KURDISTAN REGIONAL GOVERNMENTIRAQ MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI FACULTY OF HUMANITIES SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES

DOMESTIC ICONOGRAPHY IN O'NEIL'S LONG DAY'S JOURNEY INTO NIGHT, ALBEE'S A DELICATE BALANCE AND SHEPARD'S A LIE OF THE MIND A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE COUNCIL OF THE FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND LANGUAGES/ UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE BY HERO KHURSHID HASSAN SUPERVISED BY DR. REBWAR ZAINADIN MOHAMMED

2016 A.D.

2716 Kurdish.

Jumada Al-Akhir 1437 A.H.

‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬ ]23 :‫َنت اْل َعلِ ُيم اْل َح ِك ُيم﴾ [البقرة‬ َ ‫﴿ قَالُوا ُس ْب َح َان َك ََل ِعْل َم لََنا إِ اَل َما َعلا ْمتََنا ۖ إِان َك أ‬ ‫صدق هللا العظيم‬

In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful

They said, "Exalted are You; we have no knowledge except what You have taught us. Indeed, it is You who is the Knowing, the Wise.'' (Al-Baqarah: 32 Trans by Mohammed Bn Abdulrahman Al-Oreifi)

Supervisor’s Report I certify that this thesis titled “Domestic Iconography in O'Neil's ''Long Day's Journey into Night'', Albee's ''A Delicate Balance'' and Shepard's ''A Lie of the Mind''” was prepared by Hero Khurshid Hassan under my supervision at the Department of English Language, School of Languages, Faculty of Humanities, University of Sulaimani in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English Literature.

Signature: Supervisor: Dr. Rebwar Zainadin Mohammed Date: / / 2016

In view of the available recommendation, I forward this thesis for debate by the examining committee. Signature: Name: Azad Hassan Fatah, Ph. D Head of the English Department Date:

/ / 2016

Examination Committee’s Report We, the examination committee, certify that we have read this thesis entitled “Domestic Iconography in O'Neil's ''Long Day's Journey into Night'', Albee's ''A Delicate Balance'' and Shepard's ''A Lie of the Mind''” and we have examined the student (Hero Khurshid Hassan) in its contents and that in our opinion it is adequate with the standing of ( ) as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in English Literature. Signature:

Signature:

Name: Date: /

Name: Date: /

/ 2016

/ 2016

Chairman

Member

Signature:

Signature:

Name: Date: /

Name: Date:

/ 2016

Member and Supervisor

/

/ 2016

Chairman

Approved by the Council of Faculty of Humanities-School of Languages. Signature: Name: Abdulqadir Hama Amin Muhamad Dean of the Faculty of Humanities-School of Languages Date: / / 2016

Dedication:

To my parents who have always enlightened and supported me.

To my family and friends who urged me to reach where I am.

To Drivan, my cousin who has helped and encouraged me.

To my teachers and colleagues whom I have learned from.

To those who seek knowledge.

Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Dr. Rebwar Zainadin Mohammed for suggesting the topic of my thesis, for the various corrections and modifications he suggested and for providing references to enrich this study. It is my gratefulness to all my teachers in Sulaimani and Garmyan Universities who supported and guided me in completing this thesis either by providing me sources or by giving their remarkable advices and suggestions. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my instructors who taught me in the M. A. courses and B.A stages and to my family for their encouragement and support.

Abstract The reflection of social issues in modern American society is a dominant theme in the writings of the age. The familial issue is one of the central subjects, which is particularly reflected in drama. These issues include drugs, alcohol, and money. Modern American families have become self-centered and irresponsible due to such destructive factors and they act recklessly in their everyday activity and this damages their familial balance. Eugene O'Neil, Edward Albee, Sam Shepard, and many others are some of the great playwrights of the age who have contributed greatly in Modern American literature by presenting strong and influential plays which depict the social life in the best way. The central theme which pervades in their plays at most is the domestic and familial issues. They depict the nature of the relations among the members of the families, lack of communications, loss of balance, irresponsibility and recklessness of the members, the use of drugs and alcohol and many other important issues that affect the domestic life. The aim of this study is to depict the domestic issues as they are pictured in the three American plays through representation of the characters. The thesis is entitled ''Domestic Iconography in O’Neil’s Long Day’s Journey into Night, Albee’s a Delicate Balance, and Shepard’s a Lie of the Mind''. It is divided into four chapters. The first chapter is an introductory chapter and it consists of four sections. Section one deals with the meaning of Iconography while section two is about background of American society. Section three tackles the concept of the American Dream. The last section explains the concept of familialism.

Chapter two discusses Eugene O'Neil's ''Long Day's Journey into Night'', and it is further divided into four sections. The first one is a journey into the past while the second one deals with the familial relationship. The third section tackles drug and alcohol as destructive factors and the last section is about the tragedy of the living. Chapter Three is devoted to Edward Albee's ''The Delicate Balance''. It is divided into four sections which are the politics of the family, lack of the communication among family members, evasion of responsibility and loss of balance. The last chapter is about Sam Shepard's ''A Lie of the Mind''. It includes four sections that are dysfunctional male and female relationships, reflections of the past, self-created delusion and conceptualization of the American identity. The research ends with the conclusions that sum up the findings of the study followed by the list of the references consulted as well as the abstract of the study in Kurdish and Arabic languages.

Table of Contents Subject

Page

Dedication................................................................................................................V Acknowledgements………………………………….…………………….......... VI Abstract…………………………………….…...………………………............ VII Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 . Iconography: Iconography and Meaning ……………….…….....................1 1.2 . Background of the American Society.………………..…..............................3 1.3 . The American Dream ………….………..….................................................9 1.4 The Concept of Familialism ……………………………..…........................14

Chapter Two: Long Day's Journey into Night 1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................18 2.2. A Journey into the Past.....................................................................................20 2.3. Familial Relationship ..................................................................................... 25 2.4. Drug and Alcohol as Destructive Factors of the Family …….........................29 2.5. The Tragedy of the Living.............................................................................. 33

Chapter Three A Delicate Balance 3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................36 3.2 The Politics of the Family.................................................................................37 3.3. Lack of Communication among the Members of the Family..........................41 3.4 Evasion of Responsibility.................................................................................46

3.5 Loss of Balance.................................................................................................49

Chapter Four A Lie of the Mind 4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................53 4.2 Dysfunctional Male and Female Relationship................................................. 54 4.3 Reflections of the Past.......................................................................................58 4.4 Self-created Delusion........................................................................................61 4.5 Conceptualization of the American Identity......................................................63 Conclusions.............................................................................................................67 Works Cited.............................................................................................................69

Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Iconography: Iconography and Meaning Iconography can be defined in different ways since it is used in different fields such as art, history, religious studies, psychology, literature, archaeology and sociology. It may be defined as pictorial material relating to a subject, the symbolism of a piece of artistic work, and the image or symbol which is representation of a person or a subject (Shlomo 4). Iconography is the branch of art history that deals with interpretation, depiction and description of the content of images. The word iconography means ''image writing'', also exposing and depicting different meanings of images (Ibid).The icon is a primary denotation or representation. Iconography is a secondary level of coded meaning; it is an interpretation that calls on the unconscious (Davison 883). Another definition for iconography is a method of the history of art and other related sciences that serves the disclosure and interpretation of iconic symbols and their background. Its essential features are texts and other sources from theology, literature and history. It has been an important element in art-historical studies since the nineteenth century (Bayerlein, Braun, etal 206). The word iconography is derived from the Greek words ''eikon'' which means image or icon, and the word ''graphia'' which means description writing, or sketch. Basically, the purpose of iconography is to understand and illustrate the hidden meanings behind presented objects. In the history, the concept of iconography dates back to the end of sixteenth century. But as a subject of images it dates back to the early stages of humanity (Hourihane 27-8).

The first scholarly study in iconographical classification was done in Italy at the end of the sixteenth century by some figures within twenty five years. Then, Cesare Ripa (1555-1622) another Italian figure, published a piece of work in 1593 entitled ''iconologia'', in which he described in detail more than 1250 personifications. These personifications were described in terms of human forms with their attributes. Through his work, Ripa showed how the personifications should be depicted. Nowadays, modern iconographic studies are very much related to Ripa's focus, regarding all art involvement (Hourihane). Erwin Panofsky (a German art historian 1892-1968) defines iconography as the study of subject matter, and iconology as an attempt to analyze the significance of that subject matter within its cultural product. However, these two terms are confusing and never had been given definitions accepted by all iconographers and iconologists (Taylor). For Panofsky, iconography is a branch of the history of art which is concerned with subject matter that is divided into three parts: primary or natural subject matter, secondary or cultural matter and intrinsic meaning or content. The first part is factual which is identified as representations of natural objects like human being, animals, plants, tools and so on; while the second part refers to the realization that the meaning is given to certain objects culturally or conventionally, as for example two figures facing and fighting each other represents conflict between vice and virtue. Concerning the third part it is related to understanding those hidden principles which reveal certain attitudes of a nation, religion or a class; for instance, in the fourteenth and fifteenth century the conventional type of Nativity with the Virgin Mary reclining in bed was replaced by a new one in which she kneels in front of child in adoration (Panofsky 5-7). From seventeenth century iconography was used in a secular context for describing collections of portraits. Nowadays, the historians have accepted

iconography as a term referring to the description and classification of images. Due to Panofsky's influence, there has been distinction between the two terms; iconography and iconology (Woodrow). Iconography came to depict visual fact, not theory, and began to take humanistic attributes. From the mid-seventieth century iconography was identical to visual matters with slight focus on religious themes. In nineteenth century there was great deal of iconographical studies. It was a time when iconography had a dominant and central role to extend its principles to the other fields. One of the major studies was done by some French scholars, which was fulfilled to develop and establish iconography as a modern interdisciplinary tool. In twentieth century, there was a great revelation of meaning and iconography was brought into a common usage and was applied to large-scale collections (Hourihane).

1.2 American Society: a Social Background Since the emergence of modern humanity, population movement has been defined as one of the essential features of human experience. After the Second World War, America saw a huge movement of people to the suburbs. There were different factors behind the growth of suburbs such as social legacy of the Depression, huge demobilization after the war, government involvement in housing, the growth of technology and development and marketing of the automobile. When families started moving from cities and farms to suburbs, The American culture went through great transformation. Race and class dynamics began to shift; the longer distance between home and work made a highway and housing structure growth, also older community institutions began to fade while the families turned inward (Lesh 2).

The Great Migration of African Americans from the south to northern or western urban locations and also the movement from farms to cities during the beginning of the twentieth century serve as instances of population movement in the United States. The Great Depression (1929 – late 1941) and World War II changed the economic point of view of many Americans. One of the necessities which the Americans looked for was housing. By late 1945 and early 1946 people were met by lack of supply and housing was seriously in demand. In order to reduce financial restrictions and to develop the growth of housing, the government instructed Federal Housing Authority which provided people greater access to loans (by providing mortgage insurance on loans). Thus affording houses increased for millions of Americans (Lesh). As for African Americans they suffered profoundly in the Great Depression as it reinforced poverty of Black America in a way that black unemployment was two times greater than white unemployment. Black families earned less than white families and had less formal education. But World War II offered some new chances for the African Americans to participate in war and therefore they could engage more into the American society and politics. Thus, most of the AfricanAmericans participated willingly in the war and reserved their right to protest against any treatment which they found intolerable. But still World War II had some contradictions for them, for instance they were able to serve in the army, yet they faced segregation and racial violence. They used their political power yet they faced limitations. However, war helped the black Americans to have access for education, training for new jobs and gain new skills to improve their lives (Hodges 2-3, 6). An apparent change in modern American society was about transportation as they needed to have access to suburban housing. This need was filled by

automobile and construction system of highways. Automobiles were used before war, but it was after the World War II that they became essential for Americans. Because of being a part of social necessities, Americans used their money to purchase a family car. By having personal means of transportation, they could live away from work and travel from and to work without facing many issues. Between 1946 and 1964 America saw the ''Baby Boom''. Every year the average of born babies reached 4.6 million. The need for new home construction was one of the impacts on the United States regarding this generation. Besides, the baby boom led to increase in the consumption of consumer materials such as toys, diapers, educational necessities with other child raising needs. Along with house construction and transportation means, other constructions were added such as swimming pools, schools, shopping centres, baseball fields, parks and churches to the surrounding neighbourhoods. The suburban areas provided clean and safe environment that the Americans were looking for; also the traditional hallmarks of urban life started to fade away. Churches, women clubs, taverns were not visited much as distance kept people away from each other (Lesh). Social historians and media scholars alike acknowledge that family is a social construction articulated through both public and media discourses. Family, as Bourdieu (1996) argues, is an ideological device whereby particular relationships become valorised and legitimated as the norm. As society's dominant storyteller, television both creates a particular version of family and assails it at the same time (Gerbner etal. Qtd in Fogel 2). As for familial construction, there have been noticeable changes in familial structure after the World Wars. Starting with nuclear family structure (a family consisting of parents and children), nowadays few people are living in nuclear families as compared to the beginning of the twentieth century or even the

centuries before. After the World War II women have decreased giving birth to children and the post-war family size became smaller than it has been. People live in more heterogeneous families as the relationship between them includes involvement of former spouses, step parents, step children, step siblings and step in-laws (Wetzel 4). In modern parenthood the parental role changes and deviates from traditional role in which women are basically at home doing childcare and housework while men are working outside. Modern fathers spend their time more at home doing childcare and housework more than working outside. However, according to a Pew Research Center survey, fathers are more likely than mothers to say that they want to work full time. As for the valued job, they focus on high paid jobs full time rather than part time jobs. Fathers in the twentieth century are more involved in domesticity. When it comes to rating themselves, parents rate themselves as excellent or very good parents in raising their children. However, fathers have given themselves lower rate than the mothers (Parker and Wang 1,3,4).

When fathers, such as most modern fathers are more involved with their children better results are achieved in regard of academic and social sides. Children schools of involved fathers become better achievers with strong verbal and quantitative skills than other children. They get higher score, learn faster, and obtain better academic results. Father's academic support is influential on children since it motivates the child to work hard and understand the significance of his education. It is also an important factor which helps the child to have positive attitudes about his school in order to enjoy it. Children of more involved fathers are also more likely to get economic, occupational and educational accomplishments (Allen and Daly 1-2).

Modern American families pass through social problems which affect children upbringing negatively, such as increase in divorce rate, postponed or rejected marriages and children upbringing by single mothers. Children are raised by only their mothers either because of divorce or because they have never been married. Mothers and wives go out to labour market to earn money and this affects familial institution directly by negative impact on the children (Levitan and Belous 26). While children are grown up in single parent households they face different challenges not only economically but also academically and socially. They face the risk of leaving school and academic failure. Children living with single parents with a lower income are more likely to face barriers and obstacles in education which leads to dropping out school by some of them. During 1970s and 1980s there was a rapid increase in single mother family, leading to numerous national and state policy initiatives aimed at strengthening marriage. Despite these efforts, the share of single-mother families has been remarkably stable since the mid-1990s and has remained at record high levels (Mather 1). Family structure is closely related with poverty, for example, having a child before marriage is linked with a more possibility of poverty. For Instance, nowadays women try to find jobs regardless of their marital or parental status which affect their decision making about marriage, work and child-raising as well. Having a long-hours job affects the relation between the parents and their children especially the mothers as children need them mostly at home. In any given family, poverty depends on the number of adults who run the family, the working hours, their wage and the number of children they should support. Household which includes two adults are more like likely to avoid poverty than single-parent households as the second adult supports in providing the needs. Thus, marriage decline and enhance in divorce increase poverty (Cancian and Reed 21-2).

