Journal of Linguistics and Language Teaching

edited by Thomas Tinnefeld

Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2

JLLT is an academic organ designed for the worldwide publication of scientific findings which concern the full range between linguistics on the one hand and language teaching on the other. At the same time, it is a basis of discussion for linguists and practitioners of language teaching. JLLT is a refereed journal. All manuscripts, apart from those having individually been requested by the editor, have to be positively evaluated by two referees, this procedure being totally anonymous on both sides (authors and referees). Only then will they be published.

Addressees of JLLT: 

linguists and foreign language methodologists - from university professors to PhD students and teachers at universities and all types of schools;

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young scientists who will find a publication platform for their academic projects which they can open up for discussion so as to get fruitful advice from the community of readers and authors.

Which text types will be accepted? 

articles

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book reviews

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reports about scientific projects and conferences

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reports about innovative study programmes

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reports about Ph.D. projects (for the publication and the protection of intermediate research results) as pre-publications.

The publication process can formally be described as follows: 1. Receipt of a manuscript 2. Pre-screening of the manuscript (editor) 3. Evaluation of the manuscript (editorial board) 4. Positive result: publication of the article on a separate page of the Journal's website. Thus, quick publication of the manuscript (about six to eight weeks after receipt) and availability for the academic world. 5. After receipt of all the parts of the given issue of the Journal: publication of the article in the PDF format, the web page version of the text being kept. Completion of the publication process.

Date of publication: December 31st, 2013

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Editorial Board (in alphabetical order) Prof. Dr. Klaus-Dieter Baumann - Universität Leipzig, Germany Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Wolfgang Blumbach, M.A. - Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft des Saarlandes, Germany Prof. Dr. Didi-Ionel Cenuser - Lucian Blaga University, Sibiu, Romania Prof. Dr. Wai Meng Chan - National University of Singapore, Singapore Prof. Dr. Shin-Lung Chen - National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology (NKFUST), Taiwan Prof. Dr. Inez De Florio-Hansen - Universität Kassel, Germany Prof. Dr. Frank Kostrzewa - Pädagogische Hochschule Karlsruhe, Germany Prof. Tsailing Cherry Liang, Ph.D. - National Taichung University of Technology, Taiwan Prof. Dr. Heinz-Helmut Lüger - Universität Koblenz-Landau, Germany Prof. em. Dr. Heiner Pürschel - Universität Duisburg-Essen, Germany Prof. Dr. Günter Schmale - Université de Lorraine-Metz, France Prof. Dr. Ulrich Schmitz - Universität Duisburg-Essen, Germany Prof. Dr. Christine Sick - Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft des Saarlandes, Germany Prof. Dr. Veronica Smith, M.A. - Alpen-Adria Universität Klagenfurt, Austria Prof. Dr. Bernd Spillner - Universität Duisburg-Essen, Germany

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Table of Contents

Foreword to the Issue …………………………………………………............................. 9

I. Articles Patrizia Anesa (Bergamo, Italy): Teaching ESP through the Use of Interactive Whiteboards in University Lectures: An Investigation into Users’ Reactions ..............................……………................….... 11 Katalin Doró (Szeged, Hungary) / Anita Habók (Szeged, Hungary): Language Learning Strategies in Elementary School: The Effect of Age and Gender in an EFL Context ....................................................... 25 Inez De Florio-Hansen (Kassel, Germany): Translation Competence in Foreign Language Learning Can Language Methodology benefit from Translation Studies .................................. 39 Bok Ja Cheon-Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany / Frank Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany): Konjunktionen im deutsch-koreanischen Sprachvergleich Schwierigkeiten koreanischer Lerner beim Erwerb des deutschen Konjunktionalsystems ...............................................................................

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Sara Quintero Ramírez (Guadalajara, México): Tropos en la crónica beisbolera en emisiones televisivas latinoamericanas .............. 83

II. University Report Thomas Tinnefeld (Saarbrücken, Germany): Language Knowledge and Language Skills - Prerequisites, Relativity, Methodology - The Second Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign Language Teaching ........................................................................................ 103

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III. Book Reviews Mikaela Petkova-Kessanlis (Sofia, Bulgarien): Martin, Luginbühl & Stefan Hauser (Hrsg.): MedienTextKultur. Linguistische Beiträge zur kontrastiven Medienanalyse. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik 2010, 210 Seiten ........................................ 122 Magdalena Ziemba (Czudec, Polen): Andrea Rössler (Hrsg.): Standards interkultureller Kompetenz für Fremdsprachenlehrer. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik 2013 .................. 129 Annabelle Christine Mathews (Saarbrücken, Germany): Melinda Whong: Language Teaching – Linguistic Theory in Practice. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2011 ...................................... 133 Veronica Smith (Klagenfurt, Austria): Martin Durrell: Hammer’s GERMAN Grammar and Usage. London: Hodder Educational 2011 ..……….......................................................................... 139

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Foreword to the Issue The second issue of the fourth volume of JLLT comprises five academic articles, one university report and four book reviews. The thematic scope ranges from aspects of general language teaching via language learning and language awareness, and further on to one determined language competence, i.e. translation, which completes the articles written in English. The thematic range in this issue continues going on towards applied linguistics in a German article and to linguistics in a Spanish one. The first article by Patricia Anesa (Bergamo, Italy) focuses on a new medium for instruction. In this article, the author explores users' reactions to the use of interactive whiteboards in the setting of teaching English for specific purposes. Despite the fact that interactive whiteboards have become increasingly prevalent in other educational contexts, they are still relatively rarely used in academic contexts. Patricia Anesa's investigation, carried out in ESP courses on the language of economics held at an Italian university, points to the principal advantages of whiteboards such as interactivity and availability of information. An interesting aspect taken into account in this article lies in the fact that both students' and lecturers' reactions are documented and analysed. Examining an important aspect of language learning competence, Katalin Doró and Anita Habók (both Szeged, Hungary) present a study on language learning strategies by elementary school students (275 fifth and sixth graders) with respect to their age and gender. The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) served as the empirical basis of the study. Among the six categories of strategies analysed, meta-cognitive strategies turned out to be the most frequently used ones, compensation strategies being the most rarely employed ones. Throughout all the six categories, girls proved to use the six relevant strategies more functionally than boys, which meant that gender did play a role in the study, whereas the students' age was found to be of no significance. Following a multilingual approach, Inez De Florio-Hansen (Kassel, Germany) investigates the potential benefits which translation studies can provide for foreign language methodology. In the context of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), translation and interpretation were revalued to represent important aspects of communicative competence whereas they had previously been regarded as simple learning tools only. Although oral and written mediation is gaining increasing importance in professional contexts, in language instruction, translation and interpretation are mainly used in informal contexts. The author hence proposes that advanced language learners acquire basic skills in translation and communication for their future professional lives. In this respect, foreign language methodology may benefit from the definitions and methodologies developed by translation studies. For this purpose, a revised model of mediation competence is presented. On the basis of an applied linguistic approach, presented in German, Bok Ja CheonKostrzewa and Frank Kostrzewa (both Karlsruhe, Germany), present a contrastive analysis of conjunctions in Korean and German, deducing potential learning difficulties of Korean learners who acquire the German conjunctional system. The authors point out that these difficulties are predominantly occasioned by typological differences in the two 7

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languages, with German conjunctions being used as connectors and Korean conjunctions being added to the respective word stems. The polyfunctionality of postverbal conjunctions represents another source of learning difficulties. The authors illustrate their reflections with a multitude of examples. In her purely linguistic article written in Spanish, Sara Quintero Ramírez (Guadalajara, México) presents the finding of her study of three TV baseball emissions. These live emissions are characterised by the fact that the reporters are under time pressure, having to present the events of the game almost in real time. Apart from the mere description of events, the reporters are expected to offer the audience their professional expertise by analysing and comment the games. It is found that the reporters use a considerable number of metaphors, metonymies, hyperboles and also similes, whose usage is documented in the article in detail. The articles of this issue are complemented by a university report in which Thomas Tinnefeld (Saarbrücken, Germany) reports the Second Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign Language Teaching which took place from November 7th to 9th, 2013, at Saarland University of Applied Sciences in Saarbrücken (Germany). The conference featured the topic "Language Knowledge and Language Skills - Prerequisites, Relativity, Methodology" and comprised six sections covering linguistics, methodology, languages for specific purposes, communication and interculturality, Internet and multimedia, and productoriented presentations. It presented one keynote speech and hosted 52 section talks, many of which were international ones, held by presenters from Europe, America, Africa, and Asia. Around 130 participants who came from 23 countries attended the conference. The present issue of JLLT is rounded off by four reviews on recently published books. Mikaela Petkova-Kessanlis (Sofia, Bulgaria) reviews a book on contrastive media analysis, Magdalena Ziemba (Czudec, Poland) reports on a publication on standards of intercultural competence for language teachers, Christine Mathews (Saarbrücken, Germany) evaluates a book on language teaching which links linguistic theory with practice, and Veronica Smith (Klagenfurt, Austria) reviews the new edition of a very wellreceived German grammar book. As usual, Editor and Editorial Board thank all the contributors and wish the regular and new readers of JLLT a pleasant read full of inspiration. Thomas Tinnefeld JLLT Editor

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I. Articles

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Teaching ESP through the Use of Interactive Whiteboards in University Lectures: An Investigation into Users’ Reactions Patrizia Anesa (Bergamo, Italy)

Abstract (English) Given the increasing presence of interactive whiteboards in different educational fields, this study investigates the reasons lying behind their relatively limited use in academia. Focusing on a series of academic lectures taking place in an Italian University, the investigation shows the main advantages (such as clarity, interactivity, quick retrieval of information) and drawbacks (e.g. in terms of costs) related to the use of this tool in these communicative events. This work presents the users’ reactions both from the lecturer’s and the students’ points of view and is based on specialized courses of English that focus on the language of economics. Key words: interactive whiteboard, university lectures, students' questionnaire, ESP

