seen that technical capability is the most important criteria because it has the highest average of all the 23 criteria. On the other hand packaging ability is the least important because it has the lowest average of all criteria. This means this criterion is least preferred and least used of all criteria when selecting suppliers. It is visible that none of the criteria have the same order in all analysis cases. The criteria order changes in different analysis compared to the general analysis. Results in years of experience less than 5 years show that eight of the criteria have the same order as in the general analysis. These criteria are: production facility and capability, financial position, amount of past business, communication system, operating controls, reciprocal arrangement, training aids and labor relationships. Results in years of experience from 5 to 10 years show that eleven of the criteria have the same order as in the general analysis. These criteria are: price, technical capability, service, production facility and capability, geographical location, reputation and position in industry, attitude, management and organization, training aid, packaging ability and labor relationship. Results in years of experience from 11 to 20 years show that nine of the criteria have the same order as in the general analysis. These criteria are: price, delivery, quality, technical capability, service, performance history, geographical location, operating controls and labor relationship. Results in years of experience more than 20 years show that only three of the criteria have the same order as in the general analysis. These criteria are: delivery, service and packaging ability. Selection Criteria (Based on Project Size) This discussion is based on the results presented in Table 2. For the first group (< AED 500M), it can be seen that price is the most important criteria because it has the highest average of all the 23 criteria. This means it is the most criterion used and preferred when selecting suppliers. On the other hand labor relationship is the least important because it has the lowest average of all criteria. For the second group (> AED 500M), it can be seen that quality is the most important criteria because it has the highest average of all the 23 criteria. Labor relationship is considered the least important because it has the lowest average of all criteria. One can see that none of the criteria have the same order in all analysis cases. The criteria order change in different analysis compared to the general analysis. Results in projects sizes from 101,000 to 500,000,000 dirhams show that eight of the criteria have the same order as in the general analysis. These criteria are: price, delivery, quality, technical capability, service, financial position, training aids and labor relationships. Results in projects sizes in excess of 500 Million dirhams show that fourteen of the criteria have the same order as in the general analysis. These criteria are: technical capability, warranties and claims, service, production facility and capability, performance history, financial position, geographical location, management and organization, operating controls, desire for business, reciprocal arrangement, training aid, packaging ability and labor relationship. The survey is done on oil and gas EPC companies in the U.A.E. After analyzing the 30 completed surveys, it can be concluded that all participants suggested having more number of criteria than currently used criteria for supplier selection. Most of the participants have good knowledge and experience in procurement field, which varies between 5 to more than 20 years. 80% of the participants strongly agree that supplier selection has direct impact on project success and the rest agree with that. Out of the 23 criteria, price is the most important criteria and on the top of the criteria list. This is because it has the highest average value of all criteria. This means that this criterion is preferred and used more than other criteria in supplier selection. On the other hand, geographical location has tenth order. This means it is of least importance of all the other nine criteria. This is because it is least used and preferred compared to the other nine criteria.
74
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES Aissaoui, N., Haouari, M. and Hassini, E. (2007) “Supplier selection and order lot sizing modeling: A review,” Computers & Operations Research, vol.34, no. 12, pp. 3516-3540. Babu, T. and Sharma, B. (2005), “Analytical hierarchy process for vendor evaluation - a case with a research institute,” South Asian Journal of Management, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 101-115. Che, Z., Chiang, T., Tu, C. and Chiang, C. (2010) “A supplier selection model for product design changes,” International Journal of Electronic Business Management, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 20-30. Dickson, G. (1966), “An analysis of vendor selection systems and decisions,” Journal of Purchasing, vol. 2, n. 1, pp. 5-17. Ghodsypour, S. and O'Brien, C. (1998), “A decision support system for supplier selection using an integrated analytic hierarchy process and linear programming,” International Journal of Production Economics, vol. 5657, pp. 199-212. Huang, S. and Keskar, H. (2007), “Comprehensive and configurable metrics for supplier selection,” International Journal of Production Economics, vol. 105, no. 2, pp. 510-523. Manoliadis, O. and Tsolas, I. (2009), “Decision analysis framework for vendor selection in construction projects in Greece,” Journal of Public Procurement, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 248-261. Ünal, C. and Güner, M. (2009), “Selection of ERP suppliers using AHP tools in the clothing industry,” International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 239-251. Wadhwa, V. and Ravindran, A. (2007), “Vendor selection in outsourcing,” Computers & Operations Research, vol. 34, no. 12, pp. 3725-3737. Weber, C. A., Current, J. R. and Benton, W.C. (1991), “Vendor selection criteria and methods”, European Journal of Operational Research, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 2-18. Weber, C. and Current, J. (1993), “A multiobjective approach to vendor selection,” European Journal of Operational Research, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 173-184. Yang, C. and Chen, B. (2006), “Supplier selection using combined analytical hierarchy process and grey relational analysis,” Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, vol. 17, no. 7, pp. 926-941.
75
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
CONTRACTOR PREQUALIFICATION AND SELECTION IN TURKISH CONSTRUCTION SECTOR Faikcan Koğ1, Hakan Yaman2
1 2
Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey,
[email protected] Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey,
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Contractor selection problem is one of the important issues of construction sector. Construction projects can achieve to the success if and only if the resources are used effectively and efficiently and the right participants come together. Therefore, selection of the right contractor, who is one of the main participants of a construction project, is the main issue that clients have to be dealt with. Moreover, contractor selection is one of the most important and difficult decision processes for the clients. The objectives of this study are (1) examination of the recent contractor selection and pre-qualification models (2) and the analysis of the contractor selection criteria in Turkish construction sector, which are carried out by survey study. According to the meta-classification analysis of 133 peer-reviewed studies covering the topics of contractor selection, contractor pre-qualification and weighting criteria in the last 20-years period, a survey study is carried out with the sample of 106 respondents from Turkish public and private construction sectors. In this paper, remarkable findings and the results of the analysis of contractor selection criteria in terms of Turkish Construction Industry are represented. According to the findings, applicability of the existing models to the actual construction projects is examined and potential new solutions for the contractor selection problem are discussed. Keywords: Contractor selection, contractor pre-qualification, weighting criteria, meta-classification, Turkish construction sector.
76
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION In the construction industry, selecting a right contractor is a major problem that clients have to face at the beginning of every project. It is well known that construction projects consist of various uncertainties and risks and it is also well known that the success of construction projects depends on effectively and efficiently use of the resources by right participants. In addition, construction projects consist of commonly unique and complicated tasks that the participants have to be dealt with in order to achieve to the success. Therefore a strong and consistent relationship between client and contractor, who are the two main participants of construction projects, is expected for objectives. Contractor selection (CS) is one of the most important and difficult decision processes for the clients. However, CS problem in construction sector must be handled in two directions as CS and contractor pre-qualification (CP). Pre-qualification process provides contractors with the opportunity to differentiate themselves from their competitors and to impress clients and their advisors to have place on their tender lists [22]. It is observed that the main criterion in the selection of contractor is “bid price”. However, the details such as character of client, type of tendering or nature of project cause to consideration of dominance of “bid price” criterion. In general practices of public tenders, it is observed that the restriction of evaluation processes by various laws, regulations and procedures causes price-driven evaluation methods. On the other hand, private sector provides a much flexible environment to the examination of criteria other than price. The objectives of this study are (1) examination of the recent CS and pre-qualification models and tendering systems (2) and the analysis of the CS criteria in Turkish construction sector, which are carried out by survey study. This paper is structured as follows: the problem and the objectives of the study are clarified and the related works from literature are expressed in next section. Research methodology and empirical study is overviewed in Approach section. Result section sets out the preliminary findings the results of the study in order to analyze tendency on CS and pre-qualification. The results are discussed in next section and the paper is concluded with the suggestions of further studies. BACKGROUND It is obvious that the lowest bid price has an attractive effect on clients. Although clients tend to make decision according to the lowest prices, they should behave cautiously [16]. Otherwise it might cause intolerable losses in terms of other objectives such as quality and time. Therefore, a fundamental evaluation by appropriate weighting on the criteria of skills, experience and past performance, rather than choosing the lowest bidder is required. In public sector clients necessarily tend to lowest bidder because of responsibilities to the regulations and publicity. However most of the cases indicate that this is the major reason of delivery problems in construction sector [26]. Although, there is much flexible environment to evaluate bids in private sector, it is observed that there is a lack of general solution in order to examine contractor’s abilities and behaviors. The same situation also holds for Turkish Construction Industry. According to the Turkish Public Procurement Law (TPPL) #4734 [23], valid documents and guaranties are enough to select lowest bidder, which may results in failure for middle and large scale projects [26]. The main focus of this study is the analysis of tendency of actors in Turkish Construction Industry (both from private and public sectors) on construction selection and pre-qualification criteria. A various researches were conducted on construction CS and pre-qualification in both public [2][9], and private [6][8] sectors in order to emphasize the necessity of criteria other than bid price. However in this case, new questions come out such as identification, relative importance or weighting and evaluation of criteria. Watt et al. [28] emphasizes that the relative importance of criteria remains as an unexplored field. The holistic study on CS criteria is conducted by Ng and Skitmore [17] for UK Construction Sector. In this study, a large empirical survey is carried out in UK to indicate significant differences in the perspectives of clients and consultants on CS criteria. Yiu et al. [27] tests the applicability of CS models to the Hong Kong’s small-sized building works and as result of cases they indicate that existing models are insufficient in smallsized works. Tarawneh [22] examines the perceptions of major client from public and private sector on the importance of the pre-qualification criteria. This study indicates the differences in the views of Jordanian public and private sectors on CP criteria.