Regarding sharing parents, modern literature suggests that children respond better when their parents share parenthood, decision taking and support each other as they will be consistent with choices (Coffin 33). Mothers have always been working but between 1830 and 1940 they were basically working in family business of factories until getting married. However, by 1950, around 12% of women with preschool children have been in labour forces and this rate has increased by 1997. Since mothers have been involved in works, children enrolment in child facilities also increased in a way that by 1997 ten million children have been in non-parental care because their mothers have been employed (Cabrera etal 127-8) Another factor which has led to the familial change in the modern age is the absence of fathers. The sociologist Dr. David Popenoe , who is one of the pioneers in the field of research into fathers and fatherhood, indicates that fathers are more than just second adults in the home. He furthers discusses that involved fathers effectively have positive impacts on children and bring positive benefits to children that no one else is likely to bring. Thus, the absence of fathers leads to emotional stress, educational difficulties, and psychological complexities of the children as there will be a gap which needs to be filled. Fathers influence their children indirectly through the kind of relationship they have with children's mothers. If there is a stable relation between the parents the child will feel more secure and stable psychologically. However, if the relation is a difficult and complicated one, the child will suffer and face difficulties in achieving his personal and social achievements. At that time the parents will fail in performing their parental role towards the child (Rosenberg and Wilcox 11).

1.3 The American Dream The term American Dream refers to the belief that anyone can achieve his own social and economic success regardless of his background like social class, race, ethnicity, religion and etcetera. The term symbolizes global longing for freedom, success and having a better life through working hard and risk-taking. The American dream is achievable to both Native Americans and immigrants to America. The American Dream is abstraction; it can be presented through different means such as literature and media (Laitenin 19). The American Dream includes elements which can be achieved by people. One of them is individual progress both personally and socially. Another important element is having democracy in society such as the democratic government which provides equal rights to people as through democracy they can achieve liberty and equality in their lives. A further element is the idea that American people of different nationalities, religions, and ethnicity are urged to achieve different aims, typically American. Another component of the Dream which makes people believe completely in it is the belief that America has been chosen by God to rescue the rest from darkness and oppression (Müller 74-5). The United States has for long been considered the land of opportunities; a land where hard work and personal skills can lead to success regardless of one's situation in life. The American Dream has captured the minds of the people since it represents the soul of the whole nation (American nation). For those who work hard and are determined to gain success, there is expectation of fortunate fulfilments in life (Rank etal).

The concept of the American Dream is the essence of America since it is about having freedom of choice and the right of individuals to pursue their interests, goals and passions in life. By having such rights and chances, individuals will be able to develop their talents and have more opportunities in living freely and independently. A dominant aspect regarding the American Dream is security in economy. This means having resources to live a comfortable life and avoid poverty. When an individual is secure economically, he can provide for his family easily and lead a better life in society; as a result the society will also improve based on stable and happy families (Rank etal). The term of the American Dream is essentially related with hope and optimism of individuals. It motivates people to work on facing life challenges with confidence and believe that they will progress and succeed in their lives. Individuals are urged by the belief that there is equal opportunity for everyone who works hard, takes risks and looks forwards to achieve his rights. It requires political, religious and economic freedom and independence in possession like home ownership of individuals and controlling one's own property. It symbolizes success in different aspects of life. Thus, the American Dream has become a means to enlighten and guide people towards optimism, hope, success, progress; a chance of achieving everyone's' right in society equally (Ibid). The dream is related to different terms such as a good life, detached house, equality and home ownership. In the Independence Declaration in 1776, it is stated that all Men are created equal and they are endowed by their Creator with certain Rights such as Life, Liberty and Pursuit of Happiness. By these statements, it has been struggled to end slavery and establish a new United State in which individuals can pursuit their dreams and achieve them through personal attempts (Cullen 38).

Gay Dannelly, Hesburgh Libraries’ associate director for resources and collection Services, refers to different studies which define the American Dream diversely. He points out that the Dream which is experienced by different generations can be used as A lens to examine the stories of the immigrants who have migrated to America, such as Tyrone Family in O'Neil's play ''Long Day's Journey into Night'' (Access, Exploring the American Dream, Past and Present). According to James Truslow Adams' definition of the American Dream; life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement regardless of social class or circumstances of birth (The Death (or the Evolution) of the American Dream). To understand America, it is important to understand the cultural history of the American Dream because it has an essential role in indicating who the Americans are, what do they do and why do they do it in their everyday life. But the issue which is vividly demostrated by the Americans is that the Dream does not exist, it is only the product of people's imagination (Samuel). The American Dream is the concept which the Americans relate to their life experiences. The term can be traced back to the Declaration of Independence in 1776 with the belief that people of the new nation are destined to have liberty and freedom of choice. They have rights to pursue happiness and develop through hard work. The term has been described by the people as the great epic since it is concerned with attaining personal achievement over financial success (Hanson and White). The term was coined in 1931 by J. T. Adams, a writer and a historian; defining the dream as ideals of freedom, equality, opportunity and liberty. According to his definition, the American Dream is related to a land where everyone can have a richer and better life; an equal life for everyman to achieve his aims. It is a dream of social order for individuals where they can be accepted by

each other regardless of their backgrounds (Reed 3). American Dream is considered America's most celebrated values because it refers to the equality and liberty of individuals through which they can climb economic ladders in their life. It also includes promise of having economic opportunities for different social groups like women, immigrants and ethnic minorities (Kopczuk etal 1). As its core meaning, the American Dream stands for a state of mind which means giving people an enduring optimism to help them and make them resilient to build a great nation. Even in the middle of the Great Depression (economic depression in 1930s) Adams has been confident that United States will overcome the difficulties and stand alone as a strong nation again, that the American Dream will make success due to the optimism that sustains it. Adams has stated that the optimism about the dream has carried the nation from its primitive beginning to the twentieth century, and has become the source of its constant successes (White and Hanson 3). In the twentieth century the American Dream becomes the pillar of the American culture and society that is basically concerned with ownership of single houses by the American families. That has been deliberately for political purposes. The dream house has been considered as standard material for fulfilling the dream. (Archer 8). Relating the Dream to Americans rank living comfortably, being debtfree and having financial security the Americans believe that the dream is suffering. They state that there are barriers which prevent people from reaching the dream and this will make it more difficult for the coming generations to achieve it. This pessimism is apparently seen more among white- old Americans who believe that America is on the wrong direction. But Asian-Americans and AfricanAmericans believe that America's best time is still ahead. African Americans are more concerned about social and economic inequality while white Americans are

concerned about government spending and regulation (Mccoy). Despite of the pessimism about the dream, some Americans are hopeful about their lives believing that hard work is still enough for ordinary citizens to perceive the dream and attempt to achieve it. They believe that the dream is still achievable for those who are willing to achieve it stating that hard work is more important than luck (Ibid). Politically, the American Dream has been glorified as a typical goal by most of the American society such as businessmen, celebrities, media and politicians. But in fact the American Dream is more like an impossible and unachievable dream since most of the Americans believe that the chance of winning an odd lottery is more likely than the opportunity of achieving the dream. Initially the dream has been coined as a result of lack and need for safety and financial security of individuals after the Great Depression and World War II. By that time jobs have been difficult to get that is why the greatest ambition for most of the Americans has been securing stable employment and having their own homes. The focus of the dream has been on family and community which create real prosperity and joy for them. But through the course of time the meaning of the dream has shifted to a more marketing concept. Americans have reached the belief that to achieve the dream is to have material goods which are referred to as ''standards of living'' (having second home, ability to spend a vacation in Europe and having expensive prosperity like valuable jewellery) (Geela, Politics of the American Dream). The concept American Dream no longer results from lack and need but rather it comes from aspiration and desire that is why it does not conceptualize true American spirit; the spirit which is based on integrity, valuing systems, family and community. The concept not only has turned to a marketing concept, but to a political one as well. The politicians use it for their political purposes concerning voting and keeping their institutions satisfied. Therefore, the political parties try to

achieve the political version of the American Dream at the expense of other people. They know making the dream attainable for every Americans is almost impossible that is why the people are less optimistic in reaching the dream (Ibid). The American Dream has always been linked with American politics as the singlefamily housing has been considered as a sign of civilization redemption. The political root of the dream dates back to the nineteenth century; to the beliefs of Thomas Jefferson and his contemporaries that the American republic demands people of independent gentlemen and farmers. Self-dependent individuals and men of virtue will base the foundation of a new nation. Thus, the United States has been considered as a land of opportunities and a country whose citizens are free to perceive their own ambitions through their personal efforts (Archer 9). In modern age, the term ''do it-yourself'' is used along with the American Dream. Americans work for long hours or have second job in order to build their financial security and stability. They have become resilient and adaptive as for them the personal fulfilment is more essential in achieving the dream rather than material issues; accumulating wealth (MetLife 1-2).

1.4 Familialism and the American Drama Family is the essential root and unit of society. Individuals grow from families since they are the basics on which the society is built (Bansal, etal). The concept of family refers to a group of people tied together biologically or through marriage, consisting of parents, children and relatives (Kins). In most of human history family has stood as the central unit of society. But nowadays there has been a shift in the role of family in society. A great number of individuals avoid marriage and childbearing (Kotkin).

One of the basic requirements of family means having a united residence for all its members. Sometimes the father may live somewhere else due to different reasons such as having a job in a separate place. But still, the father is considered a part of the family though he lives away from the other family members. Family is a universal concept. It is found in all societies and all people can have families. Marriage is implied on families since it makes the relationship between a couple legitimate. However, familial shape has changed through the course of time. In around 1950s, most of the American families consisted of a married couple with their children (a provider and a homemaker). But nowadays the situation has become different and few (around 20%) families have such a structure. Instead, the familial structures consist of divorced couples, unmarried people living together, and in some families children are raised with half- or step siblings (Jensen). Contemporary American families have taken a different structure. Divorce is being increased; marriage has been reduced if not rejected. Large numbers of children are being raised by their mothers because the couples are divorced or not married in the first place. This affects the role of mothers since they need to work to provide money so that they can raise their children. Working mothers are not new phenomenon socially but how and where they work has become different (Levitan and Belous 26). Female- headed families are more likely to face financial and emotional challenges which may affect their lives and become poor. Raising children and working for long hours has become a difficult challenge for the working mothers. The condition of working mothers present social issues in a way that many people find it impossible to bring out families from poverty without governmental help (Ibid 28). There are different functions related to family. One is related to protection; when children are born, they cannot survive if it is not for the familial responsibilities

and protection. Family protects not only the children but also the other members. Another important point is the emotion and love given by the parents to their children. This makes the children feel loved, wanted and protected. If people do not live within a family, it will be difficult for them to have access to education and have financial support. Thus, living within a family makes the life of an individual easier, more secure and protective (The Family, Home Science 2-3). Social scientists have focused on the importance of family in modelling individuals and affecting social patterns. Family fills and meets the needs of individuals; it is conceived as a unit that ties two or more persons through marriage, blood and adoption. Thus, it is the main source of emotions and socialization for individuals (Bahadur and Dhawan 11). Family situation is a critical subject in American Drama. Family life with its problems is portrayed in modern American plays since it is the reflection of reality of a nation. By going through American drama, one can understand the habits, patterns of life and ideologies of American people. Twentieth century American Drama has been extremely concerned with family life; realistic scenes are depicted including family strife, theme of freedom, familial stability and so forth. American drama reached its peak in twentieth century with playwrights such as Eugene O'Neil, Miller, Edward Albee, Tennessee Williams and some others. These writers have evidently presented familial concerns in a realistic style, thus, American Drama can be called domestic drama (Scanlan 3-4). The term ''Modern American Drama'' is used to state some of America's significant dramatic works throughout twentieth century (Ableman). American drama sheds light on problems of family life; it is fundamentally domestic drama (Ibid). Different factors have affected the changes in modern families such as, capitalism, industrialism and new technology, but there were other factors which

preceded these and paved the way for such changes. Philippe Ariès (a French medievalist and historian 1914-1984) argues that the concept of the modern family is a notion which emerged in the seventeenth century when the family began to be noticed and to inspire art (Ibid 18). According to Ariès the concept of family with its full meaning can be traced back to the seventeenth century. Before that, in the sixteen century, family images were depicted through images in the medieval calendar, but the seventeenth century can be considered the core of emergence of nuclear family since it saw the positive flood of such familial images. Not only family images were displaced by that time, but also individual portraits, and not only in churches but also in private homes (Ulanowics).

Chapter Two Long Day's Journey into Night 2.1 Introduction An autobiographical, the play is one of O'Neil's finest works. It is written in the 1940s and published after his death. This play is O'Neil's last play, some would argue it is the greatest play he has written ''a tragic triumph of American Realism''. He has dedicated the play to his wife (LDJN: Considerations on Darkness). The characters and the incidents reflect his life and family. He has written the play in a summer cottage since they had no permanent home and often lived in hotels. He has attended Princeton University but has been expelled after one year. He has worked as a reporter, sailor and an actor (Bloom: Foreword). He writes about his childhood: My first seven years were spent mainly in the larger towns all over the United States- My mother accompanying my father on his road tours in Monte Cristo and repertoire, although she was never an actress and had rather an aversion for the stage in general. Achild has a regular, fixed home, but you might say I started as a trouper. I knew only actors and the stage. My mother nursed me in the wings and dressing rooms (Cohn and Dukore 403). Due to his familial problems, O'Neil suffers in his life starting from his mother's addiction knowing that his birth is the reason behind her addiction. His Parent's successive death in 1920 and 1922 as well as the death of his brother in 1923 make him live in a state of mourning for a long time. O'Neil's family is reflected through the Tyrone family in this play. O'Neil's mother has been an addict like Mary Tyrone. His father has been an alcoholic similar to James Tyrone. There is also a comprehensive similarity between these two families in the way that both families have used to live in hotels since they have not had permanent home. This is a

factor behind the females' constant discontent with their accommodation (Brietzke 2).

The Tyrones, is originally an Irish Catholic family who migrates to America to find a better life similar to O’Neil's family who has been forced to move to America by the mid-century famines of Ireland. O’Neil’s father has been raised to a high position socially like Tyrone who is a self-made man making his way to the top of his profession through land mortgage (Bloom 72). A basic figure in O’Neil’s plays is the poet who sees “Behind Life” and in this play the reflection of O’Neil can be seen through Edmund Tyrone who possesses an artistic talent like him. He reads many famous literary figures and memorizes their poems. He appears almost as a poet who has “All poets in him” (Cawthon 25). O’Neil lives a melancholic and miserable life. One reason is that he feels unwanted by his family since he is the cause of his mother’s addiction. This biographical fact is apparently presented by the author through Edmund, the younger son who feels alienated and unwanted in the family (Flath 14). The events of the play take place in August 1912, a time close to O’Neil’s attempt to suicide (nine months before writing the play he attempts committing suicide) in the age of 23. Four months after writing the play, in a Christmas Eve, O’Neil enters sanatorium, this incident is the core of the play (Silver 306).