Abstract (Italiano) Data la crescente presenza di lavagne interattive in diversi campi educativi, questo studio indaga le ragioni che determinano un uso relativamente limitato di questi strumenti nel mondo accademico. Concentrandosi su una serie di lezioni accademiche che si svolgono in un’università italiana, l'indagine mostra i principali vantaggi (quali chiarezza, interattività, rapido recupero delle informazioni) e gli svantaggi (ad esempio in termini di costi) legati all'utilizzo di questo tipo di lavagne in questi eventi comunicativi. Il lavoro presenta sia le reazioni del docente che quelle degli studenti e si basa su corsi di inglese specialistico concernenti il linguaggio economico. Parole chiave: lavagna interattiva, lezioni universitarie, ICT, questionario studenti, ESP

1 Introduction The rapid development of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) is transforming both the world of industry and that of education and now represents one of the building blocks of modern societies (Daniels 2002, Christie et al. 2002). The increasing use of these technologies in education is often driven by the substantiation that they may enhance improvements in teaching and learning processes (Breen et al. 2001). In particular, by adopting constructivist learning approaches, the use of contemporary ICTs may also support student-centred and resource-based settings (Berge 1998; Barron 1998). Consequently, it has been argued that new technologies may facilitate active learning and higher-order thinking (Alexander 1999; Jonassen 1999).

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The use of interactive whiteboards (IWBs) has grown considerably in recent years (Miller & Glover 2002; Solvie 2004). While some studies have highlighted the positive effects of IWBs in class (Glover & Miller 2002), others have been more cautious in establishing a direct correlation between its use and an improvement in effective learning and have highlighted that their increasing use may derive from a “bandwagon effect” (Smith et al. 2005). While originally limited to primary education, these tools have since been employed in other fields, even outside the educational one. Increasing attention has been devoted to the use of ICTs in higher education and to the important potential they display in university learning environments (Morell 2004). However, their actual utilization in the academic world is still quite limited (Anesa & Iovino 2012). IWBs are touch-sensitive digital tools which are connected to a computer and to a projector. Different models are now available and the tool used for this study was a Smart Board with a short-throw projector, a 77” screen, not displaying an integrated central processing unit. The board was experimentally used at the University of Bergamo, Italy, in a series of 8 English lectures taking place in an ESP course that focused on the language of Economics. Every lesson was 120 minutes long and involved approximately 60-70 firstyear students. The lessons were observed and a questionnaire was administered at the end of the eighth lesson to evaluate the students’ reactions; moreover, the lecturer was interviewed using a semi-structured interview.

2 The instructor’s Perspective Studies on the use of IWBs in learners’ education demonstrate that IWBs can be beneficial to the pace of the lesson and in terms of student-teacher engagement (Ball 2003). The lecturer interviewed confirmed these advantages and pointed out that one of the main benefits of the IWB is that everything is concentrated in one place, preventing students from constantly shifting their focus from the lecturer to the screen and vice versa. Moreover, using the equipment motivated the lecturer to include more technological resources in her material, as this is rendered very simple by the use of the board. The training for the use of the IWB took only one day and was sufficient for the acquisition of its basic functions. Once the basic operational concepts were acquired, the lecturer was able to use the IWB independently throughout the course and felt that her efficiency in the preparation of teaching materials was significantly higher. Setting-up before each lesson took a few minutes because only one IWB was available within the university and the classroom used for the lessons inevitably changed according to the different academic activities taking place. The board, therefore, had to be moved into the right classroom, and then realigned; it also had to be connected to the projector and the computer, but in total these operations took only a few minutes. In terms of time the board proved to be particularly efficient in that it allowed notes, comments, exercise keys and extra explanations to be saved for future lectures, as well as for students who 12

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could not be present. Research (e.g. Cox et al. 2003) has shown that teachers generally feel that IWBs can considerably reduce both preparation time and the need for duplication. In the case analysed here, it was felt that the possibility of saving and retrieving material made the use of the equipment very time-efficient. Moreover, it also proved to be an asset from an organizational point of view, as the material stored and archived in a digital format could easily be exchanged with other colleagues. When asked to identify potential disadvantages, the lecturer pointed out that the most obvious limit to the use of the interactive board in academic environments was posed by the potential reluctance of adults to take part in interactive activities, especially those that involved standing up and coming to write on the board. This aspect can be seen, however, not as a drawback (in relation to a traditional board) but simply as a missed opportunity to maximize the potential benefits of the IWB. The large number of people in the class, as mentioned above, also limited the potential for interactivity. It should also be highlighted that the peculiarities of different educational environments could bring new difficulties to the use of IWB. For example, even though in this case no students had their laptops with them, the use of laptops is a standard practice in other institutions, and having the students focused on their own screens could represent a limit to the benefits of the IWB. As has already been mentioned, another disadvantage was represented by some logistical issues, such as booking, transporting, installing and checking the equipment before the lesson.

3 Students’ Reactions 3.1 The Questionnaire A questionnaire was delivered to the students attending the lectures in question in order to get their feedback on the course and, more specifically, on their reactions to the use of the IWB. The questionnaire was administered online and the typical categories of questions based on the informant’s degree of freedom, i.e. open-ended and closed questions, were combined. It was deemed necessary to include both open-ended questions and closed questions with the aim of benefiting from the advantages, and mitigating the disadvantages, that are typically associated with each approach (see Merriam & Simpson 1995 for details). The questionnaire made substantial use of Likert scaling (cf. Carifio & Perla 2007). Closed questions are generally considered to be easy to analyse and the number of irrelevant or incomplete questions is limited. They are generally easy to code and tabulate, especially if the questionnaire is administered online. However, they may be particularly susceptible to investigator bias in that only the options contemplated by the investigator are listed. Moreover, because proving a response through ticking an option is an easy and quick 13

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activity, it may not encourage respondents to think extensively about the question before answering. Whenever possible closed questions also offered the respondent an opportunity to include options that had not originally been contemplated (e.g. by providing an “other” option to be completed by the respondent), which is deemed to increase the reliability of results (Haarman 1997: 41). The use of open-ended questions formed the second pillar of the survey, allowing for more in-depth observations and more personal comments to be obtained. More specifically, they were used to investigate opinions and perceptions. In this case responses are less conditioned and students enjoy a higher level of freedom to express their thoughts; therefore, these answers often offer more depth and variety. Questions were devised according to some of the basic principles outlined in Cox 1996. For instance, it is generally agreed that informants may, with different levels of intentionality, endeavour to please the researcher. Attempts were therefore made to address this issue in the design of the questionnaire, by including questions that somehow check the consistency of previous questions. Respondents were also allowed to modify their answers at any time before submitting them. The questionnaire was administered collectively in class, as collective administration ensures a high response rate. Moreover, the administrator can emphasise the importance of the questionnaire in order to promote the respondents’ involvement and is available for any necessary explanation and to answer any questions respondents may have in order to avoid misinterpretation (see Kumar 2005:129). The linguistic formulation was intended to be as simple and clear as possible, avoiding uncommon terminology or jargon. We also tried to avoid stretching the respondents’ competence to issues beyond their knowledge. For example, posing a question such as “What is the adequate prerequisite students should have for….?” would go beyond the students’ competence, whereas a more appropriate question should investigate, for instance, how easily they could follow the lessons. Moreover, the use of absolutes was avoided; for instance, sentences like “the course met all my expectations” would have been problematic because they inevitably tend to limit the respondents’ choice and to avoid the endpoints of the scale (e.g. within a Likert item). The questionnaire was available in both English and Italian. Given that nearly all the respondents were Italian, most students chose to answer the Italian language version of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was two pages in length, and the average time taken to complete it was approximately 10 minutes. As the accuracy of the responses may decrease after several questions the total number of questions was limited to the most salient aspects under investigation. The use of a questionnaire is generally less costly and time consuming than other methods of data collection and allows a good amount of information to be collected in a short time. It also offers a high level of anonymity, therefore generally promoting more honest and independent answers. As the response rate was 100% (as is often the case in collective administration), issues related to self-selecting bias are reduced, and the findings are more representative of the population being investigated. It should, however, 14

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be kept in mind that the response rate was obviously calculated on the basis of the students present in class at the time the questionnaire was distributed and not on the total number of students enrolled on the course.

3.2 Questionnaire: Findings and Discussion As mentioned, the questionnaire was administered in class. The total number of respondents was 73 and included both male and female students, as shown in Figure 1:

Figure 1: Male / Female Percentage of Respondents.

The questionnaire included general questions about the course, but for the purpose of this paper we will focus on the section devoted to the students’ reactions to the use of the IWB 1 in the lesson. The IWB was generally assigned a good level of clarity and only a very low number of students considered it confusing (see Fig. 2):

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The term LIM (Lavagna Interattiva Multimediale) is the Italian acronym that was used to refer to the IWB.

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Figure 2: Use of IWB – Clearness

It has been demonstrated that the use of an IWB is stimulating for young learners, but the idea that older learners may be less attracted by it is plausible. However, in this case the majority of students generally considered it quite stimulating:

Figure 3: Use of IWB – Stimulation

The IWB was also considered relatively flexible, generally useful and quite effective in gaining their attention (see Figures 4, 5 and 6):

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Figure 4: Use of IWB – Flexibility.