77
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 1. CS and CP Models Model Model based on Fuzzy Sets Theory Financial Model Linear Model Hybrid Model Mutli Attribute Analysis Method Linear Model using PERT Approach Neural Network Model
Model using Analytic Hierarcy Process (AHP) Model using Evidential Reasoning Approach Principal Component Analysis Method Support Vector Machine Model
Researcher Singh and Tiong [20] Russell [19] Russell [19] Russell [19] El-Sawalhi et al. [5] Holt et al. [9] Turskis [25] Hatush and Skitmore [8] Khosrowshah [10] Lam et al. [13] Palaneeswaran et al. [18] Elazouni [6] Fong and Choi [7] Al-Harbi [1] Sonmez et al. [21] Lam et al. [14] Lam et al.[15]
Research Year 2005 1992 1992 1992 2007 1994 2008 1997 1999 2001 2005 2006 2000 2001 2001 2005 2009
On the other hand various methods are developed to evaluate CS criteria. Recent CS and CP models are given in Table 1. These models are found out within the scope of Meta-Classification and Analysis Study [11], which is described in next section. Proposed models suggest solution to the CS problem with inferences over qualitative [1], quantitative [8][19] or both [7][18] data. They are structured as linear [8][19] and nonlinear [5] models. In a recent practice, El-Sawalhi et al. [5] compare the pre-qualification models in order to propose state of the art model. In this study they emphasize the both advantages and disadvantages of existing models and propose a hybrid model to eliminate disadvantages. Besides several researches are conducted on the examination of CS criteria in Turkish construction sector, such as [2][3][24][26]. Although, there are positive articles in the TPPL #4734 in order to encourage the selection of economically most advantageous bidders apart from bid price, there are lack of regulations and methods to evaluate criteria effectively and transparently. Hence, Yilmaz and Ergönül [26] structure a CS model to examine non-price criteria together with the bid price for middle-sized projects in Turkish Public construction sector. Nevertheless, researches on relative weighting of criteria and perspectives of actors on the criteria in Turkish public and private sectors are still limited in relevant field. APPROACH This study is conducted in the scope of a Ph. D thesis namely “Multi Agent System Based Contractor Selection and Prequalification Model”. This survey study is carried out in order to provide the initial parameters of the theoretical CS model. As a literature survey a meta-classification study is also carried out. According to the meta-classification analysis of 133 peer-reviewed studies covering the topics of CS, CP and weighting criteria in the last 20-years period, recent and important CS and CP models, which are presented in Table 1, are extracted. Moreover, significant criteria are compiled in order to observe perspectives in empirical study. These criteria are grouped in 5 main criteria and their sub-criteria as, A. Financial Standing; Financial Stability, Credit Rating, Working Capital, Turnover and Equity. B. Management Capability; Previous Performance and Quality, Quality Control Policy, Quality Management System, Project Management System, Experience of Administrative Personnel, Management Knowledge, Project Delivery Method and Location. C. Technical Ability; Plant and Equipment, Personnel, Usage Level of Technology, Expertise Field, Integrity, Size of Project, Experiences of Technical Personnel and Workload. D. Reputation; Age of firm, Fraudulent Activities, Disqualification Status, Past Failures in Completed Projects, Quality of Construction in Previous Projects, Attitude in Previous Projects, Following the Instructions in Previous Projects, Delays in Previous Projects, Number of Previous Bids, Past Client Relationships, (Reference) and Interoperability. E. Health and Security; Accidents, Health and Security Management System and Insurance Policy. According to these criteria, a draft of quantitative survey is created and submitted to the expertise of 6 experts (2 civil engineers, 2 architectures, a software engineer and a survey researcher) in order to validate. The validated survey, which consists of 5 sections aims to acquire professionals’ perspectives on CS and CP and
78
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
also to identify criteria weighting. The survey is carried out in the major 3 cities of Turkey (Table 2) with the sample of 106 respondents from public and private construction sectors. Table 2. Distribution of Respondents in Terms of Location Major City N % 53 50,0 Istanbul 27 25,5 Ankara 26 24,5 Izmir 106 100,0 Total The distribution of respondents in terms of status is given in Table 3. As it is seen in the table, % 51 of respondents is clients and %33 of them is contractors. Similar findings hold for sectorial distribution of organizations, which is shown in Table 4. In this paper, remarkable findings and the results of analysis of CS criteria for Turkish construction industry are represented. The ranked CS criteria and sub-criteria are weighted by relative importance index (RII) as follows [12]; ∑ = ∗ Where, w = weight of given sub-criterion in the range of 1 to n. An = the maximum weight, defined as n. N= the sample size.
Table 3. Distribution of Respondents in Terms of Status Position N 54 Client 35 Contractor 12 Consultant (for Client) 5 Other 106 Total
% 50,9 33,0 11,3 4,7 100,0
Table 4.Distribution of Respondents in Terms of Organization (Sector) Organization (Sector) N % Client (Public) Client (Private) Engineering Firm Contracting Company Project Management Firm Other Total
45 14 3 33 3 8 106
42,5 13,2 2,8 31,1 2,8 7,5 100,0
According to the findings, applicability of the existing models to the recent construction projects is examined and potential new solutions for the CS problem are discussed. RESULTS In the survey study, commonly used tendering methods are asked to the respondents in order to observe tendency on Turkish construction industry. Tendering methods are classified as "open competitive tendering", "selective tendering", "negotiated tenders" [4], "public tenders out of TPPL #4734" and "others". As seen in Table 5, open competitive tendering is the major tendering method in Turkish practices. Respondents’ opinion on adequacy of existing specifications to pre-qualify a contractor for bidding process is presented in Table 6. This result indicates that the %71 of respondents find it sufficient to ensure the conditions in the present specifications for pre-qualification.
79
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 5. Commonly used Tendering Methods Tendering Methods Open Competitive Tendering Selective Tendering Negotiated Tenders Public Tenders out of TPPL 4734 Others Total
N 72 10 15 5 4 106
Table 6. Adequacy of Current Specifications for Pre-qualification Is it sufficient for pre-qualification to ensure the conditions in the present specification? Yes No Total
% 67,9 9,4 14,2 4,7 3,8 100,0
N
%
75 31
70,8 29,2
106
100,0
On the other hand, another finding on the adequacy of current tendering regulations and laws is shown in Table 7. Responses are classified as "yes", "partially", "no", "no idea" and the responds emphasizes that the greater majority considers that current tendering regulations partially enough or not enough. Table 7. Adequacy of Current Tendering Laws and Regulations Are tender laws and regulations satisfying? N 27 Yes 44 Partially 32 No 3 No idea 106 Total
% 25,5 41,5 30,2 2,8 100,0
The other question of the survey is the effectiveness of the bid price in the current tendering practices in Turkey. Responses express that the % 39 of respondents admit that the bid price is the most effective criterion in every cases: likewise, % 33 of respondents think similar for most cases (Table 8). In survey it is also examined that if only bid price is a satisfactory criterion to decide in CS. Responses are given as percents in Table 9, which emphasize that the bid price is not a sufficient criterion alone to make decision on CS. Table 8. Effectiveness of Bid Price Is the bid price is the most effective factor in decision of construction tender? Yes, always. Yes, mostly. Sometimes, it depends. No Total
N
%
41 35 19 11 106
38,7 33,0 17,9 10,4 100,0
Table 9. Adequacy of Bid Price Is bid price sufficient criterion alone in terms N % of decision on CS? 8 7,5 Yes 98 92,5 No 106 100,0 Total Table 10 indicates the respondents’ perspectives on the relative importance of the main criteria. According to the results of Relative Important Index (RII) method, technical abilities of the contractors is seen as the most important criteria, while the health and security is the least.