O'Neil dedicates the play to his wife. He writes to her: I give you the original script of this play of old sorrow, written in tears and blood. A sadly inappropriate gift, it would seem, for a day celebrating happiness. But you will understand. I mean it as a tribute to your love and tenderness which gave me the faith in love that enabled me to face my dead at last and write this play—

write it with deep pity and understanding and forgiveness for all the four haunted Tyrones (Wilkins).

2.2 A Journey into the Past The dominance of the past over the present is evidently seen in the play. The characters are absorbed in the past events of their lives rather than the present ones. Most of the conversations in the play are affected by past. Mary Tyrone affirms the domination of the past “The past is the present, isn’t it? It’s the future, too.”, “Only the past when you were happy is real (LDJN 90)”. By this statement she escapes from her responsibility and uses past as an excuse for her addiction declaring that nothing can be done to change the past. The characters are almost surrendered to the past and they have accepted to live with it, which can be apparently seen in the statement of the younger son Edmund “She’ll be nothing but a ghost haunting the past by this time” (LDJN 139). Also the statement of Tyrone when he indicates “All we can do is try to be resigned-again (LDJN 134).'' The play is mainly concerned with how the family is formed in this certain shape and what leads this family to take this specific direction of familial life. The author sheds light on how the characters participate in creating their current situation mainly the parents. The stinginess, addiction and alcoholism are apparent factors that affect the family life. O'Neil presents the image of stinginess through James Tyrone while Mary represents addiction. The image of alcoholism and drunkenness is reflected through Jamie, the elder son. Edmund’s birth and Tyrone’s unwillingness to pay money for a competent doctor lead to Mary's addiction, though she tries to break her addiction in vain. Jamie’s alcoholism is motivated by his father. He has given Jamie spoons of alcohol from his childhood.

Edmund’s life is also endangered by his father's miserliness to send him to sanatorium in order not to spend much money for his recovery (Huang 145). Mary has had two dreams; to become either a pianist or a nun. But she does not achieve any of them. O’Neil depicts her first unachieved dream through her crippled hands with her old guitar with which she plays in the end of the play. The image of her crippled hand indicates that she has been unable to become a pianist. Concerning her second dream to be a nun, she has ignored religion by turning away from her faith. Her deviation from religion has led to her misery. Mary. And he was handsomer than my wildest dreams, in his make-up and his noble man costume that was so becoming to him [. . .]. I fell in love right then. So did he, he told me after wards. I forgot all about becoming a nun or a concert pianist. All I wanted was to be his wife (LDJN 107-108). Mary loses her devotion to God by marrying a young handsome actor. For that reason she is punished by living in such a miserable situation. She has been seeking pleasure in a marriage life ignoring her spiritual faith. From this point she has moved to a problematic familial life. Her complete break with religion is evidently illustrated when she injects herself with drug after the death of her second child (Eugene) (Ibid). Her husband is aware of the loss of her religious beliefs. He declares this fact by stating “She has forgotten her faith. There is no strength of spirit left in her to fight against her curse” (LDJN 80). Due to the effect of morphine she turns to the past. She recalls her earlier stages of life in her mind. She uses flashback, a time when she has been happy, to escape from her miserable situation. She is still influenced by the time when she has lived in her parent’s house. Her father could have done anything for her to make her happy (Babaee 9).

She uses any available means to escape from her current life; for example, she declares her love for the fog because it hides her from her surroundings: Mary. I really love fog because it hides you from the world and the world from you. You feel that anything has changed, and nothing is what it seemed to be. No one can find or touch you any more (LDJN 38). The author presents Tyrone as an icon for a miserable individual that is still influenced by the childhood poverty. The abandonment of his father and the difficult situation of his mother to raise children in poverty without a husband have affected him deeply. His past life has made him know the value of money and become a miser. For that reason the rest of the family members constantly blame him. He informs his younger son that his love for money has damaged his career as an actor. He has wasted his artistic talent for money. He has been acting in the same play many times in his youth since he has been paid well. For this reason he scolds himself explaining that he has missed the opportunity of being a great Shakespearean actor due to the fear of ending up in a poorhouse. Thus, he has done his best to avoid facing poverty in the next stages of his life (Bloom 146). Past has occupied a huge part of Tyrone's life because it has been a time of suffering and agony which he will never forget: Tyrone. At ten years old! There was no more school for me. I worked twelve hours a day in a machine shop, learning to make flies. […] You talk of work! And what do you think I got for it? Fifty cents a week! It's the truth! Fifty cents a week! And my poor mother washed and scrubbed for the Yanks by the day, and my older sisters sewed, and my two younger stayed at home to keep the house (LDJN 60).

Mary does not feel like she lives in a real home. She always refers to her parent’s comfortable home where she has lived happily. She blames her husband for not providing her a home, living in the hotels mostly, and not having connection with their surrounding people: Mary: I've never felt it was my home. It was wrong from the start. Everything was done in the cheapest way. Your father would never spend the money to make it right. It's just as well as haven't any friends here. I'd be ashamed to have them step in the door. But he's never wanted family friends. He hates calling on people, or receiving them. All he likes is to hobnob with men at the club or in a barroom (LDJN 16). As one of the Tyrone family member, Jamie is also affected and haunted by his past. He learns from his father to be alcoholic because Tyrone has given him alcohol in certain situations. This phenomenon affects his present life negatively. His parents are discontent with his direction in life. An effective past incident which he cannot forget is seeing his mother with a morphine injection. This has a damaging impact on him which will be influential during all his life. His failure in school and college can be possibly related to this incident that has led him spend his time in alcohol and prostitution. He feels hatred towards his brother because as he states, Edmond’s birth is the reason behind Mary’s addiction “it was your being born that started Mama on dope'' (LDJN 169). The parents are not content with Jamie and his attitude in life though Mary does not blame him. She blames the past; telling Edmund “It’s wrong to blame your brother. He can’t help being what the past has made him. Any more than your father can or you or I” (LDJN 64). Jamie feels jealous and detached from his mother since Edmund's birth. This feeling makes him ruin his own life and his brother’s (Babaee 10).

Edmund, as the rest of the family members is not excluded from turning into the past; into the time which he has been happy enjoying his experiences in life. He escapes from his current life referring to his sea experience, having spiritual peace and living only that moment as if there were no past and no present. Edmund: I lay on the bowsprit, facing astern, with the water foaming into spume under me, the masts with every sail white in the moonlight, towering high above me. I became drunk with the beauty and signing rhythm of it, and for a moment I lost myself - actually lost my life. I was set free! I dissolved in the sea, became white sails and flying spray, became beauty and rhythm, became moonlight and the ship and the high dim-starred sky! I belonged, without past or future, within peace and unity and a wild joy, within something greater than my own life, or the life of Man, to Life itself! (LDJN 156). These spiritual experiences give meanings and consolation to Edmund’s life. His life has been troubled. For that reason he wishes to be a fish or any other sea birds. Edmund. It was a great mistake, my being born a man, I would have been much more successful as a sea gull or a fish. As it is, I will always be a stranger who never feels at home, who does not really want and is not really wanted, who can never belong, who must always be a little in love with death!(LDJN 157). O'Neil uses conventional iconographic image of seagull and fish to present knowledge and eternity. Edmund wishes to be a fish or a seagull in order to be free in his quest for knowledge and happiness. The fish also iconizes Christianity and faith in its conventional attribute. The writer indicates past as an icon of an influential aspect affecting the present; as a dominant factor which leads to the current domestic issues in the family.

2.3 Familial Relationship The Tyrone family consists of four members; the parents with two sons. Each member is the victim of his own lost chance; which affects their relationship with each other. Different types of relations are depicted in the play like father-son, mother-son, husband-wife, and brother to brother relation. Burdens of guilt and sin have affected their livesl2, also their relations with each other. Historical events and motives have shaped their family like marriage, ambition and homesick (Bloom 173). The play depicts the ''nightmare realities'' of the family life. These realities have influenced the familial relationship like the addiction of the mother and alcoholism of the male members. Due to these events, there are constant disagreements with accusation among the family members. Tyrone and his older son are constantly in dispute about Edmund’s illness. Jamie accuses his father of being a miser. He believes that because of his father’s stinginess Edmund is not treated well by a doctor (Manheim 206). Jamie does not idealize his father; he often calls him ‘old miser’. The father in his turn does not see a bright future in his son since he mainly spends his time and money in alcohol with prostitution. Furthermore, he blames Jamie for having a negative impact on Edmund: '' You’ve been the worst influence for him’’ (LDJN 35). Tyrone. I've lost all hope you will ever change yours. You dare tell me what I can afford? You have never known the value of a dollar and never will! You've thrown your salary away every week on whores and whiskey! Jami. My salary! Christ! Tyrone. It's more than you are worth, and you couldn't get that if it wasn't for me. If you weren't my son, there isn't a manager in the business who would give you a part, your reputation stinks so.

Jamie. I never wanted to be an actor. You forced me on the stage (LDJN 32).

The relation between the father and his younger son is not the same as with his older son; it is better. Tyrone feels sorry for Edmund because of his illness. In addition, he believes that Jamie has ruined him. Edmund is the only member of the family who does not have a serious character fault (addiction, alcoholism and stinginess) that may affect him negatively (Skauffman). Concerning mother-son relation, Mary loves both her sons. She has a good relation with them. They love her as well, but due to her addiction there is a tension in their relation. Mothers have direct impact of the personality of their children. But due to her addiction, Mary has negatively affected her sons' lives. Jamie is the first character who faces Mary and directly talks about her addiction. He confronts Mary with harsh words (Bloom 76). Mary. Why do you stare like that? Jamie. You know. Mary. I don't know. Jamie. Oh, for God's sake, do you think you can fool me, Mama? I'm not blind. Mary. I don't know what you're talking about Jamie. No? Take a look at your eyes in the mirror! (LDJN 65-66) Jamie has found out about his mother's addiction when he was adolescent. This has affected his situation in school. He has been expelled from university. He finds his comfort in alcohol and prostitutes to replace the emptiness he feels at home. Jamie does not believe in his mother's purity anymore because he has seen her injecting herself with drug (Huang 146).

Mary keeps denying Edmund's illness. She repeatedly indicates that his sickness is only catching cold. She cannot stand the idea of her younger son having tuberculosis since her father has died of it. At the same time she admits that she has not had determination to give birth to Edmund after Eugene's death (Bloom 75). Thus, Mary fails to perform her role as a protective mother due to her addiction. This causes her sons to live an unstable emotional life. Her elder son spends his time mostly with prostitutes while her husband is absorbed with alcohol (Bogard, Moody and Meserve 69-70). Mary. I was afraid all the time I carried Edmund. I knew something terrible would happen. I knew I’d proved by the way I’d left Eugene that I wasn’t worthy to have another baby, and that God would punish me if I did. I never should have borne Edmund (LDJN 90-91).

As for Tyrone and Mary, they have a good marital relation, they also love each other. The opening scene begins with Tyrone and Mary entering from the dining room, his arm around her waist which is the indication of love and a good relation. They exchange some compliments as she responds to his jokes about her weight. But Mary looks nervous as if she has passed through serious troubles. She is doubtful about herself and the other family members. She does not want anyone to watch her (Gray 111).

Mary . .. What makes you think I'm upset? Tyrone. Why, nothing, except you've seemed a bit high-strung the past few days. Mary, Forcing a smile. I have? Nonsense, dear. It's your imagination. With sudden tenseness. You really must not watch me all the time, James. I

mean, it makes me self-conscious. Tyrone, Putting a hand over one of her nervously playing ones. Now, now, Mary. That's your imagination. If I've watched you it was to admire how fat and beautiful you looked (LDJN 16, 17). Their relation is empty from any infidelity; this makes Mary happy mostly. Despite their love and good marital relation there is constant disagreement that causes argument between them. She disagrees with him when James refers to Hardy as a good doctor stating ''It's simply a waste of time and money seeing him. He will only tell you some lie'' (LDJN 95). She also blames her husband for not having home and living in hotels most of the time. He reminds her of her option saying that she has followed him because she has loved him. This dialogue indicates their strong love with sacrifice. She has been ready to travel with him because she loves him dearly. Mary iconizes the faithful wives who give up their dreams for the sake of love. James in his part iconizes the loyal husbands who do not betray their wives. From his side, James also has loved, respected and appreciated her in a way that he has not betrayed her in any way. Mary. And in all those thirty six years, there has never been a breath of scandal about him. I mean, with any other woman. Never since he met me. That has made me very happy, Cathleen. It has made me forgive so many other things (LDJN 108).

From the opening scene Jamie and Edmund seem to be close to each other and have a good relation. Their sound is heard while they make jokes and laugh together. But in the last scene when Jamie returns home he confesses that he has intentionally wanted to ruin Edmund because he has been jealous of him for being “Mama’s baby, Papa’s pet (LDJN 167 ).” He admits as well that he hates him for being the reason behind Mary's addiction ''It was your being born that started

mama on dope'' (Bloom 74). At the same time he tells him that Edmund is his only pal and he loves him dearly ''But don't get wrong idea, Kid. I love you more than I hate you'' (LDJN 169).

Since O'Neil has written the play about his own family, it is not apparent who is to be blamed for the family problems. Each character contributes in a way or another in creating their problematic situation while they can contribute in reducing the danger of the familial issues. In order to improve the shape of the family, the members can support and sympathy with each other. But what is seen in the play is that instead of tolerating the characters blame each other for their current condition. A sequence of events connects the actions of the play together; for instance, Jamie has caused his brother's death when he has been a kid. Thus, after Edmund's birth Mary starts her addiction due to birth complication. She refers to this incident as an indication for blame. While a grown up person, Jamie still has negative influences on his younger brother Edmund. But in the final act Jamie shows his courage when he warns Edmund about his deliberate influence. He informs Edmund that he loves him more than he hates him. Thus, Tyrone blames Jamie for Edmund's condition. As for Tyrone, he has lost hope in Jamie and Mary blames him for making Jamie an alcoholic person. Both Jamie and Edmund blame Tyrone for Mary's addiction due to his stinginess (Bloom 146-7). 2.4 Drug and Alcohol as Destructive Factors of the Family In this play drug and alcohol have a negative impact on all the characters. Mary Tyrone is the reason behind part of the familial problems because she is addicted to morphine. Thus, the icon of drug with its destructive impact is presented through this character. When she is under the impact of the drug she always refers to her past life. This action influences her present and creates problems with the rest of

the family members (Wilkins). Mary has lost a child before Edmund's birth. She has felt guilty and wanted another baby to overcome the feelings of losing Eugene. Edmund's birth has caused Mary her addiction because she has been seriously sick. She has taken morphine to kill her pain. The author depicts drug and its destructive effects through Mary illustrating that domestic problems happen as a result of addiction (Babaee 9).