Figure 5: Use of IWB – Usefulness

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Figure 6: Use of IWB – Attention

Students were also asked to answer open questions which allow us to gain a deeper understanding of their reactions to the use of the IWB. Glover et al. (2005) found that young learners are aware of some of the benefits of the use of IWBs, such as the fact that learning is reinforced by a more rapid response to interactive material. In the case analysed here university students also responded positively to the use of IWB. A fundamental aspect highlighted by Miller et al. (2005) is that the use of IWBs somehow causes a higher level of credibility to be assigned to both the teacher and the subject being taught because the supporting technology is considered to be more advanced. One of the respondents wrote that one of the potential disadvantages to the use of an IWB is that a teacher who is not a computer expert may have difficulty with its use. However, it should be highlighted that, from a technical point of view, the use of an IWB is actually highly user-friendly. No other negative aspects or disadvantages in relation to the use of the board were identified, but in one case it was stressed that the tool itself could not determine a significant difference. Indeed, one student commented that the IWB “isn’t so important” and it is undeniable that the board is only a tool and, like all tools, its usefulness depends on the way it is used. In general terms, the students pointed out a long series of positive aspects, such as the ability to enhance engagement, participation, and interaction, as the responses below show2: (1) The lesson becomes clearer and more interesting, and it is stimulating for the students. (2) It grabs the students’ attention more immediately compared to a traditional board. (3) It is useful to enhance students’ participation. 2

Answers given in English have been left in their original form, even in the presence of mistakes. Answers given in Italian have been translated.

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(4) It is more interactive. (5) Lessons are more interesting. Students also highlighted some practical benefits associated with IWBs, such as good visibility, clarity and short retrieval time: (6) The teacher can write on it and so all the students can see it. (7) It is faster and more practical. (8) It’s big, easy to see. (9) It is a useful and practical tool that facilitates the students in that whatever is written can also be projected and it is clearly visible from anywhere in the classroom. Moreover, students can take note simultaneously with the teacher. (10) The texts can be updated with extra information that was not included in the original text. (11) Exercises can easily be deleted and be done again if necessary. (12) You can work directly on different types of files. (13) Everything can quickly be shown again, for example if a student has lost track of what is being said, or is late for class. This last point proved particularly practical: indeed, as attendance was not compulsory, it was useful to have all the notes available for quick retrieval for those students who missed a lesson or a part of it. Students also pointed out other benefits related to the use of the IWB in the specific subject they were being taught: (14) Integrations can quickly be written down by the teacher, instead of being dictated, which is very useful as we are dealing with a foreign language. (15) Keys to the exercise can be shown, saved, and retrieved immediately in case students don’t catch something. It is particularly important so that we can check the correct spelling of new words. Paralinguistic communication can be observed in terms of kinesics (focusing on gestural body language) and proxemics (focusing on the use of space) (cf. Ekman 1957; Hall 1968; Poyatos 1983). Some observations also captured the fundamental concept that (unlike with the use of an overhead projector and no board) the possibility of observing the teacher and the screen simultaneously can also help comprehension; indeed, this allowed students to have access to paralanguage aspects and body language (cf. Pennycook 1985): (16) We can look at the teacher while she talks and it’s a bit easier to understand.

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Students also noticed that the tool meant an avoidance of moving between flipcharts, boards and a laptop, avoiding potential instances of confusion and allowing the lesson to move at a good pace.

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Conclusions

Professionals working in the educational field are inevitably expected to continuously adapt to changing situations (Fullan 2007; McCormick & Scrimshaw 2001) and are also expected to develop competencies in ICTs. Indeed, given that new teaching and research approaches are largely based on the use of new technologies (Yusuf 2005), it is expected that such tools be incorporated into everyday academic situations and included in the developments of academic curricula (Watson 2006). This paper has described the main features of the IWB used and has highlighted opinions and perceptions on the use of the tool offered by the lecturer and by the students. The lecturer highlighted a series of advantages, such as a higher level of involvement on the part of the students. Students also appreciated the use of the board and emphasized its clarity, interactivity and its ability to grab their attention. Further research in this area is needed, in that studies on the use of IWBs in academia are particularly limited, whereas IWBs are used more and more extensively in primary schools, and even in business environments. The experimental use of IWBs in ESP courses was welcomed by the students and the lecturer and, therefore, it is important to analyse the factors that determine the currently limited use of this equipment in a university context. We can bring forward hypotheses related, for instance, to the cost of the tool itself, logistical aspects, such as the difficulty of transportation into different rooms, and the (presumed) lack of time for lecturers to get acquainted with the tool. A key limitation of this study lies in the lack of generalizability of these findings across different settings, and further investigation needs to be carried out in order to ensure optimal use of this equipment according to specific cultural environments and in relation to different learning objectives. Further avenues for research could focus on a larger number of participants in order to gain further insights into the use of the tool and its potential benefits, and further studies could clearly be extended to other fields beyond ESP. Moreover, attention should be given to the analysis and exploration of the effects of IWBs in terms of educational achievement, combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. Another aspect which is still under-researched is the use of IWBs with disabled students in academic environments; indeed, while some research has been carried out on the use of IWBs with disabled children, this topic has, to the best of our knowledge, only been sporadically investigated in relation to academic learning environments (cf. Bertarelli et al. 2010).

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 References Alexander, Johanna (1999). Collaborative Design, Constructivist Learning, Information Technology Immersion, & Electronic Communities: A Case Study. Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, no. 7, pp. 1-2. Anesa, Patrizia & Iovino, Daniela (2012). Interactive Whiteboards as Enhancers of Genre Hybridization in Academic Settings. In Berkenkotter, Carol; Bhatia, Vijay K. & Gotti, Maurizio (eds). Insights into Academic Genres. pp. 419-438. Bern: Peter Lang. Ball, Barbara (2003). Teaching and Learning Mathematics with an Interactive Whiteboard. Micromath, (Spring), pp. 4-7. Barron, Ann (1998). Designing Web-based Training. British Journal of Educational Technology, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 355-371. Berge, Zane (1998). Guiding Principles in Web-based Instructional Design. Education Media International, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 72-76. Bertarelli, Fabio; Corradini, Matteo; Guaraldi, Giacomo; Genovese, Elisabetta; Kilwake, Juma & Mutua, Stephen (2010). The Digital Board in a University Setting: Two Real Cases in Europe and East Africa. In Lytras, Miltiadis D.; Ordóñez De Pablos, Patricia & Avison, David (eds). Technology Enhanced Learning. Quality of Teaching and Educational Reform. pp. 259-264. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Breen, Rosanna; Lindsay, Roger; Jenkins, Alan & Smith, Pete (2001). The Role of Information and Communication Technologies in a University Learning Environment. Studies in Higher Education, vol. 26, pp. 95-114. Carifio, James & Perla, Rocco J. (2007). Ten Common Misunderstandings, Misconceptions, Persistent Myths and Urban Legends about Likert Scales and Likert Response Formats and their Antidotes. Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 106-116. Christie, Michael F; Jaun, André & Jonsson, Lars-Erik (2002). Evaluating the Use of ICT in Engineering Education. European Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 13-20. Cox, James (1996). Your Opinion, Please! How to Build the Best Questionnaire in the Field of Education. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cox, Margaret; Webb, Mary; Abbott, Chris; Blakeley, Barry; Beauchamp, Tony & Rhodes, Valerie (2003). ICT and Pedagogy: A Review of the Research Literature. ICT in Schools Research and Evaluation Series, 18. Retrieved 18th August 2012 from: http://www.becta.org.uk/page_ documents/research/ict_pedagogy_summary.pdf Daniels, John (2002). Foreword. In Information and Communication Technology in Education–A Curriculum for Schools and Programme for Teacher Development, pp. 3-4. Paris: UNESCO. Ekman, Paul (1957). A Methodological Discussion of Non-Verbal Behavior. The Journal of Psychology, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 141-149. Fullan, Michael (2007). The New Meaning of Educational Change (4th Ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Glover, Derek; Miller, Dave; Averis, Douglas & Door, Victoria (2005). Leadership Implications of Using Interactive Whiteboards: Linking Technology and Pedagogy in the Management of Change. Management in Education, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 27-30.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Haarman, Louann (1997). Methodology and Methods in Second Language Research: A Selective Introduction. In Gagliardi, Cesare (ed) Metodologia della ricerca applicata in linguistica inglese. pp. 13-81. Pescara: Libreria dell’Università. Hall, Edward T. (1968). Proxemics. Current anthropology, vol. 9, no. 2-3, pp. 83-100. Jonassen, David H. (1999). Computers as Mind Tools for Schools: Engaging Critical Thinking (2nd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kumar, Ranjit (2005). Research Methodology (2nd Ed). London: Sage. Lave, Jean & Wenger, Etienne (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. McCormick, Robert (2004). Collaboration: The Challenge of ICT. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol. 14, no.2, pp. 159-176. McCormick, Robert & Scrimshaw, Peter (2001). Information and Communications Technology, Knowledge and Pedagogy. Education, Communication & Information, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 39-57. Merriam, Sharan B. & Simpson, Edwin L. (1995). A Guide to Research for Educators and Trainers of Adults (2nd Ed.). Malabra: Krieger. Miller, Dave; Averis, Douglas; Door, Vicotria & Glover, Derek (2005). How Can the Use of an Interactive Whiteboard Enhance the Nature of Teaching and Learning in Secondary Mathematics and Modern Foreign Languages? Becta ICT Research Bursary 2003-04. Retrieved 20th August 2012 from: www.becta.org.uk/page_documents/research/bursaries05/interactive_whiteboard.pdf Miller, Dave & Glover, Derek (2002). The Interactive Whiteboard as a Force for Pedagogic Change: The Experience of Five Elementary Schools in an English Education Authority. Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, no. 1, pp. 5-9. Morell, Teresa (2004). Interactive Lecture Discourse for University EFL Students. English for Specific Purposes, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 325-338. Pennycook, Alastair (1985) Actions Speak Louder Than Words: Paralanguage, Communication, and Education, TESOL Quarterly, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 259 -282. Poyatos, Fernando (1983). Language and Nonverbal Systems in the Structure of Face-to-Face Interaction. Language Communication, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 129-140. Smith, Heather; Higgins, Steve; Wall, Kate & Miller, Jen (2005). Interactive Whiteboards: Boon or Bandwagon? A Critical Review of the Literature. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 91-101. Solvie, Pamela A. (2004). The Digital Whiteboard: A Tool in Early Literacy Instruction. Reading Teacher, vol. 57, no.5, pp. 484-487. Watson, Deryn (2006). Understanding the Relationship between ICT and Education Means Exploring Innovation and Change. Education and Information Technologies, vol. 11, pp. 199-216. Yusuf, Mudasiru O. (2005). Information and Communication Education: Analyzing the Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology. International Education Journal, vol. 6, no.3, pp. 316-321.