80
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 10. Relative Important Index of Main Criteria Code of Criterion Contractor Selection Main Criteria Criterion score Technical Ability 0,7208 C Financial Standing 0,6868 A Management Capability 0,5981 B Reputation 0,5528 D Health and Security 0,4415 E However, the scores of sub-criteria (Table 11) express that the three most important sub-criteria are quality of construction in previous projects, past failures in completed projects and accidents, which are sub-criteria of reputation and health and security. In addition scores emphasize that interoperability of contractor with other firms, the location of head departments and the current workload of the contractor do not play significant role in the decision of CS. Table 11. Relative Important Index of Sub-Criteria Code of Criterion Sub-Criteria Quality of Construction in Previous Projects D5 Past Failures in Completed Projects D4 Accidents E1 Experience of Administrative Personnel B5 Health and Security Management System E2 Expertise Field C4 Financial Stability A1 Previous Performance and Quality B1 Following the Instructions in Previous Projects D7 Plant and Equipment C1 Personnel C2 Working Capital A3 Attitude in Previous Projects D6 Usage Level of Technology C3 Quality Control Policy B2 Project Management System B4 Quality Management System B3 Experiences of Technical Personnel C7 Equity A5 Management Knowledge B6 Delays in Previous Projects D8 Turnover A4 Insurance Policy E3 Credit Rating A2 Fraudulent Activity D2 Number of Previous Bids D9 Size of Project C6 Age of Firm D1 Disqualification Status D3 Integrity C5 Past Client Relationships (Reference) D10 Project Delivery Method B7 Workload C8 Location B8 Interoperability D11
Criterion score 0,7659 0,7581 0,7484 0,7406 0,7138 0,7111 0,7038 0,7028 0,6844 0,6781 0,6710 0,6396 0,6381 0,6274 0,6167 0,6108 0,6050 0,5967 0,5868 0,5660 0,5489 0,5377 0,5377 0,5321 0,5111 0,5069 0,4811 0,4726 0,4623 0,4245 0,4091 0,3939 0,3101 0,2642 0,2427
81
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
DISCUSSION Based on the literature, new technologies contribute to the CS studies and provide new solutions to the CS problem. In addition, the idea of hybrid modeling is proposed for the insufficiency of existing models. However, it is observed that the findings are not sufficient up to the mark, and there is an increment of researches in this field. CS is the major decision process, which effects directly to the results of projects and it is a kind of multicriteria problem. The findings of this survey study indicate that existing regulations are not enough to qualify contractors effectively and exiting models are not sufficient to change conservative attitude of construction sector. Therefore it is essential to find more efficient and effective models in order to examine CS criteria. In this paper, perspective of Turkish construction industry on CS criteria is examined. Despite the limited sample of quantitative survey, the necessary data are obtained in order to provide initial scores for further experiments on research project, which is in the scope of ongoing Ph. D. thesis. The aim of future works will be the usage of related data in order to model a new CS and CP method and to simulate CS processes in an intelligent environment. Hence, this simulation process will provide more precise values with updated results for real world cases. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The research work presented in this paper is part of the Ph. D Project which is financially supported by the Department of Scientific Research Projects of Istanbul Technical University under project no “37266”. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
82
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES [1] Al-Harbi, K. M. (2001). “Application of the AHP in Project Management”, International Journal of Project Management, 19, 19–27. [2] Arslan, G., Kivrak, S., Birgonul, M. T., & Dikmen, I. (2008). Improving sub-contractor selection process in construction projects: Web-based sub-contractor evaluation system (WEBSES). Automation in Construction, 17(4), 480-488. [3] Baykasoglu, A., Ozbay, E., Tolga Gogus, M., & Oztas, A. (2009). Contractor selection with multi criteria decision support tools. Int. Journal of Industrial and Systems Eng., 4(2), 174-197. [4] Bayliss, C.R. & Hardy, B.J. (2012). “Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering (Fourth Edition)”, Newnes Publications, Great Britain, 863-938 [5] El-Sawalhi, N., Eaton, D. & Rustom, R. (2007). “Contractor Pre-Qualification Model: State-Of-Art”, International Journal Of Project Management, 25(5), 465-474. [6] Elazouni, A. M. (2006). “Classifying Construction Contractors Using Unsupervised-Learning Neural Networks”, Journal of Construction Eng. and Man. 132(12), 1242–1253. [7] Fong Sik-Wah, P. & Choi Kit-Young, S. (2000). “Final Contractor Selection Using The Analytical Hierarchy Process”, Construction Management and Economics, 18, 547-557. [8] Hatush, Z. & Skitmore, M. (1997). “Assessment and Evaluation of Contractor Data Against Client Goals Using PERT Approach”, Construction Management and Economics, 15, 327-340. [9] Holt, G. D., Olomolaiye, P. O., Harris, F. C. (1994). Evaluating prequalification criteria in contractor selection. Building and Environment, 29(4), 437-448. [10] Khosrowshahi, F. (1999), “Neural Network Model for Contractors’ Prequalification for Local Authority Projects”, Engineering Construction and Architectural Man., 6, 315–328. [11] Kog, F. & Yaman, H. (2012). Tender Evaluation and Contractor Selection with Multi Agent Systems and Petri Nets. 2. Project and Building Management Congress (in Turkish), Izmir, Turkey [12] Kometa, S. T., & Olomolaiye, P. O. (1997). Evaluation of factors influencing construction clients' decision to build. Journal of Management in Engineering, 13(2), 77-86. [13] Lam, K. C., Hu, T., Ng, S. T., Skitmore, M. & Cheung, S. O. (2001). “A Fuzzy Neural Network Approach for Contractor Prequalification”, Construction Management and Economics, 19, 175–180. [14] Lam, K. C.; Hu, T.; Ng, S. T. (2005). Using the Principal Component Analysis Method as A Tool in Contractor Prequalification”, Construction Management and Economics, 23, 673-684. [15] Lam, K.C., Palaneeswaran, E. & Yu, C.Y. (2009) “A Support Vector Machine Model for Contractor Prequalification”, Automation in Construction, 18(3), 321-329. [16] McCanlis, E.W. (1967). “Tendering and Contractual Arrangements”, Research and Information Group of the Quantity Surveyors’ Committee, RICS, London. [17] Ng, S. T., & Skitmore, R. M. (1999). Client and consultant perspectives of prequalification criteria. Building and Environment, 34(5), 607-621. [18] Palaneeswaran, E. & Kumaraswamy, M. (2005). „Web-Based Client Advisory Decision Support System for Design-Builder Prequalification”, Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 19(1), 69-82. [19] Russell, J. S. (1992). “Decision Models for Analysis and Evaluation of Construction Contractors”, Construction Management and Engineering, 10, 117-135. [20] Singh, D. & Tiong, R. L. K. (2005). “A Fuzzy Decision Framework for Contractor Selection”, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 131(1), 62–70. [21] Sönmez, M., Holt, G. D., Yang, J. B., & Graham, G. (2002). Applying evidential reasoning to prequalifying construction contractors. Journal of Man. in Engineering, 18(3), 111-119. [22] Tarawneh, S. A. (2004). Evaluation of Pre-qualification Criteria: Client Perspective; Jordan Case Study. Journal of Applied Sciences, 4(3), 354-363. [23] TPPL 4734. Turkish Public Procurement Law (2002). 22.01.2002 dated Official Journal of Turkey, Number 24648, Plot 5, Volume 42. [24] Topcu, Y. I. (2004). A decision model proposal for construction contractor selection in Turkey. Building and Environment, 39(4), 469-481. [25] Turskis, Z. (2008). “Multi-Attribute Contractors Ranking Method by Applying Ordering of Feasible Alternatives of Solutions In Terms of Preferability Technique”, Technological and Economic Development of Economy 14(2), 224-239. [26] Yilmaz, A., & Ergönül, S. (2011). Selection of Contractors for Middle-Sized Projects in Turkey. Gazi University Journal of Science, 24(3), 477-485. [27] Yiu, C.Y., Lo, S.M., Ng, S.T. & Ng, M.M.F. (2002). "Contractor Selection for Small Building Works in Hong Kong", Structural Survey, 20(4), 129-135.
83
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
[28] Watt, D. J., Kayis, B., & Willey, K. (2010). The relative importance of tender evaluation and contractor selection criteria. International Journal of Project Management, 28(1), 51-60.
84
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
FINANCE OF WORK ACCIDENTS Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nuri Çaykun Alpaslan
[email protected]
ABSTRACT It is known that after work accidents there is a huge damage in both substantial and spiritual way.There is an obvious spiritual lost in work accidents which is the death of the labor. Even not the every accidents cause deaths, illness and injuries also damage the life of labor and his family and maket them depressive. That’s why also there is a physicological side of work accidents that can count as a damage. This article emphasizes the damages of work accidents as substantially and shows that the financial imporantance of work security and get this subject into the work securtiy literature.By assuming the financial lost of work accidents, firms have to provide the construction area before the accidents happen. Keywords: work accidents, finance, work security
85
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION According to the TUIK Statistics, nearly 38 billion TL has spent cause of work accidents during the year 2008 and that amount represents %4 of the national product of that year. When we look at the construction sector there is a lost which is like 21.000 TL for each workplace in 2008.This number is calculated with the substantial damage datas and we have to know that substantial losses are just the upside part of the iceberg and there is a major big loss which we cant measure after the work accidents. The Pyramit of W. Heinrich shows that;
Due to statistics of 2008, 297 person died cause of the construction works and according to this information we customize this damage number into the construction sector to the pyramit of W. Heinrich, it shows;
Pyramit theory tells that there are 6 situations within an inch of accident every day in just one construction area and also one time in every two days there is an accident without injury. That is an huge number that is a considerable number for our country. AFFECTS OF WORK ACCIDENTS TO THE FINANCIAL SITUATION We can divide the substantial damages into two parts as directly and indirectly. Directly expenses are just the top part of the iceberg and near of this there is a hug indirect expenses which are incalculable. As an example; transportation costs of first aids and medical attentions, delays in work current cause of the accidents, degradation and despondancy, the wage that spent to the injuried worker even he can’t work, equipment losses, court costs and OSHA penalties can be given as expenses after the accident. Direct expenses;
86
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Doctor expenses Medicine expenses Nursing expenses
Indirect expenses; Loss of work time due to accident Loss of work time of other workers Degradation due to depression Loss of work time of administrative personnel Rearing expenses of new worker VARIABILTY RATIO OF EXPERIENCE In America, workers compensation insurance premium which are lower than directly expenses are arranged by the government such as the employers are awarded the prize if they have secure work areas by paying a low fee. In other word, employers who have more work accidents in work area pay more than the other employers. This insurance premium is calculated by two components that are shown below; Worker compensation premium = Manuel Rate x EMR Manuel rate is changing every year depends on each state and each worker group in the formula. This ratio is calculated due to insurance premium of the last year and represents a significant percent of daily wages. For construction sector, this ratio is near 30 percent. Shortly this ratio represents the work accident background of spesific work group in spesific state. (Hinze, 1997) Also the component which is called EMR represens the work accident background of every workers in USA. EMR – Experience Modification Rate- shows the past compensation and penalty cases of employers. Calculating the EMR is slightly complex and also there is different calculation system for different states. In these calculations, it has to considered both work accident frequency and work accident volume. This system is designed in such a way that with a few of small accidents the EMR doesn’t change so much but with a big crush on the work area it can affect immensely. EMR ratio is calculated for last three years. For example, EMR of an employer in 2005 is found by searching the compensation and penalty cases of 2003-2002-2001 years. The reason of not to choose 2004 is because cases are not finish in just one year generally. If EMR ratio is lower than %100, compensation premiums have been discounted and if it is higher than %100 it results the opposite. And that is affect workers insurance directly. (Baradan 2005b) Deterrence Fact Number of people who died cause of work illness and work accidents are increasing every year and that costs a big damage for employers. For not repeat work accidents or decrease the number of accidents, some preventions have been done and also punishing the guilties can be a fact of deterrence. Deterrence fact has to be a penalty that could block the guilty for not quoting on his mistake which causes work accident and by this penalty employer has to get all preventions against the possible work accident. Developed countries give a big importance to the deterrence fact. In the first time, Germany implemented recompensing to the workers as deterrence fact after work accidents in 1885. After that, this implementation widespreaded all over the Europe and America. As an example, when a worker fall down from height, employer paid a high fee compensation and also he has to put on a salary to the worker and cost recovery of theworkers childrens education. In the end, as a decision of court, employers have to pay big numbers and that could even cause the bankrupt for work areas. Also in USA, these laws emphasized contuniously to the employers and workers and this makes an awareness raisining in the country. In Turkey, the subject of compensation has utilized by ‘enrichment factor’ due to substantial and spiritual compansations. However with the law of mortgage that decisions taken in 2008 and effectuated in 2011, these decisions are arranged and innovated. In Turkey, material compensation is defined without considering the enrichment factor and that compensation is apparent, calculable and its bases are solid. The main princible of giving material compansation is grounding
87
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
on arrange the damages of accident. But the spiritual compensation are not based on solid datas and enrichment factor got considered in it. Spiritual compensation is applied due to equity theory in most of EU countries. According to this, the judge can reduce the compensation due to equity theory. Understanding that compensation is not an implement of being rich brought on the compensation regime. Main factor at this stage is the changing style of the law of mortgage. 47th and 49th clause of the law of mortgage clarifies the view of justice on compensations. EXPENSES FOR WORK SECURITY There is a parabolic relation between the expenses to the work security and costs. The certain amount of expenses to the work security (Go) decrease the costs into the optimum level and after it reaches the minimum cost, expenses are increased the costs again. Employer has to define all the precautions that prevent the work accidents with minimum cost. Also we have to remember that there is an empirical relation between the work security expenses and expenditure. That means if there is a need of getting work security precautions, these precautions should not have done with the concern of expenses or thinking postpones.