In the first act Tyrone and Jamie discuss about Mary and her recovery from addiction. They also wish they can keep Edmund's sickness from her. Tyrone tells Jamie:

Tyrone. This time you can see how strong and sure of herself she is. She's a different woman entirely from the other times. I wish to God we could keep the truth from her, but we can't if he has to be sent to a sanatorium. Yes, it will be hard for her. But she can do it! She has the will power now! We must help her Jamie, in every way we can! (LDJN 37). But when the play goes on, the other characters suspect Mary about her addiction that she is still on dopes. They confront her but she denies:

Tyrone. I understand that I've been a God-damned fool to believe in you! Mary. I don't know what you mean by ''believing in me.'' All I've felt was distrust and spying and suspicion. (LDJN 71) Mary. James! I tried so hard! I tried so hard! Please believe-- ! Tyrone. I suppose you did, Mary. For the love of God, why couldn't you have the strength to keep on? Mary. I don't know what you're talking about. Have the strength to keep on what?

Tyrone.

Never mind. It's no use now. (LDJN 72)

Her condition is the subject of the other characters' discussion when Mary is not present. In one of the scenes when Mary leaves the room and goes upstairs Jamie adds cynically ''Another shot in the arm'' (LDJN 78). His statement makes both Edmund and Tyrone angry. They attack Jamie to stop using such comments. In the same Act, Edmund tries to confront his mother about her addiction. He asks her to stop. He says they will help her, but she denies and stops Edmund:

Edmund. Mama! Please listen! I want to ask you something! You—You're only just started. You can still stop. You've got the will power! We'll all help you. I'll do anything! Won't you, Mama? Mary. Please don't—talk about things you don't understand! Edmund. All right, I give up. I knew it was no use (LDJN 95). Mary is aware that her behavior causes suffering for all but she cannot stop. She wishes to take overdose at some point but not deliberately. She fears that Blessed Virgin will not forgive her "I hope, sometimes, without meaning it, I will take an overdose'' (LDJN 123). Mary's addiction creates an obstacle between her and her family as they cannot easily communicate with her. Furthermore, they avoid seeing her in such condition. Edmund tells his father ''It's pretty horrible to see her the way she must be now'' (LDJN 141). This statement indicates that they are aware she is taking dopes but are unable to prevent her.

In the end of the play Mary is completely under the impact of morphine. She is unaware of all the things around her. When Tyrone sees her in that way he states '' Oh, we're fools to pay any attention. It’s the damned poison. But I've never known her to drown herself in as deep as this'' (LDJN 178).

As for alcoholism, that is the central issue for Tyrone and Jamie which affects their relation. They constantly argue and start quarreling when they are drunk. This causes tension between them. The inability of a continuous communication between them is indicated apparently in Mary's statement when she tells Tyrone about Jamie's spending money on drinks ''He'd only spend it on drink and you know what a vile, poisonous tongue he has when he is drunk'' (LDJN 85).

Though Mary loves her husband dearly and they have a good marital relationship, she is still offended by his alcoholism. She refers to their past when they have been in their honeymoon and Tyrone has been brought back into the hotel, drunk, by his friends. She also declares that though she has loved him dearly but she would not have married him if she has known about his drinking. Mary. But I must confess, James, although I couldn't help loving you, I would never have married you if I'd known you drank so much. I remember the first night your barroom friends had to help you up to the door of our hotel room, and knocked and then ran away before I came to the door. We were still on our honeymoon, do you remember? (LDJN 115). In Act Three, Scene One Mary refers to her disappointment concerning Jamie she blames Tyrone for making him alcoholic. When Jamie has been a child Tyrone has given him drinks when he has had nightmares. Edmund confirms this fact when he says ''You did the same thing with me. I can remember that spoonful of booze every time I woke up with a nightmare'' (LDJN 113). Moreover, Mary explains that it is not Tyrone's fault because he has always accompanied people who have believed that ''whiskey is the healthiest medicine for a child who is sick or frightened'' (Ibid).

While the characters are drunk, they forget about their present situation and escape from the reality. Thus, they use alcohol as escapism which destroys their familial relations with each other. The statement of Edmund when he says ''Or be so drunk you can forget'' (LDJN 134) is the indication that they prefer to forget about their problems rather than facing them. While they are drunk they lose control and cause more tensions. When Jamie calls his father hophead Edmund punches him in his face and they are about to start a fight. Then Jamie returns to his senses and does not react. Edmund tells him ''I know you'd never say that unless- But God, Jamie, no matter how drunk you are, it's not excuse!'' (LDJN 165).

In the final scene of the play the negative impact of drug and alcohol on this family is illustrated. Mary is completely lost in her addiction, unaware of the others in the room. Tyrone in his turn asks Jamie to pass him a bottle of wine to drink. Tyrone, Jamie, and Edmund pour drinks for themselves while they are watching Mary talking to herself. This specific scene is the depiction of domestic problems as consequence of using drug and alcohol (LDJN 178-9).

2.5 The Tragedy of the Living The play is considered a tragic one which shows the vague destiny of the Tyrones who try to escape from their problematic life and difficult past experiences. Things have fallen apart and they cannot be changed that is why they are leading a tragic life (Abu Sufian). Mary Tyrone refers to this fact when she says ''None of us can help the things life has done to us. They're done before you realize it …" (LJDN 63).

All the four characters are iconized as factors behind the tragedy of living; Mary with her addiction, Jamie and Edmund with their alcoholism and James Tyrone with his stinginess. From the very beginning of the play, the family seems to be happy and joyful. But gradually the events reveal the tragic elements of their life (Ibid). The concept of tragedy according to Aristotle refers to the decline of a hero due to his ''Hamartia'' and usually the hero is either a prince or a nobleman. It tries to arouse the pity and fear of the audience to interact with the character to affect the purgation of audience's emotions (Munshi 152). In this play James Tyrone is not a prince or a prominent figure, yet the meaning of tragedy in Greek drama makes sense to this play. In Greek drama the conflict is between man and the gods (Munshi 153). In this play the conflict is between man and his own past, present and future, this is presented through all the characters mainly James Tyrone (Ibid). The most significant deviated element of this play from Greek drama is that this is the tragedy of living not of the dead (Ibid 155). Here, O'Neil uses symbols to reveal the stages of the characters' lives. In Act One the sun is shining which is a symbol of a hopeful life. In Act Two the haze gather while in Act Three the fog is presented against the window panes. The haze is the indication of vagueness and obscurity of the life they are leading while the fog iconizes the gloomy future of the family (Munshi 153). O'Neil believes that life itself is nothing. It is a dream which makes man keep fighting and willing to live (Ibid 153). The pain of the characters becomes unbearable in the end of the play because it is the suffering of living. There is no death in the end of the play as it is said death puts an end to suffering and pain (Ibid 155). The characters are meant to suffer and live in agony (Ibid 155). They are destined to be destroyed not only by each other but also by their dead that has caused them disease, alcoholism and drug addiction (Ibid 156).

By embedding elements of Greek tragedy, O'Neil presents man and his struggle with past. This play has the unity of time and place. As for the action, much does not happen on stage. Mainly two events happen and both of them take place offstage: Edmund's being told he has tuberculosis and Mary's return to morphine addiction. Little events take place on the stage and they are basically related to past. The confrontation of the characters leads to revelation of past then to other confrontation. This confrontation and revelation lead to the tragedy of the living since the gloomy incidents are continuously remembered (Flath 66-7). From the very beginning of the play a tragic element is stated which is concerning Edmund's consumption, this is shown when Jamie asks his father about what the doctor has told him. When Tyrone states that it could be consumption, Jamie accuses his father of not sending Edmund to a good doctor when he has gotten sick. This confrontation reveals Tyrone as a stingy father who risks his son's life in order not to spend much money (LJDN 30). The second dreadful incident is Mary's return to addiction which is stated when the characters suspect her, but do not face her directly. In Act Two, Scene Two when Mary goes upstairs Jamie says ''Another shot in the arm''; this creates an argument between the three male members (LDJN 79). Later in the same Scene when Tyrone indicates that he has prayed for Mary for many years, Jamie tells him ''The Nietzsche must be right. ''God is dead: of His pity of man hath God dies".'' (LDJN 80). Jamie iconizes an individual who is hopeless and gloomy; a pessimistic person who lives for now and does not anticipate a bright future (ibid).

Chapter Three A Delicate Balance 3.1 Introduction Edward Albee (1928- ) is considered one of the major American playwrights. His works have attracted critics and scholars. His name is mentioned along with O'Neil, Miller and William's in American literature. His plays depict human condition in a kind of attack on the man himself (Bogard etal 290). In his childhood he has been abandoned by his biological parents and has been adopted by Reed and Frances Albee who were rich. Albee's early life is known to be as ''poor little rich boy'' which means he has been rich in materials and money but poor in maternal concern (Cohn and Dukore 649). His parents have not paid him a lot of attention. Therefore, he has felt like an outsider whose role is only to observe not to participate in the familial system because he has believed that adoption is not a subject of acceptance. At the beginning of his career he has tried his skills in poetry, and then he has turned into drama (Als). Albee has been advised by Thornton Wilder to start writing plays when he meets him in 1953. But Albee does not take his advice till before his thirties when he starts writing his first play “The Zoo Story” in 1958 (Ibid). In 1966 Albee writes his play “A Delicate Balance” which depicts the life of a family consisting of Tobias, his wife Agnes, their daughter Julia and Agnes's sister Claire whose life is intruded by two close friends. The emptiness of the plot and the kind of love which he depicts in this play underlie Albee's view of human life (Bogard, Moody and Meserve 290). The play depicts themes such as responsibility, friendship, domestic issues concerning both male and female, it is also about loss of choice and love (Pero 174 ). Concerning a question that Albee has been asked which one of his

plays he feels closest to, Albee answers ''Well, naturally the one I'm writing right now'' which means ''A Delicate Balance''. Thus, the play can be said to hold great significance among Albee's plays (Flanagan). 3.2 The Politics of the Family Tobias and Agnes are a wealthy couple who have kept the balance of their home but their domestic balance is threatened by Claire (Agnes's alcoholic sister) and the return of their troublesome daughter Julia who comes from her fourth broken marriage. The existence of these two ladies along with the arrival of Harry and Edna, Tobias and Agnes's best friends, shakes the stability of their household (Cohen ). Albee shows this family as a shattered, imbalanced and a dysfunctional one. He depicts the stress and tension of familial life. There is constant miscommunication among the family members, but after passing through different stages in familial life, the family restores its balance though it is a delicate one (Syed 209-10). The characters in this play are taken from real persons. Tobias and Agnes are taken from Reed and Francis Albee while Claire represents Francis's sister Jane who is alcoholic. Julia represents Barbara, Albee's cousin who has been adopted while Harry and Edna are supposed to resemble two persons with the same name (Harry and Edna Winston) who have been Albee's friends and neighbours. Albee has chosen these names (Harry and Edna) because according to him, they are the last people brought into their home by his parents due to his mother's antiSemitism since the Winstons are Jewish (Christian). All the members are supposed contribute in creating and keeping the balance of the familial system. In this play each member participates in his/her own way. The main goal of the members is supposed to be keeping the balance of the system and

preventing it from facing any damages. The system is imbalanced due to different reasons (Keane 47).

Regarding parent-child relation, it is apparent that the relation between Julia and her parents is confused and broken. Julia is the icon which represents members of this type in modern American families, she marries four times and each time she breaks the marriage, she comes home to stay with her parents and this causes instability of the family. She does not help in keeping the balance of the familial system but rather damages it since she does not act like a responsible member to help the system. Her irresponsibility is shown through her reaction when she finds that her room has been given to Harry and Edna to stay in, this makes her behave like a child because in this specific stage in her life she needs her parents' love and support to overcome her emotional problems (Ibid 48). Her childish attitude can be seen in her speeches throughout the play, for instance when she says tearfully: Julia. Get them out of here, Daddy, getthemoutofheregetthemoutofhere getthemoutofheregetthemoutofheregetthemoutofhere. . . . (DB 64). Claire can be seen as an icon of the alcoholic family member who does not have an active role in keeping the system united but rather causes confusion by quarreling with Agnes and Julia. She is a character who always openly speaks and tells things which others do not tell and intervenes in almost everything. In one of the speeches Agnes says that Claire has seen them all clearly and she is not named for nothing (DB 59). This statement indicates that Claire has clear visions about what happens in the family. In the beginning of the play Agnes refers to Clare's ingratitude by saying ''As the saying has it, the one thing sharper than a serpents tooth is a sister's ingratitude'' (DB 9). This statement shows confusion in her

relation with Claire. Claire in her part tells Agnes that she brings out her (Agnes's) brutality because that is her nature: ''I apologize that my nature is such to bring out in you the full force of your brutality'' (DB 12). Then Agnes tells her sister that her reaction is not due to her brutality but due to her love: Agnes. … the reaction of one who is burdened by her love is not brutality-though it would be excused, believe me!-not brutality at all, but the souring side of love. If I scold, it is because I wish I needn't'' (DB 13). Agnes acts like a responsible person in the family and she has an active role in contributing in the familial system. She does her best to keep the family connected and unified. In Act two Scene one she refers to women's role in family as ''… a wife, a mother; a lover, a home maker; a nurse; a hostess, an agitator, a pacifier, a truth teller, a deceiver…. (DB 35). This is a clear reference to that Agnes has a positive role in shaping and keeping her family. She has suffered due to her hard efforts. She also tells Julia that being a daughter is simpler than being a mother and that she wishes to have been born as a man because their concerns are so simple (DB 34). In the beginning of Act Two, scene two Julia quarrels with her mother about her role in the family and tells her that she acts like a nanny, Ages refers to the phrase ''To keep in shape'' (DB 47). She further explains about keeping the familial system unified: ''… we keep it from falling apart. We do not attempt the impossible. We maintain. We hold'' (Ibid). Furthermore, Claire refers to Agnes as a perfectionist and tells Tobias that it is not easy to live with this kind of people. Thus, the image of responsible mothers is shown through this character to represent the whole (DB 21). As for Tobias, he does not have an influential role in that system. He rather goes on like a passive member in the family. Tobias has not recovered from the suffering of his son's death, Teddy. Agnes refers to the time when their son dies

and says that she has thought that her husband has not been in love with her anymore. Teddy's death affects Tobias so much that after the incident he betrays Agnes and gets an affair with a girl. He is not a strong father or husband who accepts the death of a member of his family, but rather, he becomes a passive person who lives in fear in losing another child that is why he does not like to have another son. Tobias is presented as the icon of fathers who do not have influential roles in the familial system. Albee generalizes Tobias's situation and presents it as an icon of all modern American men of this type (DB 67-8). Agnes accuses Tobias of being mentally absent when she tells him that he does not live at home, but he lives in the dark sadness (DB 71). It seems that Tobias is unable to return to his previous position in his family but he has been living in fear and sadness since he has lost his son. He is not the man of choice and decision in the family anymore. He does not speak much and answers when he has to. Agnes tells him: ''But if you do get rid of me… You'll no longer have your life the way you want it'' (DB 77) which means that Agnes is the one who makes decisions and choices in that familial system. In the last act Tobias wants to talk to his family about Harry and Edna's staying, he says that he has done something rare for his family: '' I thought about something'' which means he stays awake all the night and thinks deeply, in order to find a solution for their situation (DB 80). The interference of Harry and Edna in the familial issues leads to instability in the politics of the family. They behave as if they are Julia’s parents; they try to make pressure on her. Finally they make her lose her temper. Edna, like Agnes, seems to be more responsible towards Julia than Tobias and Harry, she even criticizes her because she feels like she is Julia's godmother and has some rights to act in that way. She faces Julia as if she is her mother: "You return to your nest from your latest disaster, dispossessed, and suddenly dispossessing; screaming the

house down, clawing at order…'' (DB 65). The author tries to give a didactic message that the interference of other people affects the familial system. To avoid that, the members have to contribute in making the system work effectively. When Julia states that she has no right to act in that way Edna replies ''We have rights here. We belong''. Then she slaps Julia saying that it's a godmother's duty (Keane 50-51). Harry and Edna are iconized as outsiders who intervene in others' business; hence they cause tension for the family members. Generally it can be said that Agnes is the only active member of the family who seeks for a unified and a well-organized family. She does her best to keep things in shape in the family while the other three members of the family Tobias, Julia, and Claire are not contributing actively and positively in keeping the familial system in order. 3.3 Lack of Communication among the Members of the Family There is obviously lack of constant and proper communication among the members in the family. Each member of this family passes through certain stages of life that lead to their current familial position. Julia passes through different broken marriages and finally finds her final destination in her parent's house. Claire has also moved through different stages like alcoholism, recovery and finds no better place to live than with Agnes and Tobias. Agnes as usual, tries her best to impose familial orders. Tobias is the only character who has not adapted to the environment since his son's death, Teddy (DB 67). As for familial relation, these members find difficulties in having continuous communication with each other. A sense of absence of love can be seen among the family members. Each character prefers to live in a room separate from the others. In this case the rooms are

depicted

as

icons

of

isolation

and

estrangement.