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Author: Patrizia Anesa, Ph.D. University of Bergamo Piazza Rosate 2 24129 Bergamo Italy

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Language Learning Strategies in Elementary School: The Effect of Age and Gender in an EFL Context Katalin Doró (Szeged, Hungary) / Anita Habók (Szeged, Hungary)

Abstract (English) This paper seeks to contribute to the limited research done on the language strategy use of young learners in EFL contexts. It presents the results of an investigation into the overall language learning strategy use of elementary school students. Subjects for the study were fifth and sixth graders enrolled in Hungarian public elementary schools (n=275). The Strategy inventory for language learning (SILL) was found to be a reliable and well-working data collection instrument with this young age group. Six subcategories of strategies were investigated and results showed that meta-cognitive strategies were the most frequently used category, while compensation strategies were the least often employed ones. Significant grade level differences in strategy use were not found. Gender related investigations revealed key differences in favor of girls across all six types of learning strategies. Implications of the study are presented and discussed. Key words: language learning strategies, English, EFL, strategy inventory for language learning (SILL), age, gender, elementary school, children

Abstract (Deutsch) Die vorliegende Studie ist ein Beitrag zu den relativ wenigen Untersuchungen zum Englisch als Fremdsprache, die sich mit der Verwendung von Sprachstrategien bei jungen Sprachlernern beschäftigen. Die Studie stellt Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der Verwendung von Sprachstrategien durch Schüler des Sekundarbereichs dar. Ungarische Fünft- und Sechstklässler (n=275) staatlicher Schulen bildeten dabei die Zielgruppe. Der verwendete SILL-Fragebogen (The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning” erwies sich als verlässliches und intaktes Instrument für die Datenerhebung bei dieser Zielgruppe. Sechs Unterkategorien der Strategien wurden untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass metakognitive Strategien die am meisten verwendete Kategorie bildeten, während Kompensationsstrategien zu den am wenigsten verwendeten Strategien zählten. In den zwei untersuchten Jahrgängen konnten keine signifikanten Unterschiede ausgemacht werden. Die Untersuchung der geschlechtsspezifischen Ergebnisse zeitigten in allen sechs Kategorien der Lernstrategien einen erheblichen Vorteil für Mädchen. Im Artikel werden die Implikationen der Studie präsentiert und diskutiert. Zudem werden ihre Grenzen aufgezeigt. Stichwörter: Sprachstrategien, Englisch, Englisch als Fremdsprache, SILL, Alter, Geschlecht, Grundschule, Kinder

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1 Introduction Language learning strategies are actions and techniques that facilitate the learning process. Researchers seem to agree that effective students use a greater variety of strategies and operate with them to a better degree. According to Cohen (2005) strategy research is significant for two main reasons: a) researchers can identify the underlying cognitive, meta-cognitive and socio-affective processes of language learning; and b) strategies can, at least to some extent, be taught, so teachers can help less successful learners adopt better strategies and, therefore, become more effective language users. However, Hu and Tian (2012) documented a frequent observation according to which students and teachers often have different beliefs about learner strategies. Over the last 40 years, research on language learning strategies has gained valuable knowledge on how learners perceive their own second or foreign language learning and what strategies they adopt in or outside the classroom. What is clearly missing from the published literature is a more focused attention on the foreign language learning strategies of elementary school students. Also, as Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995) and, more recently, Yilmaz (2010) and Jin-Suk & Tae-Young (2011) have rightly pointed out, research on learner beliefs and strategies is needed from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds. This study aims at contributing to this field by investigating a large number of Hungarian EFL learners' overall language learning strategies in grades 5 and 6 and their strategy use in relationship with background variables, such as grade level and gender.

2

Literature Review

2.1 Language Learning Strategies The term language learning strategy has been defined in a variety of ways in the last decades, giving way to criticism and lack of consensus (Dörnyei 2005, White 2008). The definitions dating back to the 1980s and 1990s are still the most frequently cited ones (Zare 2012). For example, learning strategies were understood by O’Malley & Chamot as “special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (O’Malley & Chamot 1990: 1). While early research treated strategies as conscious behavior, most recent definitions recognize the semi-conscious nature of certain strategy use. In line with this idea, Cohen defined language learning strategies as “the conscious or semi-conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and understanding of a target language” (Cohen 2003: 280). For the present study the definition of Oxford (1990) will be adopted, being the most comprehensive and inclusive one. According to Oxford (1990: 8), 26

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 language learning strategies are operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information…; specific actions taken by the learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (Oxford 1990: 8).

Researchers in the field have also faced the problem of classifying strategies, with the result of various taxonomies in use. One of the early categorizations distinguishes between direct and indirect strategies (Rubin 1975). According to Rubin, direct strategies, such as clarifying, monitoring, memorizing, and guessing, directly contribute to language learning, while students indirectly benefit from additional strategies like finding opportunities to practice the target language. O’Malley et al. (1985) and O’Malley & Chamot (1990) identified three main types of strategies, namely meta-cognitive (e.g. planning and self-monitoring), cognitive (e.g. repetition, translation and decontextualisation) and socio-affective (e.g. cooperation and questions for clarification), dedicating most of their attention to meta-cognitive strategies. Oxford (1990, 2001) took a step further by identifying six sub-categories, the first three belonging to the direct, and the second three to the indirect group of strategies. These six sub-categories are the following: memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, meta-cognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. Oxford's division of strategies provided the basis for designing the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), also used in the present study (Oxford 1990). Learning strategies have been observed through a variety of self-reporting methods, including interviews, stimulated recall interviews, questionnaires, written diaries, and thinkaloud protocols related to certain learning tasks (Chamot 2005). As the author reports, each of these methods has limitations, but at the present time they remain the only way to generate insights into the unobservable mental learning strategies of learners (Chamot 2005: 113).

It has been shown that language learners at all levels adopt strategies, and strategy use can be influenced by a variety of background variables. In recent years, some of the most widely researched of these variables have been gender, language proficiency, educational background, age or grade level, study goals, tasks to which strategy use is linked, language or cultural background and the degree of effectiveness in target language learning (e.g. Hong-Nam & Leavell 2007; Griffiths 2003, Lan 2005, Magogwe & Oliver 2007, Chen 2009, Dhanapala 2007, Wong & Nunan 2011, Khamkhienm 2010). Cohen rightly concluded that “no single strategy will be appropriate for all learners or for all tasks, and invariably individual learners will apply the very same strategies in different ways” (Cohen 2003: 282).

2.2 Strategy Studies on Young Learners Research on the strategy use of children has provided some evidence that children do use strategies from preschool levels onward (Rea and Mercuri 2006), although they are usually not successful in reporting on them until their upper elementary school years (Cohen 2003; Cooper and Corpus 2009). Children’s meta-cognitive development, which includes 27

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knowledge of themselves (how they perform in certain situations), and knowledge about the strategies they use to solve tasks (how they do things), greatly varies among individuals (Fisher 1998). Pinter (2006), by reviewing literature on 10- and 11-year-olds’ cognitive development, concluded that children at this stage of their life can think logically, organize their thoughts and focus on a wide range of cognitive tasks. They are also able to reflect on their thinking and learning processes, which is a prerequisite for being able to report on their strategy use. Cooper & Corpus (2009) highlighted the methodological problems of studying elementary school aged children’s strategy use, as current approaches rely upon survey measures that are inappropriate for young children. Even the interview methods used in some studies …may be inappropriate for early elementary children who typically do not provide substantive responses to open-ended prompts (Cooper & Corpus 2009: 527).

For the present study, the SILL was adopted in light of the reviewed literature and the personal experience of the authors with Hungarian 11- and 12-year-olds, which suggested that students of this age are able to fill out self-reported questionnaires of this type. To the best knowledge of the authors, very few studies have been published on the foreign language learning strategies of fifth and sixth graders in or outside of Hungary. They mostly focused on understanding the individuals in small groups and investigated taskrelated strategy use employing observations or think-aloud protocols. Due to their limited number, all of them serve us with valuable information. Raja (2009), for example, reported on the strategy training and use of third, fourth and sixth grader Tamil speaking students (n=216) in English immersion classes in the Tamil Nadu state of India. The author found that over 80 percent of the participants reported using all six of the Oxford (1990) strategy categories. The study was based on classroom observation, think-aloud protocols and teacher reports. Chamot & El-Dinary (1999) studied strategy use in immersion class environments (French, Japanese and Spanish) in the USA. They used a think-aloud protocol with students from kindergarten to sixth grade, focusing on the differences between less and more successful student groups. The implications of this study are very limited due to the methodology employed and the low number of participants. Both of these studies reported on the strategy use of English as a second rather than a foreign language. Although even more limited in number, there have also been some recent studies that analyze EFL contexts. Coyle & Valcácel (2002) used a small number of participants (n=8, eight- and nine-year-old Spanish students), categorized by their teachers as good language learners. The major strength of this study is that interviews with the students were conducted while and after carrying out certain language tasks. Nikolov (2003 and 2006) also investigated the task-related strategy use of sixth and seventh graders. These studies explored the strategies students mentioned while solving reading and writing tasks. The author pointed out a number of methodological pitfalls of the data collection and data categorization. Cooper & Corpus (2009) reported on the strategy development for maintaining motivation of first, third and fifth graders in comparison to adults. They observed that even the youngest study group showed good understanding of concrete, behavioral strategies, while mental or abstract strategies were used only by the fifth graders and the adult participants.