For having enough information about accidents in some area, two properties have to be known which are work accident frequency and work accident volume. Work accident frequency represents the number of accidents that affects the work day in a spesific period.
Work Accident Frequency = Total Number of Accidents x Average Working Hours Work Accident volume = Number of the days that accident happens / Number of workers x Average Working Hours Work accident frequency and work accident volume provides the following benefits on work security; Inform the employer about what ratio there is an accident in the entire or part of the work area Giving the opportunity of prefiguring the effectiveness of the works that made in the work area about work security Helps to putting in order the works from hard to easy Works in calulation of compensation premium points for reveal the risky areas
88
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Helps to compare two different sized work area in the way of work accident. Work accident frequency is usually between 5 and 10. If this ratio is bigger than 10, that means employer has to take some precautions against the work accidents or change the ways which are used to prevent accidents.Also work accident volume has to be between 0,5 and 1. If there is an accident which is ended with a death of worker, we have to take work day loss as 7500 days. When there will be an increasement on the ratio of work accident frequency and volume, employer has to change its strategy of work security.This is a big responsibility except the financial situations that include human life.
RESULT In our day, besides some organizations dont make investment on work security, they create more unhealthy atmosphere for not giving any money. According to the ILO (International Labour Organization), every year 1,2 million women and men die cause of work accidents and work illness. Same source says that 250 million worker got damaged from work accidents and 160 million worker got damaged from work illness every year. Recent searchs show that averagely three workers die every day cause of work accidents. According to the organization of social insurance and security, 72,963 work accidents and 440 work illness happened and 811 of them are resulted with the death of worker in 2003. Due to researches, 50 percent of the work accidents could be prevented easily and the other 48 percent of the accidents could be prevented with a systematic work. From these statistics, employers have to choose giving less money by preventing dangers for work security instead of losses.
REFERENCES 1) MÜNGEN Uğur, İş Güvenliği Ders Notları 2) ÇSGM – İŞGÜM (2005) http://isggm.calisma.gov.tr 3) INTES, www.intes.org.tr 4) USMEN M.A. (1994), America Society of Civil Engineers 5) ESİN Alp, (2006) Yeni Mevzuatın Işığında İş Sağlığı ve Güvenliği, TMMO 368 s, 2006 6) ÇINAR Funda, İş Sağlığı ve Güvenliğinin Temel Prensipleri, Çalışma ve Sosyal Güvenlik Eğitim Uzmanlığı semineri
89
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
ANALYSES OF PUBLIC PROCUREMENT DISPUTES IN TURKEY Neslihan Atabeyli1, Gülben Çalış1
[email protected] 1
Ege University, Department of Civil Engineering, Bornova, Izmir, 35100, Turkey
ABSTRACT As public procurements constitute a big proportion of government expenditures, the efficiency and efficacy of public procurements are vital for any government. In order to understand whether a proper public procurement system has been implemented or not and which areas need to change in the related law, it is important to analyze the types of disputes and their frequencies. This study presents an assessment of implementations about public procurement procedures via evaluation of the appeals in Turkey. Data of appeals are derived from the Public Procurement Authority between 2009 and 2012. Appeals are categorized and analyzed according to the contract types and top contracting authorities. The results show that the number of appeals is increasing and appeals are mostly encountered in service procurement procedures. Moreover, the analyses show that Ministry of Health is the most appealed top contracting authority and generally, authorities with big budgets are appealed more than others. Keywords: Appeal, contract type, contracting authority, dispute, public procurement, Turkey
90
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION A good public procurement system is one of the most important instruments of spending public sources effectively. One of the ways to assess a public procurement system is analyzing the disputes between tenderers and contracting authorities. As an official candidate for accession to the European Union (EU), Turkey has speed up the adaptation processes and established the Public Procurement Authority (PPA), which is responsible for the public procurement system. As much as it is important to implement a proper procurement system to facilitate the awarding procedures, it is also essential to have a consistent and fair process to deal with the disputes that are encountered due to procurement procedures. Gencer has analyzed 535 appeals of construction tenders to the PPA in 2004 [1]. Classification of decisions, categorization of applicants and the PPA arrangements were presented and it is stated that the PPA shall consider only the aspects established in the contracting authority’s decision while reviewing the appeals. Moreover, it is stated that the PPA’s conflicting decisions causes losses of rights of contractors [2]. The Public Procurement Law (PPL) has gone under 32 revisions after its implementation in 2003. Furthermore, there have been major revisions, which were required for adaptation to the EU, in 2008. Therefore, there is lack of a research that presents the effects of the revisions on disputes and this kind of analyses would not only lead to detect the most problematic areas of the existing system but also help to understand the types of disputes. In this study, appeals derived from the PPA between the years 2009 and 2012 are analyzed. The following sections introduce the public procurement system in Turkey, present the methodology and data. Then, results and discussions are provided. PUBLIC PROCUREMENT SYTEM IN TURKEY The PPA is established to carry out the duties assigned by the PPL, which came into force in 2003. The main functions of the PPA are basically regulating, supervising and monitoring of the public procurement system. Some of the main duties of the PPA can be listed as follows: • to prepare, develop and guide the implementation of all the legislation concerning this law and Public Procurement Contracts Law and the standard tender documents and contracts, • to provide training on procurement legislation, to provide national and international coordination, • to gather information as specified by the Authority relating to the contracts and tender proceedings carried out, to compile and publish statistics relating to quantity, price and other issues, • to keep the records of those who are prohibited from participating in tenders. Apart from these duties, one of the most important duties of the PPA is to evaluate and conclude complaints claiming that the proceedings carried out by contracting authority within the period from the commencement of the tender proceedings until the signing of the contract are in violation of this law and the related legislative provisions. Complaint and appeal applications are the mandatory administrative application paths to be executed before filing a lawsuit. Complaint applications of the candidates, the tenderers or potential tenderers should be submitted to the contracting authority. Tenderers, who have submitted a complaint application to the contracting authority and have not been satisfied with the decision of the contracting authority, may file an appeal to the PPA through signed petitions. It should be noted that the board decisions of the PPA are not be subjected to appropriateness supervision and the board members are responsible for their votes and decisions. Therefore, the board members of the PPA shall review the appeals, which have been taken upon a complaint and objections against proceedings, by considering whether there has been an infringement of equal treatment principle in the framework of claims of applicant [3]. Decisions are reasoned by the contracting authority or the PPA according to the PPL and are specified as follows; • ordering the termination of the procurement proceedings in case of violation of law which would constitute an obstacle for the continuation of the tender proceeding and which cannot be remedied by taking corrective measures; • determining the corrective action in cases where the problem may be remedied through correction and where it is not necessary to interrupt the procurement process; • rejecting the application in cases where the application does not comply with related rules regarding time, procedure and form, the contract has been signed properly or no infringement of law could be detected or
91
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
subject matter of appeal is not covered in the PPA’s field of duty, and recording the application security, if any, as revenue as well in cases of rejecting the appeal application except where the subject matter of the application is not within the duty area of the PPA. Contracting authorities must immediately implement the decisions, which require changes in the legal status. Decisions on each complaint are recorded including the following information: • Name, surname or title and address of the applicants, and of the agents or representatives if any, • Name of the contracting authority and subject matter of the contract or the procurement registration number, • The date when the situation leading the application has been realized or notified, • The subject matter of application, the reasons and the evidences thereof, • For the appeal applications, the date of notification of the complaint raised to contracting authority and the date of notification of the contracting authority’s decision, if any. It should be noted that the decisions made by the PPA with regard to the complaints are under the jurisdiction of the Turkish courts and such cases shall have priority [3]. MATERIALS AND METHODS The main goal of this study is to analyze the appeals with respect to the contract types and top contracting authorities. A total of 17187 appeals that have been submitted resulting from 505240 procurement procedures are collected from annual reports of the PPA [4-8]. As there have been major revisions in the law in 2008, the data are chosen between 2009 and 2012. It should be noted that the data for 2013 are not available as of this study is conducted. In the PPL, contract types are divided into three groups: good, service and works contracts. In this study, the appeals are categorized similarly. To assess the appeals with respect to contract types, the appeals are compared to total procurement procedures with all types of contracts and the same contract type within the same year, respectively. To assess the appeals with respect to top contracting authorities, the most appealed five top contracting authorities are selected. Appeals that have been submitted to these contracting authorities are compared to total appeals within the same year and to total procurement procedures that have been carried out by the same top contracting authority. The latter comparison is only conducted for 2009 and 2010 as the number of
92
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
procurement procedures carried out by the same top contracting authority in 2011 and 2012 are not available. RESULTS Table 1. shows the number of appeals and the procurement procedures according to the contract types. In the last 4 years, most of the procurement procedures were carried out for good contracts by 220487 tenders and service contracts were the most appealed type of contracts by 8896 appeals.