They

symbolize

miscommunication and separation of the characters (Saleh 47).

The characters are not open in their conversation and do not face each other frankly. For example Harry and Tobias have an affair with the same girl but they do not reveal it and keep it hidden from other members. Claire is the only member who talks openly without hiding any feelings. She is able to ask whatever questions come to her mind. For example, she is the first one to ask Harry and Edna about the reason behind being there: ''Why did you come?'', then again she asks harry about what has happened though Agnes tries to stop her and avoid asking that question (DB 29). She does not only speak in a complete frank manner, she also intervenes in almost every issue in the family. In Act Two, Claire tells Agnes that she and Tobias have been trying to find out the reason behind Julia’s coming home, but without success (Ibid 44). Julia and her parents do not have a proper communication to discuss familial issues. When Julia returns home from her unsuccessful marriages her parents do not support her by giving her emotional support. For instance, they do not discuss her marital problems with her husbands to help in rescuing her marriages. Agnes is more responsible towards her than her father is, and she recommends Tobias to talk to Julia's husband Douglas to fix their marital issues as she says ''Julia might, at the very least, come to think her father cares, and that might be consolation-if not help'' (DB 23). Her statement shows that even if Tobias talks to Doug, this may not solve their problems, but at least it will be a consolation for Julia if she knows that her father cares about her.

Tobias has failed as a father to support his daughter; he is unable to have a proper father-daughter communication with her. He has not been capable of giving

her emotional support but he has retreated (Machalická 48). He indicates his failure through one of his speeches in the play: “If I thought I might . . . break through to her and say, ‘Julia . . .,’ but then what would I say? “ ‘Julia . . .’ Then nothing” (DB 24).

There is a tension in the relationship among the three females who surround Tobias. When Agnes announces that Julia is coming home from her fourth marriage Tobias wonders if she has not been happy with her marriage, he also asks about the fact that Agnes has hidden Julia’s separation from her husband. His statement indicates his unawareness of Julia's condition which means he fails to provide paternal commitments towards his daughter (DB 23). When Agnes suggests that it will help Julia if Tobias talks to her, Claire again intervenes by mentioning the names of Julia's husbands with mockery: Philip loved gamble. Charlie loved the boys, Tom went after women, Douglas… (DB 24)

Then she is interrupted by Agnes and as usual a quarrel starts between the two sisters. Claire's statement shows the reason behind Julia's broken marriages. Her first husband has been a gambler while the second one has been homosexual. Nevertheless, she misses Charlie as he is very much like her dead brother (DB 39). Julia's third husband has been after women, while the last husband Douglas, as Julia says has stood against everything , this shows the fact that he and Julia have been in a constant struggle since Douglas is ''opposed to everything'' (DB 45) Julia reflects the icon of each individual (daughters) in modern American families who fails constantly in her marriage due to different domestic reasons.

Tobias fails to perform his role as a husband, for instance, he has not been in a healthy sexual connection with Agnes since the death of their son, and that is due to losing his son. Tobias explains the reason behind not sleeping with his wife and he reveals that it is because Agnes has become more delicate after what has happened (Keane 52). The audience learns that Tobias has not slept with his wife for many years, and even the last time they have been together Tobias has not made sexual contact with his wife and has retreated. Agnes feels heartbroken and from that time they have lived in separate rooms. The failure of their sexual contact represents the failure of love between them (Bloom 25). Agnes. I think it was a year, when you spilled yourself on my belly, sir? ''Please? Please, Tobias?'' No, you wouldn't even say it out: I don't want another child, another loss. ''Please? Please, Tobias?'' And guiding you, trying to hold in you. Tobias.

Oh, Agnes! Please!

Agnes. ''Don't leave me then, like that. Not again, Tobias. Please? I can take care of it: We won't have another child, but please don't… leave me like that.'' Such… silent… sad, disgusted… love (DB 75). In the second night of Edna and Harry's visit, Tobias is forced to sleep in Agnes's room as his room is taken by Julia. Though both of them sleep in the same room they do not feel comfortable and act like two strangers within a room; they have neither discussion nor sexual contact. But Agnes believes that a return to the same bed would help Tobias and her to make their marital relation active again (Clum 67). Agnes. So odd. Tobias. Hm? Agnes. There was a stranger in my room last night.

Tobias. Who? Agnes. You. Tobias. Ah. Agnes. It was nice to have you there (DB 68). As for Harry and Edna, they have come to search for a place where they can find ''comfort and warmth'' (DB 53) as Claire declares. They have chosen Agnes and Tobias because they believe that they have rights to stay in their very best friends' house as Edna says that they have some rights and responsibilities in that house (DB 65). They have left their home due to some nameless and unknown fear they. It seems that they also have some problems in their marital relationship that make them leave their home and stay with another family for a while. Harry and His wife try to make sexual contact but they fail. Later in the morning Harry mentions their failure: Harry. I got out of bed and I . . . crawled in with Edna. She held me. She let me stay awhile, then I could see she wanted to, and I didn’t . . .so I went back. It was funny” (DB 85). . At the same time, Edna tells Agnes about the same night saying that she has on purpose let Harry feel like she wants to make love with him. She tries to make him think he is wanted by his wife and this may please him. Regarding such stories, both female characters try to prove that women are initiative in sexual contact while the men do not have sexual desire and they withdraw (Clum 67). Both of Harry and Tobias are almost in the same position in making marital contact in which they show their impotence and lack of sexual desire. There is tension in Harry and Edna's relationship which represents lack of communication. They could not have established stability and comfort between

themselves in their marriage (Machalicka 44). The tension in their relation and discontinuity of communication between them is depicted through Harry's statement when he tells Tobias about his marital issues: Harry. Edna and I . . . there’s . . . so much . . . over the dam, so many disappointments, evasions, I guess, lies maybe . . . so much we remember we wanted, once . . . so little that we’ve . . . settled for . . . we talk, sometimes, but mostly . . . no. We don’t . . . ‘like.’ Oh, sure, we like . . . but I’ve always been a little shy – gruff, you know, and . . . shy. And Edna isn’t . . . happy” (DB 86). Thus, it is clear that the two couples in this play are presented to be as icons of modern American couples who suffer from to the lack of communication. On the other hand, the two other female individuals, Julia, the daughter, and Claire, the sister and sister in-law also have problems concerning constant and proper communication with the individuals around them. Thus, the lack of communication among the family members and individuals is one of the dominant domestic problems

that

are

shown

in

the

play.

3.4 Evasion of Responsibility Albee is interested in American families and presents the way of American life through this play. He portrays the culture of America through Tobias's family. It is apparent in the play that one of the constant domestic issues is the evasion of responsibilities. Most of the characters avoid taking the responsibilities of their actions and the happenings around them (Tunisi 4). Agnes is the only character who acts as a responsible member of the family who intends to keep things well organized. She acts like a responsible mother when she says Julia has right to be home: '' We are her parents, the two of us, and we have our obligations to her'' (DB

23). Then later in Act Two she reproaches her daughter when Julia appears with Tobias' pistol asking Harry and Edna to leave: ''How dare you to come into the room like that'' (DB 65). She smoothly tries to calm her daughter and take her to bed (… let me comb your hair, and rub your back. And we shall soothe… and solve… and fall to sleep'' (DB 66). In her different responds to Julia's behaviours, Agnes shows that she performs her role as a caring and responsible mother towards her daughter and towards the other members at the same time. She tries to keep Julia calm. She leaves the room silently, accompanied by her daughter in order to avoid quarrel in the family (Ibid).

In the last Act when Tobias spends the night in her room, she is the one who takes the first step to tell him about her feelings that she misses him. She acts responsibly attempting to bring back their normal marital relationship, but Tobias does not respond and gives no specific answer to her feelings. All he says is '' Oh, you're an honest woman'' (DB 70). She represents the type of the wives who take initiative and reveal their feelings honestly to their husbands. Tobias on the other hand, does not act responsibly in the family but he is rather a passive character who prefers avoiding arguments. He has renounced his active position in the family as responsible and influential father and husband. He lets his wife control the familial order since he prefers choosing passivity than taking responsibility (Clum 67). Agnes tells her husband to take the decision of asking Harry and Edna to leave ''We let our… men decide the moral issues'' (DB 72). Tobias mostly spends his time at the bar, drinking, offering drinks to others, and not discussing any familial issues unless he is asked by the other characters. He has not been able to cope with Teddy's death as a responsible father and he has also been unfaithful to his wife but he does not confess it. Furthermore, he has stopped

their sexual connection and has refused Agnes' request to have another son (DB 75).

Even towards his daughter, Tobias does not perform the role of a responsible and caring father. He does not know if his daughter has been happy in her fourth marital life or not. But in the end of the play he performs a different role when he acts responsibly towards the situation in which they live. He eventually speaks openly to Harry by telling him '' I don't want you here! I don't love you! But by God… You stay!!'' (DB 88). Finally he does something for the family in order to re-establish the balance of the family. It is clear that the normal familial order returns after Harry and Edna leave. Julia, like her father is an irresponsible member of the family and this is shown apparently in her behaviour with other members. She blames her husband for their unsuccessful marriage. She does not take responsibility for the failure of her marriage and puts all the blame upon her husband by saying that he is against everything. When she finds out that her room has been taken by Harry and Edna she gets hysteric and even takes her father's pistol to confront them. At the same time she acts in the same way with her mother when she tells Agnes that she acts like a nanny in the family. She does not try to cope withthe situation as a responsible member to establish order, but she acts like a child. Her childish-like behaviour is motivated by seeking the emotional comfort from her parents. She acts in certain way to have her parents' attention because at that specific time she needs their support to help her deal with her marital problems (DB 45, 57). Claire behaves like Tobias. She always carries a glass of wine while speaking or being among the other characters. She is completely a character who does not contribute in establishing the familial stability. She is an alcoholic person who gets

involved in other characters' issues. She does not admit the fact that she is alcoholic ''But, I'm not alcoholic. I am not now and never was'' (DB 19).

Harry and Edna have escaped from their unnamed fear to stay in Tobias' house for unlimited time because they think they have the right to stay there. Their behaviours show irresponsibility. They have invaded Julia's room, and have affected the stability of the family. Their presence in the house leads to confusion in the familial privacy, since they force Tobias to sleep in Agnes' room and Julia sleep in her father's room. Besides, their presence in the house causes constant arguments among the family members, basically among Julia and her parents. At the same time Edna shows responsibility towards Julia as her godmother when she reproaches her for her misbehaviour. Harry is as passive as Tobias and does not perform an influential role (DB 33,34,55).

Thus, the evasion of responsibilities by the characters leads to the loss of familial balance which means shaking stability of the family in the play. If the family loses its familial balance then the society will be imbalanced because basically family is the essential unit of the society.

3.5 Loss of Balance Albee's play deals with loss in different levels. He depicts loss of close people, loss of desire and loss of communication with the closest person. Throughout the play, the characters suffer from loss. There is a sensation of alienation as a result of loss of communication and loss of balance. The actions of the play are related to the title, mainly when it deals with the familial balance. The title refers to the balance Agnes attempts to obtain. The members of this family are sensitive and remain silent in order not to face the problems and to avoid conflict with each

other. They act normally as if the situation is perfect even if something is wrong in the family (Payne etal 1). There are some factors which lead to the loss of balance in the family, the most dominant ones are Claire and Julia's existence in that house along with the arrival of Harry and Edna. Agnes does her best to keep the family in shape and not to lose the familial balance by imposing herself and acting more responsibly towards the events (DB 47).

The characters are afraid of facing the problems. To begin with Agnes, from the very beginning of the play she shows her concern about getting insane while Tobias fears taking the risk of having another son and losing him again. Julia fears maturity while Harry and Edna have been driven out of their home by fear of nothing; they even cannot identify what they are afraid of. Thus fear is the major concern that they share in common. They all avoid to act towards their fears or to have commitments to handle what is causing the loss of familial balance. The existence of Claire, Julia, Harry and Edna complicates the situation further for Agnes and Tobias since it affects their privacy (Machalická 50). Claire's constant intervene, either directly or indirectly in almost every incident, causes the loss of balance of the family because it creates either arguments or quarrels in the family. She watches and hears everything but does not change anything concerning the pattern of life (either hers or others'). She either criticizes the family or entertains the members by telling stories or playing accordion (Machalická 48.) In the beginning of act one when she tells Agnes about bringing out her brutality through her speeches, this causes a kind of argument between her and Agnes, then Agnes states '' … the reaction of one is burdened by her love is not brutality… '' (DB 13). Later, when Agnes tells them that Julia is coming home, Claire comments indirectly on Julia's broken marriages by saying ''Right on schedule, once every three years'' (DB 23). Her statement shows her continuous

awareness of others and commenting on the situations which upset her sister. While Agnes and Tobias are talking about Julia's marriages and her problems Claire keeps interrupting the conversation which makes Agnes ask her to stop. Claire replies ''Oooh I am here, after all. I exist'' (DB 24) this statement is the indication that Claire will act in the same way as long as she lives with them, that means shaking the familial balance. The arrival of Harry and Edna influences the familial order. They have left their home due to some nameless fear and seek for shelter and comfort with Agnes and Tobias. They stay in Julia's room since she does not live with her parents. When she returns home and finds out that her room is taken by them she becomes upset and loses control, thus, she confronts her mother. Then when she asks Agnes about Claire in Act Two she tells Agnes ''Well, you are the fulcrum and all around here, the double vision, the great balancing act…'' (DB 49). Again this statement is the indication for Agnes' active role in the family towards almost everyone and everything. As for Harry and Edna as a couple, they also have instability in their familial balance. They have been driven out of their home because of unknown fear. Harry explains ''There was nothing… but we were very scared'' then he adds ''We couldn't go anywhere else, so we came here'' (DB 31). They stay with Agnes and Tobias because they feel safe and comfortable with them. Their arrival increases the tension among the members of the family since it stresses their privacy but Agnes tries to do what she can to keep the balance of the family as she and Tobias state in the beginning of the play ''We do what we can'' (DB 10). In any family, when the members act carelessly and irresponsibly to avoid dealing with familial problems and solving them, the familial balance will be lost.