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A comprehensive study was carried out by Lan (2005) involving over a thousand English language elementary school learners in Taiwan. By using the Taiwanese Children’s SILL, semi-structured interviews, vocabulary tasks and investigating other background variables, the author was able to provide valuable insight into this student population’s strategy use. The study found that children employed all the six Oxford categories of strategies and that their strategy use correlated with background variables such as the their degree of liking English, their gender, language proficiency, study goals, and their father’s education. It can be concluded that research on language learning strategies has been carried out mainly on secondary school and adult populations who are able to provide data through large surveys. Studies investigating the foreign language learning strategies of elementary school children are rather limited and preliminary in nature, and the majority of them focus on a single strategy type or skill, or describe strategies used by bilingual children or children in immersion classes. Unfortunately, very little has been published about what strategies children use while studying and practicing a foreign language.

3 Research Questions Based on the literature reviewed, this study seeks to find answers to the following research questions: 1. Is the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) a reliable and well-working instrument in an EFL context with elementary school students in grades 5 and 6? 2. What is the overall language learning strategy use of this age group? 3. Are there significant differences between the two grades in their strategy use? 4. Are there significant differences between young male and female students in their strategy use? The purpose of this research is threefold. Firstly, it aims to explore whether the SILL is a reliable tool of investigation with fifth and sixth graders, a young age group with whom it has not been widely used so far. Secondly, it examines the overall language learning strategy use of fifth and sixth graders, about which limited published data exist. Thirdly, it investigates differences in strategy preferences by grade level and by gender and compares the results with those of earlier studies.

4 Methods 4.1 Participants Students from three public elementary schools of southern Hungary serving grades 1 to 8 were invited to participate in the study. A total of 275 students were included in this 29

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investigation, 146 students from grade 5 and 129 students from grade 6. The overall participant group consisted of 148 boys and 127 girls. Consent prior to administering the questionnaire was obtained from the principals and the English teachers of the schools. All students were native speakers of Hungarian learning English as a foreign language in a formal school setting. They had an average of 3.4 years of previous English studies in grade 5 and 4.1 years in grade 6. They represent average English learners, as outstanding school results were not a prerequisite for participating in this study, unlike in a number of other studies which had focused on the strategy use of ‘good language learners’ (e.g. Rubin 1975, Morales & Smith 2008; Edwards 2008). The fifth graders, on average, had 3.8, while the sixth graders had 3.6 English marks in a five-point grading scale system, 5 being the highest mark.

4.2 Instruments An adapted version of the SILL for learners of English as a second or foreign language (Oxford 1990) was employed in this study. Drawing on Yang (2007), it consisted of 48 statements, each related to one to the main strategy groups: memory strategies (items 1 to 8) for storing and retrieving information, cognitive strategies (items 9 to 22) for understanding and producing target language elements, compensation strategies (items 23 to 28) for helping overcome a lack of target language knowledge, meta-cognitive strategies (items 29 to 37) for coordinating the language learning process, affective strategies (items 38 to 42) in connection with emotions, motivation and attitudes and social strategies (items 43 to 48) which involve interaction with others during language learning and as a form of language practice. A Hungarian (the native language of the participants) translation of the questionnaire was used to insure clear understanding of the statements. The 48 items were evaluated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never or almost never true of me) to 5 (always or almost always true of me). The SILL has been translated into various languages and undergone multiple reliability and validity checks (Oxford & Burry-Stock 1995). Therefore, to date, it has been the most widely applied and reliable strategy instrument.

5 Results and Discussion 5.1 Reliability and applicability of the SILL (Research Question 1) The internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire was satisfactorily high at .93 on Cronbach alpha for the entire study population. Cronbach alpha was .93 for fifth graders and .94 for sixth graders. This is in line with previous research conducted using the SILL. Studies have reported reliability coefficients for the SILL ranging between .85 and .98 (Hong-Nam & Leavell 2006). Children’s version of the SILL has proved to work well with Taiwanese students (Lan 2005) and selected questions taken from the SILL were used in other studies involving children (e.g. Hong-Nam & Leavell 2006). In the present study, however, the adult version of the SILL (Oxford 1990) also proved to work well when translated to the participants' mother tongue. Fifth and sixth graders were able to 30

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understand fill in the relatively long questionnaire. We find this a valuable piece of information for researchers who wish to study the strategy use of elementary school students.

5.2 Overall Language Learning Strategy Use (Research Question 2) When considered as one main group, all students reported on being actively engaged in language leaning strategies. Descriptive statistics show that the average frequency of strategy use reported for fifth and sixth graders ranked middle (M=2.6 to 3.2) according to Oxford’s (1990) scale. The least preferred strategies were compensation (M=2.6, SD=.7), while memory, cognitive, social (M=2.8, SD=.6, .7 and .9, respectively) and affective strategies (M=2.9, SD=.9) were placed slightly higher. The most preferred group of the six strategy categories was meta-cognitive strategies (M=3.2). If compared to the other largescale study with children using SILL type questions (Lan 2005), preference to strategy use shows some similarity between the Taiwanese and the Hungarian students. In Lan (2005) meta-cognitive strategies placed only fourth with similar means (M=3.0), while memory strategies were the most frequent ones (M=3.2), .4 average lower than in the Hungarian data. The inconsistency in the results of studies on language learning strategies and the limitations of these studies have been voiced by various authors (e.g. Gürsoy 2010, Cohen 2005, Griffiths & Parr 2001). Similarities in and differences between the various data sets may, most probably, be due to different selection criteria, data collection methodology, age, language backgrounds and strategy trainings.

5.3 Strategy Use according to Grade Level (Research question 3) When participant data were grouped by grade level (grade 5 and grade 6), data analysis revealed no significant differences for the use of the six main strategy subscales (Table 1). Strategy scales

sub-

Grade 5

Grade 6

n=146

n=129

p

mean

SD

mean

SD

Memory

2.8

.6

2.8

.7

n.s

Cognitive

2.8

.7

2.8

.6

n.s

Compensation

2.7

.7

2.6

.7

n.s

Meta-cognitive

3.1

.8

3.2

.8

n.s

Affective

2.9

.9

2.9

.9

n.s

Social

2.8

1.0

2.8

.9

n.s

Table 1: Summary of language learning strategy use in the two grade levels

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The average frequency of strategy use ranged between 2.6 and 3.2. Meta-cognitive strategies were placed the highest, while compensation strategies were the lowest for both groups. A more detailed item analysis was also carried out to see if grade differences existed. Statistically significant differences between the two grade levels were found for three statements only. Among the cognitive strategies sixth graders reported that they repeat new vocabulary items more frequently in order to memorize them (M G5=3.4, MG6=3.8, p<0.01) and that they would like to sound native-like more than the younger students (MG5=3.2, MG6=3.6, p<0.05). As for the affective sub-scale, fifth graders claimed to give themselves a reward or treat more often when they do well in English (MG5=2.9, MG6=2.5, p<0.05). The small differences in the strategy use of the two grade levels are not surprising. Overall means mask individual differences, and students of both groups had had similar former language learning experiences, attended the same or similar schools, and were at a similar cognitive and literacy developmental level. Chen (2009), who studied students in grades 7, 8 and 9 in Taiwan, showed a significant shift in strategy preference across the grades. This result was explained by the author as a clear indication of the fact that students at this age undergo a shift in their learning style which brings with itself the employment of different strategies. Cooper & Corpus (2009) were also able to report on a significant increase in strategy knowledge between grades 1, 3 and 5. However, a 5-yearspan in students’ cognitive, literacy and foreign language skills is definitely large enough to show clear developments, while a 1-year-span in the mid-elementary school years (as in our study) is less significant on the group level, but rather involves individual differences.

5.4 Strategy Use according to Gender (Research question 4) Table 2 shows results for the frequency of strategy use reported by the two genders. Strategy sub-scales

Boys

Girls

n=148

n=127

p

mean

SD

mean

SD

Memory

2.6

.7

3.0

.6

<0.01

Cognitive

2.7

.7

3.0

.6

<0.01

Compensation

2.5

.7

2.8

.7

<0.05

Metacognitive

2.9

.8

3.5

.7

<0.01

Affective

2.7

.9

3.1

.9

<0.01

Social

2.6

1.0

3.1

.8

<0.01

Table 2: Summary of language learning strategy use by gender

In all aspects of the data, statistically significant differences were found in favor of girls. Mean differences revealed that, in all six sub-scales, females engaged in strategy use more frequently than males, the largest difference being found in meta-cognitive strategy use (Mmales=2.9, Mfemales=3.5). 32

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T-tests pointed to a number of conclusions suggesting a more active involvement of young female students in their foreign language learning. Girls indicated that during vocabulary learning, they use new English words in sentences more frequently, employ rhymes and repeat words to remember them. They also frequently act out situations or use mental images that help them memorize vocabulary. They are more likely to connect the phonetic forms with these mental images and translate the vocabulary items to their native language. If vocabulary access from their mental lexicon is unsuccessful, they rely on words with a similar meaning to express their thoughts. Girls take more notes, write messages, letters, reports and read in English more often than do boys. They also indicated that they prefer skim-reading a text before reading it with care. Finally, they review their class notes more often than boys. Results also support the notion that girls have better verbal skills. They initiate conversations more frequently, and they monitor their partners’ speech more closely. While they strive to sound more native-like than boys and practice English sounds, they also like to talk to their peers. When the message is unclear, they are more likely to ask their interlocutor to slow down or to provide clarification, and they also ask for correction. Girls reflect on their study progress more frequently than boys. Moreover, they seek opportunities more frequently to improve their target language skills. They are less afraid of making mistakes and try to relax, reward themselves, or reflect on their errors. What is more, they make deliberate efforts to spend more time studying English and to learn about the culture of English speaking countries. In conclusion, girls in this study showed more dedication to learning the target language and a higher frequency of strategy use than boys. A number of recent studies on learning strategies have also addressed the gender differences in their data, either finding no significant differences in the overall strategy use between the two genders (e.g. Radwan 2011, Bonyadi et al. 2012), reporting on higher scores for females than males across all age levels (e.g. Yilmay 2010, Teh et al. 2009), or reporting mixed results for specific strategies (Radwan 2011, Hong-Nam & Leavel 2006). Hong-Nam & Leavel (2006), for example, reported on mixed gender-related results in their US study in which males indicated to use meta-cognitive, compensation and affective strategies the least frequently, while females used meta-cognitive and memory strategies the least frequently. As was discussed in the case of age related differences, nonconclusive results for gender differences across studies can be due to methods, choice of study populations or other background variables. The combination of age, language background and methodology chosen for this study has not been investigated earlier. Therefore, results provide new insight into early strategy use of young foreign language learners.