Table 1. Number of appeals and procurement procedures according to contract types. Contract type Total
Good
Service
Works
Year
# of # of appeals procurement procedures
# of # of appeals procurement procedures
# of appeals # of procurement procedures
# of # of appeals procurement procedures
2012
913
50331
2906
45917
1463
23500
5282
119748
2011
839
54470
2408
46011
1423
24145
4670
124626
2010
747
57643
1884
51651
1650
24067
4281
133361
2009
535
58043
1698
48829
721
20633
2954
127505
Total
3034
220487
8896
192408
5257
92345
17187
505240
Figure 1. shows the ratios of the appeals with respect to the total procurement procedures within the same year. As can be seen from the figure, generally, there is a trend of increase in all appeal shares. Total appeal ratio has increased from 2.3% to 4.4% in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Similarly, the appeal ratios of three contract types have also increased. Appeal ratios for good contract types are the least with an average of 0,6%, whereas procurement procedures for service contracts are appealed the most with an average of 1,8%.
93
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Figure 1. Appeal ratios of contract types in all procurement procedures within the same year With respect to procurement procedures with the same contract types, it can be stated that the appeal rates are higher in procurement procedures for works contracts in 2010 and 2011 (Figure 2.). However, generally, procurement procedures for service contracts are appealed more than other types of contracts with an average of 4,7. Accordingly, it can be concluded that service contracts were appealed more than other contract types in the last 4 years. This result might be due to the fact that the secondary legislation prepared for the right implementation of procurement procedures for service contracts might not be clear and explanatory to contractors, and, thus, caused confusion.
Figure 2. Appeal ratios of contract types in the same type of procurement procedures within the same year Figure 3. shows the most appealed 5 top contracting authorities. According to the comparison, it can be seen that the most appealed 3 top contracting authorities in the last 4 years are the same ones, which are Ministry of Health, municipalities and higher education bodies [6, 9-11]. This might due the fact that these authorities have issued more tender notices than other authorities.
94
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Figure 3. Most appealed top contracting authorities The comparison of appeals to all procurement procedures carried by the same top contracting authority within the same year is only conducted for 2009 and 2010, as the procurement procedures carried out by the same top contracting authority in 2011 and 2012 were not available. According to the analyses, the most appealed 3 top authorities in 2009 were the Ministry of Public Works and Settlement; regulation and supervision authorities, and authorities with special budgets, whereas Council of State; Ministry of Transportation, and Ministry of Foreign Affairs were the most appealed authorities in 2010. This result might be due to the authorities’ budgets for public procurement procedures. Subsequently, the budgets of public procurement procedures carried out by municipalities were ranked the first, where the authorities with special budgets and state economic enterprises were ranked the second and the third, respectively, in 2009 and 2010. State economic enterprises and the Ministry of Health were ranked the second and the third in 2011 and 2012, respectively [6, 9-11]. Therefore, it can be concluded that the contracting authorities with big budgets for public procurement are appealed the most. DISCUSSION In this study, disputes between tenderers and contracting authorities are analyzed to understand the most problematic parts of the public procurement system in Turkey and that it would guide to further changes in the public procurement law. To achieve this goal, the number of public procurement procedures and appeals, which were submitted to PPA, are analyzed. The appeals are categorized with respect to contract types and top contracting authorities. The results can be summarized as follows: • Total appeal ratio has increased from 2.3% to 4.4% in the last 4 years. The appeal ratios of all contract types have increased similarly and service contracts are the most appealed contract type in the last 4 years. • Among many authorities, Ministry of Health; Municipalities; Higher education bodies; Ministry of Public Works and Settlement; regulation and supervision authorities; authorities with special budgets; Council of State; Ministry of Transportation and Ministry of Foreign Affairs are the most appealed bodies. Top contracting authorities, which have bigger budgets than other authorities, are appealed the most.
95
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
As a matter of fact, the changes in the PPL might have caused confusion in processes and that the dispute rates keep increasing. Therefore, it can be concluded that the PPL should not be revised frequently and concrete public procurement legislation should be implemented to maintain a consistent, fair and timely process to deal with disputes. Besides, legislation for service contracts could be revised to minimize the dispute rates.
96
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES [1] Gencer H. (2005). “Kamu İhale Kanununa göre yapılan yapım işleri ihalelerindeki uyuşmazlıklar ve uyuşmazlık kararları üzerine bir araştırma”, available at http://www.e- kutuphane.imo.org.tr/pdf/10561.pdf [2] Gencer H. (2007). “Kamu İhale Kurulu’nun Verdiği Çelişkili Uyuşmazlık Kararları Üzerine Bir Araştırma”, 4. İnşaat Yönetimi Kongresi, 30-31 Ekim, İstanbul, s.45-59. [3] Bakanlar Kurulu (2002). 4734 sayılı Kamu İhale Kanunu, 24648, Resmi Gazete, Ankara [4] Kamu İhale Kurumu (2010a). “T.C. Kamu İhale Kurumu 2009 yılı Faaliyet Raporu”, available at http://www.ihale.gov.tr/arge/2009_Yılı%20Faaliyet_raporu.zip [5] Kamu İhale Kurumu (2011a) ” T.C. Kamu İhale Kurumu 2010 yılı Faaliyet Raporu”, available at http://www.ihale.gov.tr/kik/Belgeler/2010%20Yılı%20Faaliyet%20Raporu.pdf [6] Kamu İhale Kurumu (2011b) “ Kamu Alımları İzleme Raporu 2010 Dönem 01.01.201031.12.2010”, available at http://www1.ihale.gov.tr/istatistik/2010_Rapor.zip [7] Kamu İhale Kurumu (2012a) ” T.C. Kamu İhale Kurumu 2011 yılı Faaliyet Raporu”, available at http://www.ihale.gov.tr/kik/Belgeler/2011%20Yılı%20Faaliyet%20Raporu.pdf [8] Kamu İhale Kurumu (2013a) ” T.C. Kamu İhale Kurumu 2012 yılı Faaliyet Raporu”, available at http://www1.ihale.gov.tr/duyurular2012/kik_faaliyet_2012_final.pdf [9] Kamu İhale Kurumu (2010 b). “Kamu Alımları İzleme Raporu 2009 Dönem 01.01.201031.12.2010”, available at http://wwwLihale.gov.tr/istatistik/2009_kamuahmlanrapom.pdf [10] Kamu İhale Kurumu (2012b) “ Kamu Alımları İzleme Raporu 2011 Dönem 01.01.201131.12.2011”, available at http://www1.ihale.gov.tr/duyurular2012/2012_kamu_alımı_istatistkleri_rev.pdf [11] Kamu İhale Kurumu (2013b) “ Kamu Alımları İzleme Raporu 2012 Dönem 01.01.201231.12.2012”, available at http://www1.ihale.gov.tr/duyurular2012/2012_kamu_alımı_istatistkleri_rev.pdf
97
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ANALYSES OF AN EDUCATIONAL BUILDING IN THE FIRST CLIMATIC REGION OF TURKEY Hamed Aslanipoor1 , Gulben Calis1
[email protected]
1
EgeUniversity, Department of Civil Engineering, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
ABSTRACT Energy consumption has increased significantly over the last decades due to climate change, growing population, rising living standards and energy-demanding new technologies. Existing buildings are responsible for 50% of energy consumption in the world and a great portion of energy is consumed to satisfy occupant comfort levels, which are mostly related to heating and cooling. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce heating and cooling energy demand in existing buildings. One of the ways to decrease the amount of consumed-energy in buildings is minimizing the energy need of the buildings by designing energy efficient buildings. To achieve this goal, first step is to understand the behavior of buildings in terms of energy consumption. It is stated that almost 40% of energy in Turkey is consumed in buildings. Therefore, the Turkish Government issued National Building Energy Performance Calculation Methodology (BEP-TR) in 2009 to evaluate energy performance of buildings, which includes heating, cooling, domestic hot water production and lighting energy consumptions and CO2 emissions. In this study, energy performance of an educational building is evaluated by BEP-TR. The building is located in the first climatic region of Turkey, which is hot and humid and that energy utilized for cooling is high. Energy performance and breakdown of energy consumption of the building are presented. In addition, improvements towards energy retrofitting are evaluated. Keywords: Energy performance, BEP-TR, educational building
98
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
INTRODUCTION Energy has an essential role in the development of human society. Unfortunately, extreme and unconscious utilization of energy resources has caused many environmental consequences in the last century and also standardized the risk of shortage of contractual fuels in the future [1]. Construction industry is assuredly one of the most significant sectors that affect the life quality and environmental issues, as it contains a strong effect on tranquility of user and consumption of energy [2]. It is stated that 1/3 of greenhouse transpirations of the world is produced by buildings due to their high energy consumption [3,4]. Besides, approximately 42% of the world’s total annual energy consumption is consumed by buildings [3,5]. Therefore, it is essential to provide a breakdown of energy consumption in buildings in order to reduce energy consumption. In Turkey, almost 40% of the manufactured energy is consumed in buildings. Therefore, there is a big potential of saving energy. It is stated that energy density rate in Turkey is more than twice of the European Union (EU) countries [6]. According to the report published by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources of Turkey, the ratios of energy saving potential in Turkey are 30% and 15% in industry and building sectors, respectively [ 7,8]. Therefore, it can be concluded that energy demand and need for reduction in buildings are rising rapidly and steps towards energy efficient buildings should be taken. Evaluation of energy performance of buildings and the performance of existing simulation programs have drawn attention by researchers as energy consumption in buildings constitutes a big portion in total. The utilization of simulation tools not only helps users to evaluate energy consumption, but also enables them in analyzing the design options to ensure optimum performance throughout the building life cycle. Accordingly, Kumar and Agarwala searched the state of the art in designing an energy model with the consideration of solar, wind and ground sources for renewable energy and fossil fuel. The results showed that the energy model provides the estimation and prediction of hybrid power generation with respect to the parameters of resource potential, technology, efficiency and consumption pattern [9]. Various energy conservation measures (ECMs) on heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) and lighting systems for a four-storied institutional building in sub-tropical (hot and humid climate) Queensland, Australia were evaluated by the simulation software, DesignBuilder. The results showed that energy could be saved up to 41.87% without compromising thermal comfort of occupants by implementing ECMs into the existing system [10] . Smith et al. developed a method to estimate