So, the balance will be maintained only if all the members behave responsibly with proper familial communication with each other, but the case is not like that in this family that is why the loss of familial balance is apparent in the play. In the end of this play the familial balance is somehow restored when Harry and Edna leave after Tobias tells them ''I don't want you here! I don't love you! But by God… You stay!'' (DB 88). After their departure Agnes tells Tobias that Julia has taken drinking in the morning, she hopes to make him act normally and perform his role as a father with Julia. Her speech is the indication that their familial balance is gradually being regained. Agnes ends the play by asking the family members to start the day which shows that they are acting like normal family members who start the day from the early morning (DB 92-3).

Chapter Four A Lie of the Mind 4.1 Introduction Sam Shepard (1943- ) is considered one of the major American dramatists. His contribution to the American drama is of a great value. His plays are significant in depicting modern American middle class that has domestic issues. The depiction of domestic violence can be seen throughout his works; for instance in ''A Lie of the Mind'' (Görmez). A lot of images and monologues can be seen in his plays. His characters are alienated, separated and lost. Shepard mainly deals with familial themes and the quest for identity (Moore). He also depicts how violent acts among the family members create domestic problems in modern families. He focuses as well on human beings emotions. Tennessee Williams praises Sam Shepard regarding the use of emotion by saying that it is difficult to find a contemporary playwright with much emotional mixture as Shepard (Balasubramanian).

Written and performed in 1985, the play has won the best play award then. It consists of three acts which describe two American families that are connected through the marriage of the son (Jake) of one of the families and the daughter (Beth) of the other. These two families come to a discord because Jake has beaten his wife and left her to die. He thinks she is dead. The beating does not kill her, but leads to her brain damage (Rodriguez). The violent act which is done by Jake creates domestic problems between and within the families. The characters try to continue their lives while they are dealing with anger, violence, revenge, delusion and love. The events of the play continue, following the struggle between the families and the conflict among the characters (Bates News).

Frankie, Jake's brother, leaves him under the protection of his mother Lorraine and goes to check if Beth is still alive or not. When he reaches a ranch which is owned by Beth's family, he is shot by Baylor, Bethe's father. Then, he is brought into her house where he stays till the end of the play. There he confronts Beth's protective brother Mike who tries to keep Beth away from Jakes' family. Beth is the only one in the family who is concerned with Frankie's injury and imagines that she is going to marry him (Meigs).

4.2 Dysfunctional Male and Female Relationships

This play illustrates different domestic aspects and the focus is not only on the two characters that are the link between the two families, but rather it is on all the characters contributing in creating the familial issues. One of the major familial problems in the play is the dysfunctional relationship between males and females. This dysfunctionality can be seen apparently between the male and the female characters, such as Jake and Beth, Baylor and Meg, also between Lorraine and her dead husband (flashback is used to explain their dysfunctional relationship). There are different reasons behind the dysfunctional relationship among the characters in the play. In Act One, Scene Three Jake tells Frankie about Beth, how she has behaved; her behaviour makes Jake suspect her of betrayal: Jake. She was goin' to these goddam rehearsals every day. Every day.Every single day. Hardly ever see her. I saw enough though. Believe you me. Saw enough to know somethin' was goin' on (LOM 13). He further explains to Frankie saying: ''… I'd watch her oiling herself while I pretended to be asleep. She was in a dream, the way she did it. Like she was imagining

someone else touching her. Not me. Never me. Someone else " (Ibid). Shepard shows Jake as the image of a suspicious husband who suspects his wife of betraying him, but he cannot prove it. He is suspecting that Beth is having an affair with another man that is why he beats her though he loves her deeply. Jake's imagination makes him doubt his beloved wife. His suspicion damages their relationship. It also leads to their separation. As Jake explains, Beth's behaviour has made him behave in that way (LOM 16). She has been paying a lot of attention to herself, beautifying herself and spending a lot of time in rehearsals while ignoring her husband. She has also told him that acting is the real world and this statement has driven Jake crazy. He believes that Beth wants to become an actress in order to move away from him (LOM 14-15). Thus, the writer portrays their relationship as an image to represent all modern American couples who live in doubt and suspicion. At the end of Scene Three, Jake says ''… I knew what she was up to even if she didn't'' (LOM 16) which means that she has not betrayed him but she has intended to. Jealousy, suspect and false accusation make Jake lose his temper and mistreat his wife; as a result of his attitude he loses her. It is Beth's superficiality with her disobedience that provokes Jake to behave in such a violent way. So, both Jake and Beth are responsible in creating the dysfunctionality of their relationship. Shepard presents Jake and Beth as an icon of modern American spouses who are having a dysfunctional relation. As for Beth, though she has been beaten by Jake, she still wants to see him. His beating has made her brain-damage, yet she speaks with effort about the strong ties which bind people together (Pressley). In Act One, Scene Four, Beth speaks in broken sentences about Jake saying ''Heez in me… HEEZ MY HART'' (LOM 21).

Her statement demonstrates that she still loves him regardless of his violent behaviour. She is presented by Shepard as the image of a loving wife who shows her love to her husband without considering his vicious act. The relationship between Baylor and Meg (Beth's parents) is also a dysfunctional one. In one of her speeches Meg tells Beth ''Honey I can't ask Mike. You know how he gets. He gets just like your father. There's no point in asking'' (LOM36) which means that Baylor is not behaving in a way which satisfies his wife. He represents the image of a husband who always keeps away from his family generally and his wife particularly. Meg also tells her son that her husband has started moving out and hiding from them (LOM39). Baylor in his turn does not take his responsibilities as a supportive and a caring father and husband. But he escapes from the familial issues that he is facing and he complains, saying that he is the only one who is valid in the house. Then, when Meg tells him that he is not around to take care of his family he replies ''- I'm not gonna' be the caretaker of a nursing home here. I got better things to do'' (LOM 44). Baylor thinks that it is difficult to take care of females in the family. His attitude is apparent in one of his speeches when in the hospital Meg wants to stay with Mike and Beth, Baylor tells Mike ''How're you gonna' watch out for her and your sister both. That's more'n one man can handle. More'n two men can handle'' (LOM 28). Even Mike acts like his father and has almost the same mentality when dealing with women. He replies to his father saying that it is not a problem since there are nurses in the hospital. His words indicate that he himself cannot look after these two ladies alone (Ibid).

In the last act of the play, Meg faces Baylor and tells him he thinks his life is ruined only because of the females that have surrounded him; Baylor confirms that what she is saying is totally true

Meg. You think your whole life went sour because of me. Because of mother.Because of Beth. If only your life was free from females, then you'd be free yourself. Baylor. Well you sure know how to speak the truth when you put your mind to it, don't ya'. Meg. All these women put a curse on you and you're stuck. You're chained to us forever. Isn't that the way it is? Balyor. Yeah! Yeah! That's exactly the way it is… I gotta' play a nursemaid to a bunch a' feeble-minded women here in civilization who can't take care of themselves… Meg. Nobody is crazy, Baylor. Except you. Why don't you just go. Why don't you just go off and live the way you want to live. We will take care of ourselves. We always have (LOM 78). This dialogue between Meg and Baylor illustrates that both Meg and Baylor blame each other for having familial issues and each of them thinks that s/he is taking the familial responsibility. Both husband and wife stand for the type of the spouses who are constantly in conflict with a dysfunctional relationship. Lorraine, Jakes' mother also refers to her husband as a man who has abandoned his wife without giving any notice. He has ''ran off. Into the night. No word. No note. No phone call. Has disappeared like an apparition'' (LOM 66). She further explains to Sally: You know a man your whole life. You grow up with him. You're almost raised together. You go to school on the same bus together. You go through tornados in the same basement. You go through a world war together. You have babies together. And then one day he just up and disappears into thin air'' (LOM 68).

He has Left Lorraine and has given priority to his job. She has wondered about him but in vain. Furthermore, when he has died, she has not been aware of the

incident until a cop has come with an official announcement that her husband has died in an accident. She imagines that the same thing will happen with Jake since he has abandoned her and has gone to ask for Beth.

4.3 Reflections of the Past The past is presented by Shepard in a way that it influences the present. He concentrates on the past of the characters which is linked to their present situation. There is constant use of flashback through which the characters refer to the previous stages of their lives. Their current situation has been formed by the past events; that is why they talk about past incidents. The reflection of the past can be seen from the very beginning of the play. For Example in Act One, Scene Three when Jake tells Frankie about Beth, he refers to Jake's brutal nature when he has blamed others for his actions. Frankie. You have always lost your temper and blamed it on somebody else. Even when you were a kid you blamed it on somebody else. One time you even blamed it on a goat. I remember that (LOM 16). This statement is the indication that Jake has not been able to change his nature. He acts as he has used to act previously. In this respect, the author iconizes Jake as an individual who is provoked easily and blames others for his actions. He is the image of men who get into troubles based on their violent nature. When Frankie tells his mom that Jake is in trouble Lorraine declares that he has been getting in troubles from his childhood to the present day (LOM 21). Lorraine is presented as a kind of mother who always tries to protect her son and comforts him regardless of his actions (LOM 29)

The reflection of past is also apparent in Lorraine's speeches. She refers to her husband's abandonment. She explains that he has left them behind while giving priority to his job as a pilot. Her speech indicates the fact that she is still suffering and remembering how she has been abandoned by him. In Act Three, Scene One Lorraine mentions the day she has received the news of her husband's death by a cop. She fears that Jake will leave her as his father has left her before. She still lives in a fear of losing another male member in her life (LOM 65). Lorraine is influenced by the loss of her past and she does her best to avoid such a misfortune again. For that reason she tries to prevent Jake from visiting Beth. She believes that his visit may involve him in more serious troubles. The abandonment by her husband makes her feel alienated even with her own children. She shows little affection for her children and hostility towards her husband (though he is dead). Shepard presents this character as a concerned mother who tries to protect her son from facing the same destiny as his father. At the same time, she is portrayed as an alienated mother who blames others, especially her husband for her current situation (Lee 6). Lorraine attempts to leave her past behind. In Act Three, Scene Three she urges Sally to burn their house which includes every memory related to their past. She plans to leave and never return. When Sally looks at some old pictures and asks her mother about them, Lorraine recalls her past memories, explains the occasion when the picture has been taken. This is the indication that the reflection of the past influences her though she tries to forget (Kane 140). She refers to the materials in the house as “a pile of junk” which means they are no more meaningful to her (LOM 87). Jake and Sally go through an accident which they will not forget in their lives, the death of their father. After he leaves his family, Jake's father lives in a trailer away from them. His children (Jake and Sally) track him down. After they find him, the

accident happens. Their father is hit by a truck in the Mexican highway and the accident influences them deeply. Jake informs his sister that he trusts her because they have passed through something together (they witnesses the incident together in which their father has dies) (LOM 70-1). The constant reference of the accident iconizes past with its reflection over the present. In Act One, Scene Seven Jakes says ''Some things stick into your mind'' (LOM 32) which means he is unable to forget certain incidents in his life.

Past and present are linked together through some images in this play such as the medals, a leather jacket and an American flag, which are left for Jake by his father. Another type of icon is the pictures that Lorraine and Sally look at. They iconize the past life of this family, the way they have lived. In the end of the play When Sally looks at the pictures Lorraine tells her to burn them as she explains; there is no reason for saving them '' What do I wanna' save that for? It is all in the past. Dead and gone.Just a picture'' (LOM 86), this shows that she is not interested in keeping those memories anymore though she remembers them well; as she explains the occasions of the pictures to Sally (Ibid). When Lorraine decides to leave with Sally she mentions some names that her family has known before. She intends to find those people and visit them. The past reflection is apparently depicted in this scene because Lorraine is willing to recommunicate with people whom they have known a long time ago. The author portrays past as an active means for Lorraine to use in her present life when she leaves her home (LM 87-8).

4.4 Self-created Delusion One of the reasons behind domestic problems in this play is delusion. The author depicts delusion as an influential factor in creating familial issues. By living in a state of delusion the characters (such as Jake and Beth) move away from reality which makes it difficult for the rest of the family members to communicate with them. The ones who live in delusion create their own world, a world which is isolated. Self-created delusion leads to alienation and estrangement. The icon of delusion is best presented through both Jake and Beth. In Act One, Scene One when Jake speaks with Frankie on the phone he tells his brother that he sees Beth ''She's here! She's right here'' (LOM 10). He has beaten his wife and left her to die but now he imagines that he sees her with him in the street. Jakes also admits that he lives in delusion and imagines things. Beth has told him that he imagines things which are not real ''Some imaginary deal I'd cooked up in my head. Had nothin' to do with her, she said'' (LOM 13). Shepard illustrates that by living in Self-delusion Jake is destroying his own life by beating and losing his wife. He continuously lives in the delusion of being betrayed. Jake is represented as the icon of individuals who are influenced and affected by their own delusions, individuals who are prisoners of their own imaginations. Consequently, they are abandoned by their beloved ones. Eventually they are isolated and alienated (LOM 94) Jake's delusion does not only consist of imagining an absent person in front of him like in the case of Beth. But he also mixes between other characters. He imagines that Sally is Beth. His behaviour towards Sally makes her keep away from him. In Act one, Scene 5, Jake grabs Sally by her wrist imagining that she is Beth. When Sally asks him to let her go, he replies ''I'm gonna' let go a' you! I'm gonna' let go a' you once and for all'' (LOM 24). His behaviour makes the other

family members believe that he is dangerous. This leads to an argument between Lorraine and Sally. Eventually the mother decides to take Jake home while Sally decides to leave if Jake is brought to that house (Ibid) In the last scene of Act One, again Jake lives in a state of delusion. He sees Beth sitting alone, oiling herself in a seductive manner. She is Jake's vision. He moves towards her but she disappears. Then he remains alone in the room moving to the box of his father's ashes in which he blows gently (LOM 34). The writer shows Jake as a difficult character to be communicated with, due to the delusion in which he lives. He is the image of an imaginative husband who mixes his imagination with reality (LOM 23, 34) Jake thinks that his mother, along with his brother Frankie is planning against him. He believes that they want him to suffer by convincing him that Beth is still alive. This delusion makes him leave home and go after Beth to make sure if she is alive or not. Jake's impatience leads to further familial problems. When he leaves home with the help of his sister Sally, his mother gets devastated. She blames Sally for his departure. She also believes that Jake has abandoned her. All this argument and conflict in the family are happening because of Jake's delusion. He is presented as an icon of impatient man who goes after his imagination regardless of the consequences (LOM 49). Beth also lives in delusion. Her brain damage makes her imagine things. She imagines that her brother has agreed with the doctors to make an operation for her. She thinks that her brain has been taken away from her head and Mike has been the one who has taken the decision. Beth shows Frankie non-existed scars on her head to tell him that her brain has been taken away from her (LOM 56). Shepard shows Beth as an innocent character who acts like a child, a woman who holds a pure