6 Implications and Limitations As Wong & Nunan (2011) concluded, more successful learners are able to develop effective learning strategies by themselves, while less successful learners need assistance. The knowledge of strategy use gained in this study should be extended to students with the goal in mind that they could become more productive language learners 33

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in and outside the classroom when pointed to new strategies or strategies they use less frequently. An outcome of this research could be more direct research-based EFL teaching and the results should be used in pre-service and in-service teacher training. Similar research could assist teachers in their curriculum design and in helping students to better understand the importance of strategy use. Overgeneralization of the results should be avoided. It is important to point out that the results do not necessarily reflect the strategy use related to certain task types used in the classroom. The SILL chosen for this study is a quick inventory for possible strategy preference of elementary school EFL students; however, it is not task-based. While this may seem to be a shortcoming of this research, using the SILL indeed proved to be a major strength by showing that students as young as eleven can engage in self-reporting through this questionnaire that had mainly been considered adequate for older study populations. Interview and observation-based studies with small groups of learners should be viewed together with larger-scale investigations like the present one. As a future direction of research, it would be interesting to see how other background variables, such as school grades, language proficiency, study goals, or the amount of time spent with the target language reflect upon the strategy preference of young students. Another area of investigation suggested by these results is an examination of how strategy preferences change over time and across languages, cultures and school curricula. All participants of the experiment were young native speakers of Hungarian learning English as a foreign language in a formal school setting. Therefore, the results of the experiment are only valid for this specific student population. Students' homogeneous educational background means another limitation, as they come from similar public elementary schools of the same region. Although the sample size was much larger than the ones used in the majority of previous strategy studies carried out with elementary school students, a larger and more diverse subject pool would have been required to generate more robust statistical evidence. Further research is needed among seventh and eighth graders to see whether grade differences become more visible as students progress through elementary school education.

7 Conclusion The present study represents another step in the process of understanding the overall foreign language learning strategy use of elementary school students. The purpose of this research was threefold. Firstly, it set out to explore whether the SILL is a reliable tool of investigation with a young age group with whom it has not been widely used. Secondly, it examined the overall language learning strategy use of fifth and sixth graders. Thirdly, it explored differences in strategy preferences by grade level and by gender. Results revealed a high reliability coefficient for the Hungarian SILL indicating that the instrument is reliable and works well with fifth and sixth graders if the statements are translated to the native language of the learners. Meta-cognitive strategies were found to be employed the most frequently by this age group, while compensation strategies were 34

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the least popular ones. There were only three statements that showed grade level shift; overall, no significant differences were found in the use of the six subgroups of strategies between younger and older students. As for gender differences, young females showed a higher frequency of strategy use across all strategy types. As data were based on selfreport and language learning as a whole, the study extended our understanding of the way young learners view and facilitate their foreign language learning process.

References Bonyadi, Alireza, Nikou, Farahnaz Rimani & Shahbaz, Sima (2012). The relationship between EFL learners' self-efficacy beliefs and their language learning strategy Use. English Language Teaching 5 (8), 113– 121. Chamot, Anna Uhl & El-Dinary, Pamela Beard (1999). Children's learning strategies in language immersion classrooms. Modern Language Journal 83 (3), 319−338. Chamot, Anna Uhl (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 25, 112−130. Chen, Mei-Ling (2009). Influence of grade level on perceptual learning style preferences and language learning strategies of Taiwanese English as a foreign language learners. Learning and Individual Differences 19 (2), 304−308. Cohen, Andrew D. (2003). The learner’s side of foreign language learning: where do styles, strategies, and tasks meet? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 41 (4), 279–291. Cohen, Andrew D. (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 25, 112−130. Cooper, Cyntia A. & Corpus, Jennifer Henderlong (2009). Learners' developing knowledge of strategies for regulating motivation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 30 (4), 525−536. Dhanapala, Kusumi Vasatha (2007). Focusing on language learning strategies of advanced learners in Japan and Sri Lanka. Journal of International Development and Cooperation 13 (1), 153−164. Dörnyei, Zoltán (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Edwards, Melinda (2004). A sikeres közösségi nyelvtanuló [The successful community language learner]. In Kontráné H.E. & Kormos, J. (Eds.). A nyelvtanuló. Sikerek–módszerek–stratégiák [The language learner. Success–methods–strategies]. Budapest: OKKER: 65–82. Fisher, Robert (1998). Thinking about thinking: developing metacognition in children. Early Child Development and Care 141, 1−15. Griffiths, Carol (2003). Patterns of language learning strategy use. System 31 (3), 367−383. Griffiths, Carol & Parr, Judy M. (2001). Language learning strategies: theory and Research. ELT Journal 55 (3), 247−254. Gürsoy, Esim (2010). Investigating language learning strategies of EFL children for the development of a taxonomy. English Language Teaching 3 (3), 164−175.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Hong-Nam, Kyundsim & Leavell. Alexandra G. (2006). Language learning strategy use of ESL students in an intensive English learning context. System 34 (3), 399−415. Hong-Nam, Kyungsim & Leavell. Alexandra G. (2007). A Comparative study of language learning strategy use in an EFL context: Monolingual Korean and bilingual Korean-Chinese university students. Asia Pacific Education Review 8 (1), 71−88. Hu, Bo & Tian, Lili (2012). Do teachers and students share similar beliefs about teaching and learning strategies? System 40, 237−254. Jin-Suk, Yang & Tae-Young Kim (2011). Sociocultural analysis of second language learner beliefs: A qualitative case study of two study-abroad ESL learners. System 39, 325−334. Khamkhien, Attapol (2010). Factors affecting language learning strategy reported usage by Thai and Vietnamese EFL learners. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 7(1), 66−85. Lan, Rae L. (2006). Language learning strategies profiles of EFL elementary school students in Taiwan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Maryland. Magogwe, Joel Mokuedi & Oliver, Rhonda (2007).The relationship between language learning strategies, proficiency, age and self-efficacy beliefs: A study of language learners in Botswana. System 35(3), 338−352. Morales, Morales & Smith, Daniel J. (2008). Spanish learning strategies of some good language learners. Porta Linguarum 9, 167−177. Nikolov, Marianne (2003). Hatodikosok stratégiahasználata olvasott szöveg értését és íráskészséget mérő feladatokon angol nyelvből [The strategy use of sixth graders during reading comprehension and writing tasks in English]. Magyar Pedagógia 103 (1), 5−34. Nikolov, Marianne (2006). Test-taking strategies of 12- and 13-year-old Hungarian learners of EFL: Why whales have migraines. Language Learning 56 (1), 1–51. O’Malley, Michael J. & Chamot, Anna Uhl (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. O’Malley, Michael J., Chamot, Anna Uhl, Stewner-Manzanares, Gloria, Russo, Rocco P. & Küpper, Lisa (1985). Learning strategy applications with students of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly 19, 557−584. Oxford, Rebecca L. & Burry-Stock, Judith A. (1995). Assessing the use of language learning strategies worldwide with the ESL/EFL version of the strategy inventory for language learning (SILL). System 23, 1−23. Oxford, Rebecca L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House/Harper & Row. Radwan, Adel Abu (2011). Effects of L2 proficiency and gender on choice of language learning strategies by university students majoring in English. Asian EFL Journal 13(1), 114−162. Raja, Lalitha R. (2009). Efficiency of language learning strategies in school children. MJAL 1 (6), 392−412. Rubin, Joan (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner? Canadian Modern Journal Review 31, 304−318. Rubin, Joan (1975). What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly 9 (1), 41−51.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Teh, Kamarul Shukri Mat, Embi, Mohamed Amin, Yusoff, Nik Mohd Rahimi Nik & Mahamod, Zamri (2009). A closer look at gender and Arabic language learning strategies use. European Journal of Social Sciences 9 (3), 399−407. White, Cynthia (2008). Language learning strategies in independent language learning: An overview. In Lewis, T., Hurd S. (Eds.). Language learning in independent settings. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. pp. 3– 24. Wong, Lilian L. C. & Nunan, David (2011).The learning styles and strategies of effective language learners. System 39, 144−163. Yang, Ming-Nuan (2007). Language learning strategies for junior college students in Taiwan: investigating ethnicity and proficiency. The Asian EFL Journal 9 (2), 35–57. Yilmaz, Cevdet (2010). The relationship between language learning strategies, gender, proficiency and selfefficacy beliefs: a study of ELT learners in Turkey. Procedia. Social and Behavioral Sciences 2, 262−267. Zare, Pezhman (2012). Language learning strategies among EFL/ESL learners: a review of literature. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2, 162−169.