energy profiles of buildings and the model was verified by comparing the results that were generated by EnergyPlus. A total of 72 distinct medium sized buildings in Baltimore, MD were examined and the buildings’ monthly energy bills were utilized to benchmark buildings’ energy profiles. The analysis revealed that the methodology could significantly reduce the errors introduced by discrepancies of the EnergyPlus benchmark model [11]. Dombaycı developed an artificial neural network model to predict hourly heating energy consumption of a model house designed in Denizli which is located in Central Aegean Region of Turkey. Hourly heating energy consumption of the model house was calculated by degree-hour method [12]. Meanwhile, Turkey issued a nationwide simulation program, National Building Energy Performance Calculation Methodology (BEP-TR), for simulating and calculating the energy performance of buildings in Turkey. After it was issued in 2009, several researchers focused on the performance of BEP-TR. In a research conducted by Yılmaz et al., BEP-TR was used to compare the sensitivity of opaque and transparent component parameters. Moreover, the sensitivity of these parameters on building heating and cooling energy need within different climate conditions were investigated [13]. Kabak et al. developed a “fuzzy multi-criteria decision making (MCDM)” approach in order to analyze BEP-TR. This approach was applied to categorize alternative buildings according to their overall energy performance. Results are discussed in terms of developing a new and practical building rating system [14]. In another research, a hospital building was selected as a case study to understand how the complexity of buildings has an effect on the energy performance of the buildings. Energy performance of a building was evaluated by BEP-TR and EnergyPlus. The results show that the complexity level of a building has a significant effect on heating and cooling energy demand of the building [15]. Previous studies showed that BEP-TR is a promising simulation tool; however, there is a lack of a research that focuses on building especially in hot and humid climates, where energy demand for cooling is significantly high. In this study, energy performance of an educational building, which is in a hot-humid climate of Turkey, is evaluated by BEP-TR and breakdown of energy consumption is analyzed. The remaining of the paper is organized as follows. The next section focuses on the methodology. In Section 3, the selected educational building is presented. In Section 4, the
99
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
results for energy consumption and retrofitting are provided. Finally, discussion and conclusions drawn from the study are presented. METHODOLOGY BEP-TR was issued in 2009 in accordance with the EU Building Energy Performance Directive (2002/91/EC). BEP-TR is used for evaluating energy performance of different kinds of buildings such as residential and commercial buildings, hotels and shopping centers. The methodology of BEP-TR is based on the simple hourly method, which is defined in International Organization for Standardization EN ISO 13790 [16], and it is a simplified dynamic simulation model established on the resistance-capacitance (RC) model. In the evaluation process, a building’s energy performance is assessed with respect to the location and climate data; building geometry and envelope; mechanical systems; lighting systems and hot water systems. It should be noted that BEP-TR assumes that renewable energy and cogeneration systems do not exist in the buildings. In the evaluation process, a reference building has to be selected among predefined building geometries. Location, and, thus, climate data is chosen. According to BEP-TR, Turkey is divided into four climatic zones, where the first climatic zone represents hot and humid climate. Based on the criteria mentioned above, energy performance and CO2 emission of the building and reference one are evaluated and compared. The energy performance (Ep) is calculated by (1) = 100 ∗
(1)
Ep: energy performance EP: energy consumption per year (kWh/m2) a: building evaluated r: reference building CASE STUDY In this study, a three-story educational building is selected at the Ege University Campus in Izmir, Turkey (Figure 1). The building is selected due to its uniqueness with respect to its architecture and utilization. Firstly, the building is utilized for nuclear investigations and that the building is complex, where each zone is specified as a thermal zone. Secondly, the building has a semi interior courtyard, which might have an effect on the energy performance.
Figure 1. View of the building The ground floor and the first floor plans of the building are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively.
1. Laboratory 2. Corridor 3. Office 4. Cafeteria 5. Exhibition hall 6. Stuff room 7. Student study room Figure 2. Ground floor plan of the building
100
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
1. Office 2. Classroom 3. Student study room 4. corridor 5. laboratory 6. library 7. Exhibition ball 8. Conference hall 9. Meeting room Figure 3. First floor plan of the building The lighting system of the building consists of 65.9 % fluorescent, 32.5 % compact fluorescent and 1.6 % incandescent lamps. 23.41 % of the all external walls that are in contact with outdoor air are covered with double clear glazing windows that are made of double insulated glass (4 mm-12 mm-4 mm) and insulated aluminum frames. Window/wall ratios of the building are calculated in the north, south, west and east directions of the building and are 31,4%, 39,3%, 20,0 % and 16,1 % respectively. Components of the building are given in Table 1.
Table 3. Energy consumption of the building Type Characteristics of the building
Amount
Structural system
Reinforced concrete columns and beams
External walls Area
Brick walls and reinforced concrete curtains Basement floor
Generally 50 cm and 60 cm thicknesses 30 cm thickness 418.5 m2
Ground floor First floor
1625 m2 1698.9 m2
Total building Total building For all floors
3323.9 m2 1528.9 m3 4.2 m
Indoor usage area Volume Floor-to-floor height
ANALYSIS The maximum standard U-values (heat transfer coefficient) for buildings determined by Turkish Standard (TS 825,Thermal insulation regulations in buildings) for Izmir and the U values that are calculated for the building are given in Table 2. Table 2. Standard U values for Izmir and U values obtained for investigated building U-values (W.m^K"1) Walls Roof Floors Windows Standards for Izmir For the building
0,70 0.565
0,45 0.329
0,70 0.575
2,4 2,8
Energy performance of the building is given in Table 3. As can be seen, BEP-TR provides energy performance of a building both by final energy consumption and energy consumption per m2. The results show that energy is mostly consumed for heating and cooling. Ventilation constitutes the least consumption among five energy demands of the building.
101
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 3. Energy consumption of the building Type of consumption Heating Cooling Sanitary hot water Lighting Ventilation
energy Final energy (kwh/year) 533.202,58 292.292,87 275.374,32 146.876,94 183,40
consumption Energy consumption (kwh/year)
per
m2
160,48 87,97 82,88 44,21 0,06
1.247.930,09 375,60 Total To achieve a better energy performance in the building, aluminum framed windows with higher U values (2.8 W.m-2K1 ) were replaced by plastic framed windows with lower U values (1.9 W.m-2K-1) and the results of the replacement are given in Table 4.
The results show that total energy consumption is reduced by 35573 (kwh/year) and 10,71 (kwh/year) per m2. Applied changes in windows affected the heating and ventilation energy consumptions in a positive way; however, it had adverse effects on cooling energy consumption. The maximum change on the energy consumption is observed on heating loads, where 38329,97 kwh/year could be saved. It can be concluded that different factors affected the high amount of heating consumption of the building including the high percentage of window/wall (23.41 %) and the higher U values of the windows. After retrofitting, the energy consumption of the building for the lighting and sanitary hot water were 146.876,94 (kwh/year) and 275.374,32 (kwh/year), respectively. The results also show that effects of changing the windows’ material could be neglected on energy consumption of sanitary hot water and lighting systems. CONCLUSION In this study, energy performance of an educational building is evaluated and effects of changing the windows’ material were investigated. The simulations were performed by BEP-TR, Building Energy Performance Calculation Methodology of Turkey. The results show that windows with plastic frames with lower U values have better performance than windows with aluminium frames. It can be concluded that U values of the windows’ components have a significant effect on energy consumption of the building and it is not sufficient enough to have acceptable U values by regulation standards of buildings. Therefore, it is essential to achieve optimal U values to design a building with less energy consumption.
102
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES [1] Perez-Lombard L., Ortiz J., Pout C. (2008) “A review on buildings energy consumption information”, Energy and Buildings, 40 (3), 394-398. [2] Rahman, M.M. (2009) “Building energy conservation and indoor air quality assessment in a subtropical climate”, Master of Engineering thesis. Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia. [3] Ahn Y., Pearce A. (2007) “Green construction: contractor experiences, expectations, and perceptions” Journal of Green Building, 2, 10-22. [4] Özbalta,T. G., Sezer, A., Yıldız, Y. (2012) “Models for Prediction of Daily Mean Indoor Temperature and Relative Humidity: Education Building in Izmir, Turkey” Indoor Built Environment, 6,772-781. [5] Energy information administration (2007) “Annual energy outlook 2007”, DOE/EIA- 0383(2006), Washington (DC). [6] Turkish Statistical Institute TUIK (2009) “Statistical Research of energy consumption per person” Turkey. [7] BEP-TR, 2010, “Building energy performance calculation methodology of Turkey” Official Gazette. [8] OECD Annual Report (2009) “Organization for economic. Co-operation and development” Jun 24. [9] Kumar, R., Agarwala, A. (2013) “Energy certificates REC and PAT sustenance to energy model for India” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 21, 315-323. [10] Rahman M. M., Rasul M. G.,. Khan M. M. K. (2010) “Energy conservation measures in an institutional building in sub-tropical climate in Australia” Applied Energy, 87, 2994-3004. [11] Smith, A., Fumo, N., Luck, R., Mago, P.J. (2011) “Robustness of a methodology for estimating hourly energy consumption of buildings using monthly utility bills” Energy and Buildings, 43, 779-786. [12] Dombaycı, Ö.A. (2010) “The prediction of heating energy consumption in a model house by using artificial neural networks in Denizli-Turkey” Advances in Engineering Software, 41, 141-147. [13] Yılmaz,A.Z., Burcu Ç. Ç., Stefano P. C. (2011) “Residential buildings energy certification requirement in the heating and cooling energy building parameters sensitivity analysis, BEP-TR calculation methodology and evaluation” Installation Engineer Congress,Izmir, 13-16 April. [14] Kabak, M., Köse, E., Kırılmaz, O., Burmaoğlu, S. (2014) “A fuzzy multi-criteria decision making approach to assess building energy performance” Energy and Buildings, 72, 382-389. [15] Gali, G., Yılmaz, A.Z. (2012) “Problems for energy certification of complex buildings through simplified methods” First Building Simulation and Optimization Conference, Loughborough, UK,10-11 September. [16] ISO EN 13786 (2007) “Thermal Performance of Building Components - Dynamic Thermal Characteristics Calculation Methods”.