love for her husband. Even when she is unsure whether she is alive or not, she still confirms her connection to him by saying that he is still in him. She is presented as a naive daughter. Due to her naivety and simplicity she explains to Frankie that her father has given up love, that love is dead for him (Rooney). Thus, the author presents both Jake and Beth as individuals who live in delusion, follow their imagination rather than turning to reality due to different reasons. They represent modern American couples which separate due to self-created delusions. 4.5 Conceptualization of the American Identity. Another theme which is apparently depicted in the play is the theme of identity. The author portrays relationships between men and women especially the son and his beloved. Shepard explores how the relationship between the son (Jake) and his wife (Beth) is affected by his relation with his father from whom Jake has developed his concept of male identity as an American individual (McDonough 72). Shepard's characters struggle with living an American life, unable to achieve the impression of the American identity, at the same time unable to express themselves outside the frame of national characters. Shepard depicts that the effective notion of the American identity means admitting the influence of the past as well as acknowledging the reality of that identity which is violent and inaccessible to most Americans (Madachy). The writer presents the image of the failed American identity through Jake. He is an angry American individual who cannot control his rage while talking to his brother Frankie on the phone in the beginning of the play. He continuously smashes the receiver, unaware that his violent nature roots (inherits) from his past as an American identity (Ibid 127). Furthermore, he keeps questioning his violence

by saying “I never even seen it comin’. I shoulda known. Why didn’t I see it comin’.I been good for so long” (LOM 10). In this play, Shepard continuously shows a sign of America either through an American flag or the medals. When Jake asks Lorraine about where they have lived before, she replies ''You-Name-It U.S.A'' (LOM 31). Then she refers to his ''Secret Mission'' about which he has not told his wife. He has kept secrets from her. As an American individual trying to keep his identity, Lorraine's husband has given priority to his job because it has been his typical identity. Shepard tries to urge the Americans to search for a genuine American identity rather than an identity which is based on a lie (American Dream which has failed the Americans) (Madachy 223). Shepard's characters search for an identity that all the Americans can achieve in order to be national. The passionate search for American identity for Jake is mainly illustrated through the American flag which Lorraine gives him with a box of medals and a leather jacket. All the remaining materials given to Jake by his mother, represent the conceptualization of the American identity. The medals represent the bravery of an American individual when performing his national duty as a pilot. The leather jacket is also the image of an American individual that carries out his national tasks for his country. As for the American flag, it is the image of the whole American nation. It represents the individuals of America who are after the quest of national identity. When Jake holds the box on top of the flag he asks his mother ''This is him?'' (LOM 33).After his death, Jake's father leaves his personal properties for his son. Jake takes the steps of his father appreciating and searching for an American identity to find. In Act Two, Scene Two Jake is presented with the American flag on his neck while he is wearing his father's leather jacket. His appearance is the image of a

typical American individual taking his dead father's steps. When he heads out to trace his wife, he tells Sally ''I just try to keep track of my own movements these days'' (LOM 46). He will start his own journey by himself, alone, as an American individual tracing his own identity. Then, when Jake intends to start his journey to Montana, Sally tells him how he is going there in his underpants with an American flag around his neck as if the flag is too valued to be used in that way. The author basically sheds light on the American flag which is the representation of the Americans in general. In Act Three, Scene Three the flag is seen with Jake and Mike, around a rifle. When Baylor asks about it and Mike replies by saying it is just a flag, he gets angry because he extremely values the flag: Baylor. What're you doin' with that rifle? What's that wrapped around it? Mike. It's just a flag. He had it on him. Baylor. It's not just a flag. That's the flag of our nation. Isn't that the flag of our nation wrapped around that rifle? Mike. Yeah, I guess so. I don't know. Baylor. You don't know? You don't recognize the flag anymore? (LOM 90) This dialogue between Baylor and Mike shows that the American flag (the American identity) is treated differently by different American individuals. For Baylor it is the flag of the whole nation and he sacredly values it while for Mike it is merely a flag. Then Baylor orders his son to fold the flag with him cautiously and not to let it touch the ground because it is valuable and precious. In the last scene Baylor is absorbed in folding the flag, asking Meg to help him. He focuses on the way they fold it. He asks Meg whether she remembers how to fold it. He warns her not to let the flag touch ground whatever she does. Meg states that

she does not remember if she has folded a flag before. Her words are the indication that she does not pay much attention to the flag as her husband does. But for Baylor, the flag is so important that he does his best to prevent it from touching the ground (LOM 92-3). Thus, an important subject in this play is the concept of the American identity by the characters. The quest for the identity is illustrated through the male characters in the play, mainly Jake and Baylor. These two characters behave as national characters bearing a true American identity which is basically presented through the American flag.

Conclusions Domesticity has preoccupied a great part of Modern American Drama. The plays vividly reflect domestic elements and shed light on domestic issues which face the American families in modern age. Modern American plays have been used as means to present familial problems that damage the American society; hence audience feels the danger of such issues and will be aware how to deal with them. Different themes are presented in the plays through icons to open the eyes of the American people; hoping to find a better way to solve the problems. The writers have used the characters as icons to convey their messages to the reader along with other different icons. Each character represents a type of the American individual that is either directly or indirectly involved in domestic issues. O’Neil’s play ''Long Day's Journey into Night'' 1940, tackles diverse familial issues which are presented through different icons; mainly through the characters. He focuses of the reflection of the past and its impact on the current life of the characters. An evident domestic issue is the familial relationship among the members which is affected by different factors such as stinginess of the father and the disobedience of the elder son, and the feeling of guilt by the mother which leads her to take drugs. The tragedy of living of Tyrone Family is also prominently stated through Mary Tyrone and her younger son, Edmund. An explicit theme which is stated through the characters is the destructive impact of drug and alcohol on the characters; this is mainly shown through Mary Tyrone and her elderly son, Jamie. Thus, the writer has used iconography to depict some familial issues and convey his message in an artistic way. Edward Albee with his domestic play ''a Delicate Balance '' serves the American drama in a significant way as he points out domestic problems which affect the American families. He points out important familial concerns such as the politics

of the family and the factors that lead to the formation of family. Moreover, he explains evasion of responsibilities by the characters which are presented through Tobias, Julia, Claire, Harry and Edna. The evasion of responsibilities and the lack of communication among the family members lead to the loss balance of the family which Agnes tries hard to restore. In addition, he sheds light on the attitude of each character such as alcoholic Clair, childish Julia, irresponsible Harry and Edna to present the problems which cause familial problems. The playwright Sam Shepard is also concerned with domesticity; he indicates various domestic icons which reflect familial issues in his play ''a Lie of the Mind''. He depicts dysfunctional male and female relationships through Jake and Beth, Baylor and Meg, and also Lorraine and her husband. He also tackles the issue of self-created delusion that is shown through Beth which has a negative impact on her communication with other characters. He further presents the conceptualization of the American identity; how it is perceived differently by the characters. Thus, Shepard illustrates domestic icons to show his audience the major familial issues which face the American family and cause familial instability and loss of balance. These three playwrights have intended to make their audience aware regarding domestic problems in modern American society through using icons in their plays. They have used their artistic style to contribute considerably in American literature generally and American drama specifically by reflecting common realistic issues faced by the families. Their plays are the mirrors which reflect the nature of the American families with their everyday problems; hoping to raise the awareness of people and help them in reducing those problems. In that way they can contribute in creating a better society based on good American families.

Works Cited Albee, Edward. A Delicate Balance. New York: Samuel French, 1996. Allen, Sarah, and Kerry Daly. "The Effects of Father Involvement: An Updated Research Summary of the Evidence." Father Involvement Research Alliance. University of Guelph, May 2007. Web. 24 Jan. 2016. . Als, Hilton. "Just the Folks: Edward Albee’s Bad Marriages." The New Yorker, 1 Dec. 2014. Web. 20 Mar. 2016. Archer, John. "The Resilience of Myth: The Politics of the American Dream." Traditional Dwellings & Settlements Review. TDSR 25.2 (Spring 2014): 721. Web. 8 Mar. 2016. < http://iaste.berkeley.edu/iaste/wpcontent/uploads/2012/09/2014/08/25.2-TDSR-ARCHER.pdf>. Babaee, Ruzbeh. "Long Day's Journey into Night: A Journey into Revelation." The Journal of International Social Research 4.19 (Fall 2011): 7-14. Web. 20 Mar. 2016. Bahadur, Anshubhi, and Nisha Dhawan. "Social Value of Parents and Children in Joint and Nuclear Families." Spec. Issue of Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology 34 (Apr. 2008): 74-80. Web. 11 Jan. 2016. . Balasubramanian, P. "Introducing Sam Shepard." The Indian Review of World Literature in English 3.2 (Jul. 2007). Web. 29 Mar. 2016. .

Bansal, S. B., Sanjay Dixit, Geeta Shivram, Dhruvendra Pandey, and Satish Saroshe. "A Study to Compare Various Aspects of Members of Joint and Nuclear Family." Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 3.3 (Jan. 2014): 641-648. Web. 11 Jan. 2016. . "Bates Student to Direct Sam Shepard’s Lie of the Mind." Bates News, 28 Oct. 2008. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. . Bayerlein, Gudrun, Stefanie Braun, Inge Mylius, Simone Lechner-Erbach, Endreas Dorst, Ulrich Krumsieg, and Michael Weisbrod. "Selected Examples of Iconography in German Fine Arts." Michelangelo Project, n.d. Web. 15 Jan. 2016. . Bloom, Harold. Modern American Drama. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2005. Bogard, Travis, Richard Moody, and Walter J. Meserve. The Revels History of Drama in English. Vol. VIII. London: Methuen, 1977. Brietzke, Zander. "Eugene O'Neil: Beyond Mourning and Tragedy (review)." Theatre Journal 52.3 (2000): 431-432. Web. 20 Mar. 2016. Cabrera, Natasha J., Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda, Robert H. Bradley, Sandra Hofferth, and Michael E. Lamb. "Fatherhood in the Twenty-First Century." Child Development, 71.1 (Jan./Feb. 2000): 127-136. Web. 12 Feb. 2016. .

Cancian, Maria, and Deborah Reed. "Family Structure, Childbearing, and Parental Employment: Implications for the Level and Trend in Poverty." Focus. Institute for Research on Poverty, 26.2 (Fall 2009). Web. 15 Feb. 2016. . Cawthon, Daniel. "Eugene O'Neil: Progenitor of a New Religious Drama." The Journal of Religion and Theatre 6.1 (Summer 2007): 20-28. Web. 20 Mar. 2016. Cohen, Stefanie. "‘A Delicate Balance’ and the High-Wire Humor of Edward Albee." The Wall Street Journal, 12 Nov. 2014. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. . Cohn, Ruby, and Bernard F. Dukore. Twentieth Century Drama: England, Ireland, the United States. New York: Random House, 1966. Cristian, Réka M. "From Delicate Absence to Presence: The Child in Edward Albee’s Alternating Families." Americana 2.2 (Fall 2006). Web. 28 Mar. 2016. . Cullen, Jim. The American Dream: A Short History of an Idea That Shaped a Nation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Davison, Jane. "Icon, Iconography, Iconology: Visual Branding, Banking and The Case of The Bowler Hat." Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 22.6 (2009): 883. Web. 20 Jan. 2016. .

"Exploring the American Dream, Past and Present." Access: News from the Hesburgh Libraries of Notre Dame 93 (Fall 2008): 1, and 4. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. . Flath, James William. "Family as Fate in Eugene O’Neil and Sam Shepard." Diss. Universidad Complutense De Madrid, 2013. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. . Fogel, Jennifer M. A Modern Family: The Performance of “Family” and Familialism in Contemporary Television Series. Diss. University of Michigan, 2010. Web. 11 Jan. 2016. . Geela. "The Politics Of The American Dream." Street Directory, n.d. Web. 14 Mar. 2016. . Görmez, Aydın. "Man, Woman, Violence and Sam Shepard." Tiyatro Araştırmaları Dergisi 24 (2007): 125-145. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. . Gray, Jason. "Eugene O'Neil's Long Day's Journey into Night." American Writers Classics. Vol. 1. Ed. Jay Parini. New York: Scribner, 2003. 109-124. Hanson, Sandra L., and John Kenneth White. Introduction. "The Making and Persistence of the American Dream." The American Dream in the 21st Century. Ed. Hanson, and White. Temple University Press, 2011. 1-16.

Web. 13 Mar. 2016. . Hodges, Karen. "Continuity or Change: African Americans in World War II." UMBC Center for History Education, n.d. Web. 11 Jan. 2016. . Hourihane, Colum. "Iconography." New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 2005. Web. 25 Jan. 2016. . Huang, Linfei. "Modern Explanation of the Tragic Fate in O’Neil’s Long Day’s Journey into Night." International Conference on Education Technology and Management Engineering. Lecture Notes in Information Technology, Vols. 16-17. Wuhan Polytechnic University, 2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2016. . Jensen, Brennen. "The New American Family." AARP The Magazine, Jun./Jul. 2014. Web. 11 Jan. 2016. . Jones, Jo, and William D. Mosher. "Fathers' Involvement with Their Children: United States, 2006-2010." National Health Statistics Report no. 71 (20 Dec. 2013). Web. 24 Jan. 2016. .

Keane, Kevin. "The Politics of the Family in Edward Albee’s A Delicate Balance and Other Plays." Journal of Language and Culture. British and American Language and Culture 8 (March 2013): 47-68. Web. 20 Mar. 2016. Kopczuk, Wojciech, Emmanuel Saez, Jae Song. "Uncovering the American Dream: Inequality and Mobility in Social Security Earnings Data since 1937." National Bureau of Economic Research. NBER no. 13345 (August 2007). Web. 9 Mar. 2016. . Kotkin, Joel. "The Rise of Post-Familialism: Humanity's Future?" New Geography, 10 Oct. 2012. Web. 12 Jan. 2016. . Lee, Eric Andrew. "The Other Side of Love: Sam Shepard’s Gothic Family Plays." Diss. University of Tennessee, 2003. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. . Lesh, Bruce. "Post-War Suburbanization: Homogenization or the American Dream?" UMBC Center for History Education, n.d. Web. 12 Jan. 2016. . Levitan, Sar A., and Richard S. Belous. "Working Wives and Mothers: What Happens to Family Life?" Monthly Labor Review 1 Sept. 1981: 26-30. Web. 13 Jan. 2016. . “Long Day's Journey into Night: Considerations on Drakness.” Threepenny Theatre Company , 13 Feb. 2015. Web. 28 March. 2016.