Authors: Katalin Doró, Ph.D. University of Szeged Department of English Language Teacher Education and Applied Linguistics Egyetem u. 2. 6722 Szeged Hungary E-mail: [email protected]

Anita Habók, Ph.D. University of Szeged Institute of Education MTA-SZTE Research Group on the Development of Competencies Petőfi sgt. 30-34. 6722 Szeged Hungary E-mail: [email protected]

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Translation Competence in Foreign Language Learning Can Language Methodology benefit from Translation Studies3? Inez De Florio-Hansen (Kassel, Germany)

Abstract (English) With the advent of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), translation and interpretation advanced from learning tools to complex components of communicative competence. Although there is an increasing demand of oral and written mediation in the workplace, mediation activities in foreign language classrooms, up to now, are mostly limited to language transfer in informal situations. In the author’s opinion, at least advanced learners of second / foreign languages should, in addition to mediation in informal situations, acquire basic translation and interpretation skills / abilities for their professional lives. This leads the author to the conclusion that foreign language methodology could benefit from the detailed definitions of translation competence and the respective methodologies elaborated by academic translation studies. On the basis of various concepts originating from both disciplines, translation studies and foreign language methodology, a revised model of mediation competence, composed of knowledge, skills / abilities and attitudes, is presented and discussed. Key words: foreign language learning, language methodology, mediation (competence), translation (skills and abilities), interpretation (skills and abilities)

Abstract (Deutsch) Eine wesentliche Neuerung des Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmens (GeR) besteht darin, dass Übersetzen und Dolmetschen nicht länger (nur) als Lernhilfen betrachtet, sondern als entscheidende Komponenten der Interkulturellen Kommunikationsfähigkeit ausgewiesen werden. Trotz des gesteigerten Bedarfs an mündlicher und schriftlicher Sprachmittlung am Arbeitsplatz bleiben Mediationsaktivitäten im Fremdsprachenunterricht auf informelle Kontexte beschränkt. Nach Ansicht der Autorin sollten zumindest fortgeschrittene Fremdsprachenlernende - zusätzlich zur Mediation in informellen Situationen - für ihr zukünftiges Berufsleben grundlegende Fähigkeiten im Dolmetschen und Übersetzen erwerben. Daraus folgert die Autorin, dass die Fremdsprachenlehr- und -lernforschung von den detaillierten Definitionen des Begriffs Übersetzungskompetenz profitieren kann, welche die Übersetzungswissenschaft erarbeitet hat. Auf der Grundlage von Konzepten beider Disziplinen, der Übersetzungswissenschaft sowie der Fremdsprachenlehr- und -lernforschung, wird ein überarbeitetes Model der Übersetzungskompetenz, das in Wissen, Können und Einstellungen unterteilt ist, vorgestellt und diskutiert. Stichwörter: Fremdsprachenerwerb, Fremdsprachendidaktik, Mediation(skompetenz), Übersetzung, Übersetzen, Dolmetschen

Although theories of translation and interpretation in Europe only follow in part Anglo-American approaches represented by ‘translation studies’, this term is preferred because it is widely accepted (Munday 2010: pp. 420-421).

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1 Introduction With the advent of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (Council of Europe 2001), Translation4 is no longer considered only as a learning aid and an assessment tool in foreign language classrooms and university courses. Mediation, i.e. formal and informal translating and interpreting, becomes part of intercultural communication competence (CEFR, Council of Europe 2001; chap. 3). Until now, language methodology limits mediation activities in the foreign language classroom to informal situations, leaving formal translation to professional translators and interpreters. Although mediating in informal contexts is already a challenging goal for foreign language learners, there are good reasons to prepare students for more than informal talks. With the growing importance of translation and interpretation in Europe and all over the world, many lay persons need to develop skills for their jobs that are close to formal translation. On the other hand, professional translation underwent substantial changes which, in the author's opinion, justify insights into translation studies with the overall aim to ascertain if and how foreign language methodology can benefit from Translation Studies. These analyses refer to definitions of translation competence as well as to the methodology of translation. In Chapter 2, it will be pointed out in which different forms the growing importance of translating and interpreting manifests itself. Chapter 3 is dedicated to the revised goals of translation and interpretation in foreign language teaching and learning in the aftermath of the CEFR. Taking a representative definition of mediation developed in the field of foreign language methodology as the starting point, a detailed example from the school context illustrates the challenge of informal written mediation among lay persons (Chapter 4). Not only in informal contexts, but especially in (semi-)formal work-place situations is it of great help for foreign language learners and users to know that there are different ways of translating and interpreting the same source text. Therefore, in Chapter 5, a succinct overview of the evolution of translation studies from their emergence in the 1950s to recent times of (web) globalization will be given. In Chapter 5.1, an excerpt from a French novel translated into German by future teachers of French drawing on the concept of equivalence is employed as an example. In Chapter 6, definitions of mediation competence elaborated in the field of foreign language methodology in the aftermath of the CEFR are compared to the more focused description of (professional) translation competence of the PACTE (Process in the Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation) group (Chapter 6.1 – 6.4). This In the following, the term translation is used for translating and interpreting as well. In translation studies, this convention goes back to Kade (1968: 35 and passim). In the field of foreign language methodology, the term translation for translating and interpreting is justified because mediation is rather frequently done from written to oral and from oral to written, i.e. a clear distinction between interpretation (from oral to oral) and translation (from written to written) is not possible. (See the respective examples throughout the present article).

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comparison leads to a (revised and extended) model of mediation competence of foreign language learners and users (Chapter 6.5). An example drawn from German dual vocational education and training illustrates which goals can be reached in the foreign language classroom. Whereas conceptualizations of translating competence contribute to specifying mediation sub-competences (cf. especially Chapter 6.5), methodology of translation (Chap. 7) lacks a systematic and transparent approach. When designing professional trainings for translators and interpreters, translation scholars have, up to the present day, neither taken the suggestions of the CEFR into account, nor have they developed graded objectives (can do descriptors) that facilitate teaching and learning (Chapter 7.1). This is due to the fact that there is no general curriculum but a collection of self-standing courses and modules (Chapter 7.2). At the end of the chapter, a brief overview of general methodological approaches, practised in translation programs as well as in foreign language classrooms, is given. In the conclusion (Chapter 8), the most evident points of contact between translation studies and foreign language methodology will be summarised in order to show that there is a shared path to effective translation and interpretation.

2 The Growing Importance of Translation and Interpretation in Europe 2.1 Official Languages and Working Languages in the European Union Multilingualism is one of the most important characteristics of Europeanness. The maintenance and promotion of European languages is a widely accepted goal of the European Union (EU). The European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth is not only responsible for language policy; his or her portfolio also includes the extensive interpretation, translation and publication services in the 23 official languages of the EU (including the 3 working languages)5. In order to guarantee the adequate quality of the language service, the European Commission engages in Studies on translation and multilingualism. The 10 to 15 publications of the Directorate-General for Translation per year comprise the annual Activity Report, studies in translation and multilingualism as well as collections of translation tools. In the Final Report on The Status of the Translation Profession in the European Union, published in July 2012, considerable shifts are mentioned. The main changes refer to the cross-border recognition of qualifications and certifications: “It should be coordinated with certification systems operative in other countries (particularly the United States, Canada, Australia and China)” (European Commission 2012: 5). Furthermore: “It should address the paraprofessionals who are translating and interpreting in many ‘immigrant’ languages” (European Commission 2012: 4), i.e. more than the official languages of the EU should be taken into account. 5

The working languages of the EU are English, French and German. The use of German is contested by many smaller states, especially Finland. They would prefer an English-only language regime.

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2.2 Interpretation into Immigrant Languages In addition to translating and interpreting in official contexts such as national and international organizations and intercultural business encounters, a great variety of interpretation occurs in the social sphere of multicultural societies all over the world and especially in Europe. These forms of mediation are summarized under the term ‘Community Interpreting’ coined in analogy to the term community worker. This specific type of interpreting in community-based situations enables minorities to access medical and social services.6 Meanwhile, official conference interpreting in most cases occurs simultaneously, mediating in medical and social situations in general involves consecutive interpretation in two directions. Furthermore, the above-mentioned “paraprofessionals” (European Commission 2012: 4) have to be acquainted with the respective public services and the different cultural backgrounds involved in order to enable the client and the service provider to communicate to their mutual satisfaction. Community interpreters are facilitators or mediators who take an active part in the triad. To some extent, their role is similar to that of foreign language learners and users mediating between people of different languages and cultures described in the CEFR (Council of Europe 2001; see below Chapter 3). One of the challenges of foreign language learners and users consists in mediating between the messages of the members of different cultures in a way that intercultural communication is achieved to the satisfaction of the individuals involved. With the increase of immigration and the needs of migrants who do not speak the official or dominant language, there is growing concern about common standards7, adequate training and the professionalisation of community interpreters (e.g. Slapp 2004). 8 The growing importance of Community Interpreting has led to a number of empirical studies since the end of the 20th century (e.g. Wadensjö 1998). With regard to learning and teaching mediating skills in (multilingual and multicultural) foreign language classrooms, it is worthwhile mentioning a study that includes the main features of the migration discourse. Based on 42 interviews with children and young people often involved in interpreting between family members and medical staff, Ahamer (2012) points out the effects of this activity on the children of migrants and their family members. In her conclusion, she shows the great potential these bilingual children and young adults possess and demands an adequate training and possible professional perspectives for young migrants as community interpreters.