103
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
HEALTH AND SECURITY IN EDUCATION BUILDINGS Yrd. Doç. Dr. Mustafa ONÜÇYILDIZ* Yrd. Doç. Dr. Atila DEMİRÖZ* *SelcukUniversityFaculty of EngineeringCivilEngineeringDepartment Security in education buildings is a collective responsibility. This responsibility is fulfilled by teachers, directors, parents, society and students. The people in education buildings need a secure medium and their parents accept these places as secure. To escape a danger and to educate the people who are related with this subject do not mean that you provide security of them. Providing the security of students is under the responsibility of adults (parents, directors and other people in the society). Occupational Health and Security Law with no 6331 legislated in Turkey covers all employees. When the regulations made according to 30th item of this law are investigated, it is comprehended that the people at the workplace are also within the scope of law and regulations. The schools are workplaces in terms of directors and teachers. Students are the people who are here. As well as students are included in the scope of this law, there aren't any studies related with providing the security of students at the schools in Turkey. However, student23 millions of students are getting education and more than 800000 teachers are working at about 600000 schools. Approximately 23% of the population in Turkey spend most of their time at school buildings. The university students and lecturers are not included in these numbers. Moreover, it was determined in the researches that about 60% of the students were affected bythe accidents occurred in schools and they were mostly in school buildings and classrooms due to carelessness, falling down on flat surface or while walking. For this reason, high-performance school buildings are of vital importance. England and USA have gradually made providing the security properties of school buildings obligatory with their laws and regulations. They were desired to prove this situation with some certificates. In order to prevent occurrence of accidents, the importance of place, size and construction of school buildings should not be ignored. Within the scope of this subject, General Principles for Architectural Project Preparation of Education Buildings were published by Ministry of National Education. In this research, the required things in order to construct a healthy and secure education building are emphasized and it is aimed to prepare checklists. In these checklists, planning of education buildings before their constructions and usage stages after construction will be included. The required things and the things that should be done in the education buildings will be determined by these checklists. Thus, the risks will be stated in terms of people in these education buildings and necessary studies can be planned in order to get rid of these risks. The health and secure conditions in education buildings will be improved more than today. In addition to this, the individuals having
104
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
health and secure culture will start to work lifeand a decrease in occupational accidents will be observed. This research is significant in terms of formation of health and secure culture as well as important in providing the security of buildings in which one third of the population spends most of their time. Thus, a contribution will be made in the formation of a society and in growing a generation who had education about health and security, therefore, the accidents occurring in education buildings and their effects might be minimized. 1. INTRODUCTION The concept of “accident”is generally described as an unexpected event the result of which is not desired and which occurs without any intention. The accident is an unplanned event and occurs with an outer and sudden effect which results with injury or death in people as well as causes damages in the environment. Accident is like a chain constituting of bad effects. The rings of this chain can be arranged as natural conditions (natural structure), personal insufficiencies, unsecure situation and behaviors, accident and damage (death or injury). To break the weakest ring of the chain (unsecure situation and behaviors) will prevent accidents and damages. Turkish Language Society defines accident as a bad event that causes loss of live or property and damage. OHSAS 18001 which is Occupational Health and Safety Management System states accident as an event which causes death, disease or injury. International Labor Organization (ILO) describes accident as an unexpected, unplanned, unknown and uncontrolled event which causes damage or injury having a quality resulting in a damage in the environment. World Health Organization (WHO) on the other hand defines accident as an unplanned event which results mostly in personal injuries and damages of machines, vehicles and devices as well as in halt of production. Occupational Health and Security Law with no 6331 legislated on 30th of June 2012 after being published in T.R. Official Gazette. This law covers all works and workplaces belonging to public and private sector, all employers and representatives of employers of these workplaces, all employees including all apprentices and trainees without taking their subjects of activities into consideration. In the regulations made according to Occupational Health and Security Law and its related item, not only health and security of only employers and employees but also health and security of the people present in that workplace come into prominence. The people at the workplace are very important especially for preparation and updating of risk analysis, health and security plans and emergency plans. The schools considered as educational institutions are workplaces regardless of their levels and the directors of schools are representatives of employers. The students should be interpreted as the people at that workplace. When Formal Education statistics prepared by Ministry of National Education (MNE) are taken into consideration, it can be seen that the people at the workplace are more than the employees at that workplace. While Formal Education covers pre-school education, primary, secondary and higher education institutions, higher education statistics are not present in the statistics prepared by MNE. According to the type of school and education year (2012-2013), the numbers of school/unit, teachers and students are given in Table 1. (1).
105
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table1.Numbers of school/unit, teachers and students according to 2012-2013 educationyear Type of School Pre-school Primary Secondary General Secondary OccupationalandTechnical SecondaryEducation FacultyandGraduateSchool TOTAL
School /Unit 27197 29169 16987 4214 6204 2086 85857
Teacher 62933 282043 269759 119393 135502 130653 1000283
Student 1077933 5593910 5566986 2725972 2269651 4676566 21911018
As it can be understood from the Table, there are 21.90 people at the workplace per every employee at the workplace in the schools being active in Turkey. For this reason, health and security studies are important n educational institutions. Accident/injury can be considered as a health problem which is formed in the triangle of individual, factor and environment, might occur suddenly in opposition to one's desire, can cause mechanical and biochemical damages in the organism, death of people and other living things, disability living and loss of property as well as a social problem at the same time. According to the data obtained in many countries, it can be observed that the first reason of deaths in the second 10th year of the life is various accidents (2). In 25 European Union countries, approximately 51.3% of all deaths was due to injuries occurred accidental (3). Accident and injuring are two different concepts which can be generally used interchangeably. While unintended injuries are defined as accident, exposure of injured people to the violence of other people is the point in question for the base of intended injuries (4). Whatever is the level of development, significant numbers of students are injured, damaged or dead due to the reasons such as unintended injuries such as slipping, falling and etc., traffic accidents occurred during round-trip to school, extortion, armed action, injuries related with violence, killing, suicide, drugs and alcohol related with schools in many countries (5).About 1025% of accidental injury events of more than 14 millions of students being 14 years old and less occur at schools or in school environment every year. Approximately one out of every 14 students has medical treatment or gets injured temporarily due to injuries at school and in its environment (6, 7). About a quarter of awake hours students in our country is spent at school or school facilities.Due to the time spent at training center, center for studies or coursed carried out at schools as well as usage of school gardens for the aim of playing, this period is longer than predicted. According to the data belonging to USA, it is known that 118 billions of dollar are spent every year for the treatment of school injuries (8). For the treatment of accidents occurred in schools of Scotland, it was stated that annually more than 1.8 million pounds are spent (9). Despite this information, the public opinion does not interest in such accidents unless they are fatal and they focus their attention on violence at schools. Various accidents are present at the fifth order among child deaths of 0-4 age group and at the first order among deaths of 5-14 age group(10). Despite this information, reliable data based on information system which reflect the real situation of accidents among children in Turkey are not available (11). Determination of accident frequency precisely gets difficult because of difficulties in records. The accidents recorded are generally the ones which include injuries or which require legal actions such as fires, accidents resulting in death and traffic accidents. The studies investigating the school accidents in Turkey are really limited in number.
106
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
In this research, it is aimed to prepare the checklists in order to use in school buildings being active.
2. PREPARATION of CHECKLISTS Checklists are prepared in order to determine general danger and risks and to control their compatibility with current procedures and are used in every stage of lifetime of the facility. No excess experience is required and can be prepared by one or two people. Care should be taken to select this person an engineer, occupational security expert or workplace doctor. The results should be investigated and evaluated by occupational security expert or workplace doctor being expert in the subject. The cost of checklists is low, their usage, in other words their application and taking results are easy. Their usage can take little time and most of the time is spent for evaluation stage. It is accepted as the fastest and cheapest method. The information required at the preparation stage of checklists can be regarded as previous experiences, standard procedures,system or facility information. The answers ofquestions in the prepared checklist as yes or no together with known possible errorscan be determined and it can be also stated that whether the related institution is in conformity with the procedures or not. Therefore, these lists determine whether all equipments and devices of any facility or process are complete or not, whether they work like a charm or not. This determination is performed in two steps. a. The Deficits of the investigated facility can be determined by special questions in checklists. b. The corrections required can be suggested with a report of measures. The most productive results of the usage of checklists can be obtained from the lists based on long experiences and prepared by experienced experts (like the checklists of pilots in planes). A part of a checklist sample is given in Table 2. For the aim of carrying out education under healthy, secure, comfortable and ergonomic conditions, regulations and standards directly related with school life are not present except standards, regulations, laws related with occupational health and security. In this research, it is aimed to prepare checklists related with school life by taking this deficiency into consideration. While preparing the checklists, the publications of following institutions will be benefited. a. b.
c. d. e.