Machalická, Barbora. " Philosophical and Psychological Aspects in Edward Albee’s Plays." Diss. University of Pardubice, 2002. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. . Madachy, Paul Seamus. "'The Nightmare of the Nation': Sam Shepard and the Paradox of American Identity." Diss. University of Maryland, 2003. Web. 30 Mar. 2016. . Manheim, Michael. ''The Cambridge Companion to Eugene O'Neil'' .Cambridge University Press, 1998. Mather, Mark. "U. S. Children in Single Mother Families." Population Reference Bureau, May 2010. Web. 15 Feb. 2016. . Mccoy, Sean. "The American Dream Is Suffering, but Americans Are Satisfied: 15 Charts." The Atlantic, 1 Jul 2015. Web. 13 Mar. 2016. . McDonough, Caria J. " The Politics of Stage Space: Women and Male Identity in Sam Shepard's Family Plays." Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism 9.2 (Spring 1995): 65-84. Meigs, Michael. "A Lie of the Mind by Sam Shepard, Mary Moody Northern Theatre, St. Edward's University, November 10-20." Austin Live Theatre, n.d. Web. 30 Mar. 2016.
st-edwards-university-november-10-20&catid=568:mary-moody-northentheatre-st-edwards-univ&Itemid=145>. Metlife Study of the American Dream. MetLife. New York, 2011. Web. 14 Mar. 2016. . Moore, Jane. "Buried Child by Sam Shepard." National Arts Centre. English Theatre, Nov. 2008. Web. 30 Mar. 2016. . Müller, Peter. "Star Trek: The American Dream Continued? The Crisis of the American Dream in the 1960s and its Reflection in a Contemporary TV Series." Diss. Universität Oldenburg, 1994. Web. 1 Mar. 2016. . Munshi, Amber. "‘Long Day’s Journey into Night’ – A Macrocosm of Tragedy." Journal of European Studies 27.2 (Jul. 2011): 152-161. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. . O'Neil, Eugene. Long Day's Journey into Night. 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. Panofsky, Erwin. Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes In the Art of the Renaissance. Colorado: Westview Press, 1972. Parker, Kim, and Wendy Wang. "Modern Parenthood: Roles of Moms and Dads Converge as They Balance Work and Family." Pew Research Center, 14 Mar. 2013. Web. 8 Feb. 2016.

. Payne, Charlie, Anne Langford, Samantha Lane, and James Yeatman. "A Delicate Balance by Edward Albee." Almeida Projects Resource Pack, May. 2011. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. . Pero, Allan. "The Crux of Melancholy: Edward Albee's A Delicate Balance." Modern Drama 49.2 (2006): 174-187. Web. 28 Mar. 2016. . Pressley, Nelson. "Theater Review: 'A Lie of the Mind' at Rep Stage." The Washington Post, 14 Feb. 2009. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. . Rank, Mark Robert, Thomas A. Hirschl, and Kirk A. Foster. Chasing the American Dream: Understanding What Shapes Our Fortunes. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. Reed, Jeremy. "The American Dream and the Margins in Twentieth Century Fiction." Diss. University of Missouri-Columbia, 2009. Web. 13 Mar. 2016. . Rodriguez, Bill. "Review: Brown tackles Sam Shepard's A Lie of the Mind." The Boston Phoenix, 29 Sept. 2010. Web. 27 Mar. 2016.

. Rooney, David. "Review: ‘A Lie of the Mind.’" Variety, 18 Feb. 2010. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. . Rosenberg, Jeffrey, and W. Bradford Wilcox. "The Importance of Fathers in the Healthy Development of Children." Child Welfare Information Gateway. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2006. Web. 22 Feb. 2016. . Saleh, Awad Hadi. "Edward Albee's Plays: A Study in Technique." Diss. University of Baghdad, 1980. Samuel, Lawrence R. The American Dream: A Cultural History. New York: Syracuse University Press, 2012. Scanlan, Tom. Family, Drama, and American Dreams. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1978. Shepard, Sam. A Lie of the Mind. New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1986. Shlomo, David Ben. Philistine Iconography: A Wealth of Style and Symbolism. Fribourg, Switzerland: Academic Press Fribourg, 2010. Silver, Ann-Louise S. "American Psychoanalysts Who Influenced Eugene O'Neil's Long Day's Journey into Night." Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis 29.2 (2001): 305-318. Web. 30 Mar. 2016. .

Skauffman, Stanley. "‘ TNR Film Classic: 'Long Day's Journey Into Night' (1962) ." New Republic Daily (24 Sep. 1962): Web. 17 Dec 2014. < . Song, Sarah. "What does it mean to be an American?" Dædalus 138.2 (Spring 2009): 31-40. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. . Syed, Mehvish. "Family Dynamics and American Drama." Galaxy: International Multidisciplinary Research Journal 3.IV (July 2014): 206-212. Web. 30 Mar. 2016. . Taylor, Paul. "Iconology and Iconography." Oxford Bibliographies. May 2015. Web. 24 Jan. 2016. . "The Death (or the Evolution) of “The American Dream”?" Civility is not Dead, 1 May 2011. Web. 5 Mar. 2016. . "The Family." National Institute of Open Schooling. NIOS, n.d. Web. 14 Jan. 2016. . Tunisi, Amani Mohammed Saed. "The American Dream in Selected Works by Edward Albee and Sam Shepard: A Critique." Diss. Umm Al Qura University, 2008. Web. 30 Mar. 2016.

Ulanowicz, Anastasia. "Philippe Ariès." Representing Childhood Project. University of Pittsburgh, n.d. Web. 11 Jan. 2016. . Wetzel, James R. "Amercian Families: 75 Years of Change." Monthly Labor Review Mar. 1990: 4-13. Web. 20 Mar. 2016. Wilkins, Frederick. "House of Compson, House of Tyrone: Faulkner's Influence on O'Neil." The Eugene O'neill Newsletter 5.3 (Winter 1981). Web. 20 Mar.2016. Wilson, Ann. "Fool of Desire: The Spectator to the Plays of Sam Shepard." Modern Drama 30.1 (Spring 1987): 46-57. Web. 30 Mar. 2016. Woodrow, Ross. "Iconography/Iconology" University of Newcastle, 1999. Session Two. Web. 8 Feb. 2016. .

‫پوختە‪:‬‬ ‫ڕەنگدانەوەى بابەتە کۆمەاڵیەتيەکان لە کۆمەڵگەى نوێى ئەمریکى بابەتێکە کە باڵى کێشاوە بەسەر‬ ‫بەرهەمە هونەریيەکانى سەردەم ‪,‬کێشەکانى خێزان یەکێکە لە گرنکترین بابەتە سەرەکيەکانى کۆمەڵگە‬ ‫کە بە شێوەیەکى ڕاستەوخۆ ڕەنگى داوەتەوە لەسەرهونەرى شانؤ‪.‬‬ ‫ئەم بابەتە چەند الیەنێک لەخۆ دەگرێت وەکو ئالودەبوون بە مادە هۆشبەرەکان و مەى خواردنەوە‪,‬‬ ‫خێزانى ئەمریکى سەردەمى نوێ ڕووبەڕووى خۆپەرستى و بێباکى بوونەتەوە لە دەرەنجامى ئەم‬ ‫هۆکارە ڕوخێنەرانە لەکاتێکدا کە هەڵسوکەوتى ڕۆژانەیان سەرکێشييەکى زۆر بەخۆوە دەبينێت کە‬ ‫دەرەنجامى نێگەتيڤى دەبێت لەسەر هاوکێشەى خێزانى‪.‬‬ ‫هەندێک لە نووسەرە بەناوبانگەکانى شانۆ لە سەردەمى نوێ نموونەى" یۆجين ئۆنيل" ‪",‬ئێدوارد‬ ‫ئەلبى" ‪",‬سام شيپارد ‪",‬هتد ‪...‬جێى دەستيان دیارە لە نووسينى وێژەى ئەمریکى نوێ لە ڕێگەى‬ ‫پێشکەشکردنى شانۆى بەهێز و هەژێنەر کە بە جوانترین شێوە ژیانى کۆمەاڵیەتى دەخاتە ڕوو‪,‬بابەتى‬ ‫هەرە سەرەکى ئەم شانۆیانە لە بابەتى خێزانيدا خۆیان دەدۆزنەوە کە وێنەیەک لە پەیوەندى نێوان‬ ‫تاکەکانى خێزان دەخاتەڕوو ‪,‬لەدەستدانى هاوسەنگى ‪,‬گوێنەدانە بەرپرسيارێتى و سەرکێشى تاکەکان‪,‬‬ ‫بەکارهێنانى مادە هۆشبەرەکان و زۆرێک لە بابەتە گرنگەکانى خێزان کە ڕەنگدانەوەى نێگەتيڤى دەبێت‬ ‫لەسەر ژیانى خێزانى‪.‬‬ ‫ئامانج لەم توێژینەوەیە بەرچاوخستنى بابەتە خێزانيەکانە وەک لە سێ دەقى شانۆى ئمریکى هەیە لە‬ ‫ڕێگەى دەرخستنى کەسایەتيەکانيەکانەوە وەکو ئایکۆن‪.‬‬ ‫بەشى یەکەمى ئەم توێژینەوەیە بریتيە لە پێشەکييەک کە خۆى لە چوارچێوەى" ئایکۆنۆگرافى"‬ ‫‪",‬ڕابردووى کۆمەڵگاى ئەمریکى" ‪",‬تێگەیشتنى خەونى ئەمریکى "پاشان" تێگەیشتنى‬ ‫خێزان"دا دەخاتە ڕوو‪.‬‬ ‫بەشى دووەم تەرخانکراوە بۆ شانۆى" گەشتى ڕۆژێکى درێژ بەرەو شەو "لە نووسينى" یوجين‬ ‫ئۆنێل "وە لە چوار بەش پێکهاتووە کە بریتين لە" گەشتێک بەرەو ڕابردوو" ‪",‬پەیوەندى‬

‫خێزانى‪",‬دەرەنجامە ڕووخێنەرەکانى مادە هؤشبەرەکان و مەى خواردنەوە "و"تراژیدیاى ژیان‪".‬‬ ‫بەشى سێيەم باس لە شانۆگەرى" هاوکێشەى وورد "دەکات کە الیەن" ئيدوارد ئەلبى"ەوە نووسراوە‪,‬‬ ‫وە بەسەر چوار بەشدا دابەشکراون ئەوانيش" سياسەتى خێزان" ‪",‬نەبوونى پەیوەندى نێوان تاکەکانى‬ ‫خێزان" ‪",‬لە ئەستۆنەگرتنى بەرپرسيارێتى "و" لەدەستدانى هاوسەنگى‪".‬‬ ‫بەشى کۆتایى باس لە شانۆگەرى" درۆى مێشک "دەکات لە نووسينى" سام شيپارد "وە بەهەمان شێوە لە‬ ‫چوار بەش پێکهاتووە کە بریتين لە" تێکچوونى پەیوەندیەکان لەنێوان پياو و ئافرەت" ‪",‬ڕەنگدانەوەى‬ ‫ڕابردوو" ‪",‬خەیاڵى کەسى "وە" تێڕوانين بۆ کەسێتى نەتەوەى ئەمریکى‪".‬‬ ‫توێژینەوەکە کۆتایى دێت بەو دەرەنجامانەى کە پێى گەیشتووە ‪,‬پاشان ليستى سەرچاوە‬ ‫بەکارهێنراوەکان و هەروەها کورتەى توێژینەوەکە بە هەردوو زمانى کوردى و عەرەبى‪.‬‬

‫الملخص‪:‬‬

‫إنعكاس القضایا اإلجتماعية في المجتمع األمریكي الحدیث یعد موضوعا مهيمنا على كتابات العصر‪.‬‬ ‫التطرق إلى قضية العائلة هي واحدة من أهم الموضوعات المركزیة‪ ،‬والتي تنعكس على وجە التحدید في‬ ‫الدراما‪ .‬وتشمل هذه القضایا أیضا المخدرات والكحول والمال‪ .‬وأصبحت األسرة األمریكية الحدیثة أنانية‬ ‫وغير مسؤولة نتيجة لهذه العوامل المدمرة‪ ,‬وتتصرف بتهور في نشاطاتها اليومية وهذا یضر بتوازنها‬ ‫العائلي‪.‬‬ ‫بعض أشهر كتاب المسرح في هذا العصر أمثال "یوجين أونيل"‪" ،‬إدوارد ألبي"‪ ،‬و"سام شيبرد"‪،‬‬ ‫وغيرهم قد ساهموا إلى حد كبير في األدب األمریكي الحدیث من خالل تقدیم مسرحيات قویة ومؤثرة تصور‬ ‫الحياة اإلجتماعية في أفضل صورة‪ .‬الموضوع الرئيسي الذي یسود هذه المسرحيات أكثر من غيرها هي‬ ‫المسائل المنزلية والعائلية‪ .‬حيث یصورون طبيعة العالقات االسریة منها ضعف في التواصل بين أفرادها‪،‬‬ ‫فقدان التوازن‪ ،‬عدم المسؤولية وتهور األعضاِ‪ ،‬تعاطي المخدرات والكحول والعدید من القضایا الهامة‬ ‫األخرى التي تؤثر على الحياة المنزلية‪.‬‬ ‫الهدف من هذه الدراسة هو تصویر القضایا المنزليە كما هي في المسرحيات األمریكية الثالثة من خالل‬ ‫تصویر الشخصيات‪.‬‬ ‫تنقسم الدراسة إلى أربعة فصول‪ ،‬الفصل األول عبارة عن مقدمة ویتألف من أربعة أقسام القسم األول‬ ‫یتناول معنى االیقونية بينما القسم الثاني حول خلفية المجتمع األمریكي ‪.‬كما یتناول الجزِ الثالث مفهوم الحلم‬ ‫األمریكي ‪ .‬أما الجزِ األخيرفيوضح مفهوم العائلة‪.‬‬ ‫الفصل الثاني مخصص لـ "رحلة یوم طویل إلى الليل" لـ "یوجين أونيل"‪ ،‬وتتجزأ إلى أربعة أجزاِ‪,‬‬ ‫الجزِ األول عبارة عن رحلة إلى الماضي بينما یتناول الجزِ الثاني العالقة األسریة‪ .‬كما یشير الجزِ الثالث‬ ‫الى المخدرات والكحول كعوامل مدمرة‪ ,‬أما الجزِ األخير فهي حول المآسي المعيشة‪.‬‬ ‫بينما خصص الفصل الثالث لمسرحية "إدوارد ألبي" "توازن دقيق'' وهي مقسمة إلى أربعة أقسام وهي‬ ‫سياسة األسرة‪ ،‬وإنعدام التواصل بين أفراد األسرة‪ ،‬والتهرب من المسؤولية وفقدان التوازن‪.‬‬

‫وكرس الفصل األخير لـ "سام شيبرد" ''كذبة العقل" ویشمل أربعة أقسام وهي إختالل العالقات بين‬ ‫الذكور واإلناث‪ ،‬تأمالت من الماضي‪ ،‬الوهم الذاتي‪ ,‬خلق وتصور للهویة األمریكية‪.‬‬ ‫ینتهي البحث باإلستنتاجات التي تلخص النتائج التي توصلت إليها الدراسة وتليها قائمة المراجع فضال عن‬ ‫ملخص الدراسة باللغتين الكوردیة والعربية‪.‬‬