Healthy Schools published by EPA (USA) (LessonsFor a CleanEducational Environment), Creating Healthy IndoorEnvironments in Schools etc. Various standards published by OSHA (OccupationalSafety&Health Administration);SafetyChecklist Program for Schools; Indoor AirQuality Self-Inspection Checklist for Schoolsetc. Design criteria published and recommended by National Institute of BuildingSciences (Design GuidanceforEducationalFacilities etc.) Recommended decisions prepared by NationalInstitute of BUILDING SCIENCES, Guide books published by various American States (North Carolina Public SchoolsFacilities Guidelines)
107
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
f.
Standards published by English Education Unit (TheEducationIndependent School Standards) (England) (Amendment) Regulations 2012 etc.) Table 2. Checklist Sample Process/System Subsystem: Organizer:
PRIMARY RISK ANALYSIS CHECKLIST Evaluation No: Date of issuance: Page No: 1
CONTROL AGENTS (State your opinion by putting "X" in appropriate box.) GENERAL WORKING CONDITIONS 1. Floor (Walking Surfaces) a. Residual materials on the floor are scattered around, not cleaned. b. Floor is improper, there is a danger for slipping or falling down c. Floor is always wet, work-in-process on wet floor d. Iron shavings, nails, sharp materials, etc. thatmight endanger are on the floor. e. There is combustible dust on the floor (dust, flour) 2. Gates and corridors a. Corridors are marked. b. Materials are stored in the corridors and passing through corridors becomes difficult c. Lighting is not adequate in corridors 3. Emergency routes and doors a. Emergency doors are not specified b. The signs for emergency exit cannot be seen, there are barriers in front of them c. Emergencyroutes and doors are directly opened to outside or to a secure field d. Emergency doors are opened inside e. Emergency doors are locked or attached f. There are materials in front of emergency doors that prevent passage g. Lighting is inadequate where emergency exit is
YES
NO
NOT VALID
3. CLASSROOM CHECKLIST for HEALTH and SECURITY School buildings are valuable sources for local communities and might also be used for expanded services. When you speak of health and security in any school, providing a health and secure place for all people using school buildings including employees (directors, teachers, and servants), students and visitors should be considered. For this, sense full and proportional approach should be required. If required checklist usage is applied, written risk evaluations may not be necessary when every class and activities performed are taken into consideration. As well as design of checklist as a useful tool, its usage should not be obligatory. As long as obeying health and security regulations at schools, other methods may be preferred in order to provide especially the security of working staff and students. For new designed activities but not present in the list, if the evaluations written for an ordinary classroom are used by teachers or support personnel, it might cause additional risks. 108
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Therefore, additions should not be used for checklists or new checklists should be prepared for new designed activities. In order to struggle with real risks, precautions taken over the school should be included. In ordinary classrooms, the checklists prepared in order to meet/provide minimum health and security standards can be used. The results of completed checklists and the findings obtained as a result of evaluations are planned for the aim of providing a useful source in risk evaluation of the school by school management team. Care is taken by the school staff for the checklists in order to be a tool to increase the awareness of the students in concern fields of a classroom or of the people who use these fields. Although this checklist covers the most common areas of anxiety and risk for the classroom, it is not detailed. The list can be used for gyms, classrooms, art, informatics, design and technology, sending rooms as well as laboratories. It can beused by class teachers, teachers, auxiliary staff and directors. The directors should decide on who will use this checklist at school and this person should be educated about this subject. This study will be performed at the beginning of the semester in order to provide security and this will have a contribution to providing the sufficient control of the most common areas of the risk in classroom. The list is designed in such a way that it will be beneficial, rapid and easy to use and a personnel obligation is not required. If a subject is not suitable for a class, it is necessary to mark it just as "not valid" and next question should be considered. If any additional problem not present in the list is available, it can be stated at the end of the list.
109
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
Table 3.1. Checklist for the health and security in Classroom Questions that you should ask
Movementaroundt heclassroom (slipsandtrips)
Work at height (falls)
Furnitureandfixtu res
Manual handling Computersandsim ilarequipment
Electricalequipme ntandservices
Asbestos
Fire
Workplace (ventilationandhea ting)
Yes
Necessary Excess Action
Not valid
Is theinternalflooring in a goodcondition? Arethereanychanges in floorlevelortype of flooringthatneedto be highlighted? Are gang waysbetweendeskskept open? Aretrailingelectricalleads/cablespreventedwherevery possible? Is lightingbrighten ought to allowsafeaccessandexit? Arethere any procedures in placetodealwithspillages, e.g. water, bloodfromcuts? Forstand-aloneclassrooms: Areaccessstepsorampsproperlymaintained? Areaccessstairsorampsprovidedwithhandrails? Do youhave an ‘elephant-foot’ stepstoolorstepladderavailableforusewherenecessary? Is a window-openerprovidedforopeninghigh-levelwindows? Arepermanentfixtures in goodconditionandsecurelyfastened, e.g. cupboards, displayboards, shelving? Is furniture in goodrepairandsuitableforthe size of theuser, whetheradultorchild? Is portableequipment’stable, e.g. a TV set on a suitabletrolley? Wherewindowrestrictorsarefittedtoupper-floorwindows, arethey in goodworkingorder? Are hot surfaces of radiatorsets protectedwherenecessarytopreventthe risk of burnsto vulnerable youngpeople? Havetrolleysbeenprovidedformovingheavyobjects, e.g. computers? Ifyouusecomputers as part of yourjob, has a workstationassessmentbeencompleted? Havepupilsbeenadvisedaboutgoodpracticewhenusingcomputer s? Arefixedelectricalswitchesandplugsockets in goodrepair? Areallplugsandcables in goodrepair? Has portableelectricalequipment, e.g.laminators, beenvisuallycheckedand, wherenecessary, tested at suitableintervalstoensurethatit’s safe to use? (Theremay be a stickertoshow it has beentested.) Has anydamagedelectricalequipmentbeentakenout of service orreplaced? Iftheschoolcontainsasbestos, havedetails of thelocationanditscondition in theclassroombeenprovidedandexplainedtoyou? Haveyoubeenprovidedwithguidance on securingpieces of worktowalls/ceilingsthatmaycontainasbestos? Ifthereare fire exitdoors in theclassroom, arethey: o Unobstructed; o Keptunlocked; and o Easy toopenfromthe inside? Is fire-fightingequipment in place in theclassroom? Are fire evacuationproceduresclearlydisplayed? Areyouaware of theevacuationdrill, includingarrangementsforanyvulnerableadultsorchildren? Doestheroomhavenaturalventilation? Can a reasonableroomtemperature be maintainedduringuse of theclassroom? Aremeasures in place, forexampleblinds, toprotectfromglareandheatfromthe sun?
110
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
4. RESULTS Health and security at schools are of vital importance in terms of employees, people present there (visitors, students). Last year, both students and teachers damaged because of oversetting of garden gate, ice and snow falling from the roof, attack of incompetent people entered in the school and traffic accidents of school buses.Annoyance, cigarette, drugs and alcohol usage are not considered within these accidents. It is necessary for the young to whom our future is commended to get education in a healthy and secure environment and reliable personalities can be formed. Schools are accepted as secure environments by the parents of students and they consider directors as responsible for them. This situation increases the risk of directors who are not in accidents. Our aim is to prevent possible accidents that might occur in the classrooms by using these checklists. These lists can be increased more. Completion of these lists with care is significant for evaluation. As a result of evaluations, design of classrooms will be taken into consideration in new projects in terms of architectural and engineering point of view. It is possible to enhance and vary these checklists. This will have a contribution to the selection of the school place and putting in school buildings as well as will be effective indimensioning and detailing materials such as desks used in the schools.
111
ICESA 2014 Internatıional Civil Engineering & Architecture Symposium for Academicians
REFERENCES 1.
NationalEducationStatisticsFormalEducation,2013/'14T.R. MINISTRY OF NATIONAL EDUCATION STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT PRESIDENCYA Publication of OfficialStatistics Programmer 2. Özcebe M., Aslan, D., Aslan, B., Et Al., “Frequency of AccidentsfortheFirstClassStudents of Sincanİmam HatipHigh School”, ChildrenForum Journal, Vol. 4, Issue 2, May-June 2001; pp.13-19. 3. Pekcan H., Bertan M., Güler Ç., “AdolescentHealth, PublicHealth (Principal Information)”, Güneş Publisher, Ankara, 1995, pp.189-209. 4. Özcebe, H., "Injury Control and Protection ProgramsandSecureSocieties, PublicHealthPrincipal Information”, Ankara, 2006. 5. Özcebe, H.,“SecureSocieties”, TurkishMunicipalitySymposium, Ankara, 2003, pp.61-71. 6. SuggestedCitation: National SAFE KIDS Campaign (NSKC), School InjuryFactSheet, Washington (DC), NSKC, 2004. 7. Rebecca, S., Spicer, Calvert, Cazier, Patricia, Keller, Ted, R, Miller, “Evaluation of theUtahStudentInjuryReportingSystem” TheJournal of School Health, Feb. 2002, Vol.72, 2, HealthandMedical Complete, pp.47.50. 8. Junkins, P., Edward, Knight, Stacey, Lightfoot, C., Amy,Cazier, F., Calvert, Michael, J., Dean, and Corneli, M., Howard, “Epidemiology of SchoolBased Injuries in Utah: a Population-Based Study”, Journal of School. Health, 1999, Vol. 69,pp.409-412. 9. W.R., Williams, A.H.A., Latif, L., Cater, “Accidents in the School Environment: Perspectives of Staff Concernedwith Data Collectionand Reporting Procedures” PublicHealth, Vol.117, 2003, pp.180-186. 10. Bertan, M., Çakır, B., Güler, Ç.,“Accidents in Terms of Public”, PublicHealthPrincipal Information, Ankara, 1995. 11. Ergüder, B.,“Investigation of Accidents Experienced byPrimary School Students”, Hacettepe University,DomesticEconomyandFamilyEconomy Program, Master'sThesis, Ankara, 2004.
112