2.3 The Common European Framework of Reference: Mediating Multilingualism in Europe does not only bring professional translators and interpreters and paraprofessionals to the fore. According to Knapp (42006: 175), non-professional interpreting in everyday situations is probably the most frequent form of interlingual and 6

For the different terms and areas included cf. Zimmermann (2009: pp. 7) Cf. the common standards for interpreting in criminal proceedings of the EU. 8 Vocational courses (legal, medical), university: B.A. , M. A., specific modules. 7

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intercultural transfer in the world.9 Due to its importance in multilingual societies, the CEFR introduces mediation as an important communicative sub-competence in private and professional life. The respective passage of the CEFR clearly shows that, underscoring the communicative function of translation, mediation not only comprises informal talks between lay persons, but “formal” spoken and written translation as well (Chapter 3). Foreign language learners and users should, thus, no longer be limited to informal interpreting and translating activities. Not only in Vocational Education and Training (VET), but also during regular schooling, at least advanced language learners have to acquire skills in formal translation and interpretation. With the modified perspective on translation, the CEFR makes it possible to overcome boundaries which, up until now, separate translation studies and foreign language pedagogy. In the past, translation studies excluded to take into consideration interpreting and translating in the foreign language classroom because of its lack of communicationoriented activities (Rogers 2008: 118). As the authors of the CEFR underscore the communicative aspects of translation, both disciplines, generally speaking, consider translation and mediation as part of intercultural communication competence. Although there are notable differences between translation studies and foreign language methodology, there is a raising awareness of the similarities, especially when it is taken into account that “lay” persons need more and more professional or at least semiprofessional translation and interpretation skills. Thus, in the author's opinion, for foreign language teachers, it is worthwhile knowing if and how foreign language pedagogy can benefit from translation studies.

2.4 The Necessity of Providing Professional Experts with Translation Competence The necessity of providing professional experts with translation competence was seen by Nord (1997) long before the publication of the CEFR, calling translation an imperative cultural technique of the new millennium. She opposes the “Übersetzungsexperte mit Fachkompetenz”, i.e. the professional translator and interpreter with subject knowledge in some fields, to the “Fachexperte mit Übersetzungskompetenz”, i.e. the professional expert, e.g. a technician, with translation competence (Nord 1997: 117). In the main part of her paper, Nord describes the necessary competences which such a professional expert should possess when engaging in translation and interpretation in his field of work. She lists six sub-competences a lay person should have when he or she wants to engage successfully in spoken and written translation: 

awareness of the fact that comprehension is culture bound;



knowledge of culture specific forms of behaviour in contrast to one’s own culture;



methodological skills of analysing the (source) text;



knowledge of the most important approaches to Translation Studies and of their application to the practice of translation;

At Erfurt University (Germany), under the guidance of K. Knapp, several doctoral theses dealing with the interpreting of lay persons in everyday contexts were written, e. g. Cieplinska 2007, Wilton 2009, and Chen 2012.

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

the ability to discern translation problems and to find adequate solutions;



the ability to apply the knowledge about genres to the production of functional translations (Nord 1997: 122).

It goes without saying that the aforementioned technician is not to replace the professionally trained translator or interpreter. With her proposal, Nord shows her awareness of the fact that in modern work-place situations and intercultural business encounters, it will no longer be possible to draw on professional translators and interpreters.

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Revised Goals of Translation and Interpretation in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

3.1 The Traditional Role of Translation in Foreign Language Learning and the Teacher Training Although we can assume that in Europe and in the entire West nowadays, most interaction in the foreign language classroom takes place in the target language, there are always situations in which the use of the mother tongue is justified or at least tolerated, provided that students (and the teacher) speak the same language. Such examples are the explanation of unknown vocabulary or of grammatical structures for which explanations in the target language would be too time-consuming. Quite often, the students' mother tongue is used in textbook exercises and activities in order to avoid formulations in the target language which students might simply copy when writing a dialogue, for example. These uses – and there are many other examples – function as learning aids. In addition to facilitate learning processes, translating also occurs for other purposes in the language classroom and teacher training. It is assumed that translations into the target language and vice versa are a good means to evaluate students' language competence by analysing their performance. This function is more prominent in university courses in which the pairing of languages is considered an opportunity to gain better insights into the main features of both languages concerned.

3.2 The Advent of the Common European Framework of Reference: Mediation More than any other document published by the Council of Europe (e.g. Threshold Level from the 1970s on) the CEFR (Council of Europe 2001) brought about substantial changes in foreign language methodology, especially in assessment, not only in Europe but all over the world. What makes the CEFR suitable for application to many different teaching and learning situations is its non-prescriptive style. Another prominent feature of the document is its action-oriented approach (Camerer & Mader 2012: 43-45).

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Critics of the CEFR (Bausch et al. 2002) seem to leave out the essential keywords in the title of the framework: “of reference”. Morrow (2004: 7) puts it as follows: “It [the CEFR] is a descriptive framework, not a set of suggestions, recommendations, or guidelines.” This point is not only mentioned in the Introduction to the Framework, but it is repeated several times throughout the document, e.g. with regard to mediating (Council of Europe 2001: 88):

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and, where appropriate, state: • the mediating activities in which the learner will need/be equipped/be required to engage.

As mentioned above (Chapter 1.3), one of the changes the CEFR brought about, is the reevaluation of translation and interpretation in the form of mediation from a learning aid to an important communicative sub-competence of foreign language learners and users. The full text of the CEFR (Council of Europe 2001: pp. 87-88) is quoted below as didactics and foreign language methodology tend to limit mediation to informal everyday conversations excluding “exact” translation and interpretation: The CEFR (Council of Europe 2001: 87-88) states: 4.4.4 Mediating activities and strategies In mediating activities, the language user is not concerned to express his/her own meanings, but simply to act as an intermediary between interlocutors who are unable to understand each other directly – normally (but not exclusively) speakers of different languages. Examples of mediating activities include spoken interpretation and written translation as well as summarizing and paraphrasing texts in the same language, when the language of the original text is not understandable to the intended recipient e.g.:

•

4.4.4.1 Oral Mediation: • simultaneous interpretation (conferences, meetings, formal speeches, etc.); • consecutive interpretation (speeches of welcome, guided tours, etc.); • informal interpretation: • of foreign visitors in their own country • of native speakers when abroad • in social and transactional situations for friends, family, clients, foreign guests, etc. • of signs, menus, notices, etc. 4.4.4.2 Written Mediation: • exact translation (e.g. of contracts, legal and scientific texts, etc.); • literary translation (novels, drama, poetry, libretti, etc.); • summarising gist (newspaper and magazine articles, etc.) within L2 or between L1 and L2; • paraphrasing (specialized texts for lay persons, etc.). 4.4.4.3 Mediation strategies reflect ways of coping with the demands of using finite resources to process information and establish equivalent meaning.

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• Execution

• Evaluation • Repair

Developing background knowledge; Locating supports; Preparing a glossary; Considering interlocutors’ needs; Selecting unit of interpretation. Previewing: processing input and formulating the last chunk simultaneously in real time; Noting possibilities, equivalences; Bridging gaps. Checking congruence of two versions; Checking consistency of usage. Refining by consulting dictionaries, thesaurus; Consulting experts, sources.

Illustrative scales are not available yet.10

Among the communicative and intercultural competences described and discussed in the CEFR, mediating tasks and mediation strategies gain importance as possible tools for bridging gaps of language and culture in multi-ethnic societies and in a more and more globalized world. The shift is considerable: translation and interpretation are no longer seen as instruments for learning and assessing language performance, but they are considered as objectives in their own right. Furthermore, the description of mediation in the CEFR approximates these activities and strategies to those of professional interpreters and translators, for example 4.4.4.1: simultaneous interpretation (conferences, meetings, formal speeches, etc.)” and “consecutive interpretation (speeches of welcome, guided tours, etc.)

or 4.4.4.2: exact translation (e.g. of contracts, legal and scientific texts, etc.)” and “literary translation (novels, drama, poetry, libretti, etc.).

When revising the goals to be achieved by learners in the foreign language classroom or in teacher training, it should be taken into consideration that “exact” translation is no longer an irrevocable option in professional fields. What may be true for many forms of translation to reduce costs is not so extensively practised with official documents. Many courts still demand exact translation of deeds, big companies call for the accurate translation of contracts. With the myriad of documents published by the EU, simplified versions of discussion papers or proposed laws may be sufficient for insiders. Official publications, however, are not simplified or adapted. A proof is the CEFR itself, which was translated into many languages (as most other publications with regard to the language policy of the Council of Europe and the EU). Be it as it may, foreign language methodology has to carefully consider whether and in what ways learning to interpret and translate, to summarize and paraphrase can benefit from translation studies. 10

Since 2002, scales for the levels A1, A2, B1 and B2 have existed for German as a foreign language (Glaboniat et al. 2002). These detailed scales, elaborated by experts of Goethe Institute, were completed (C1 and C2) in 2005 (Glaboniat et al. 2005).

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4 Current Mediating Activities in the Foreign Language Classroom 4.1 Definition of Mediation in Foreign Language Pedagogy In more than a decade since the advent of the CEFR, translating and interpreting activities in the school context are in general limited to informal mediation, at least as far as official curricula and publications in the field of foreign language methodology are concerned. This seems to be reasonable because “communicative translation” (Hallet 1995: 277) is rather challenging for language learners and their teachers as well. The term mediation (in German: Sprachmittlung) is generally defined as transfer of (selected) oral or written information from one language into another, taking the addressee(s), the sense, the purpose and the situation into account. The overall aim of a so defined mediation is to enable the interlocutors to benefit from information which they could otherwise not or only partly understand because they don’t know the respective foreign language(s) (cf. Philipp & Rauch 2010: 4). This definition shows that mediation is far more than helping a tourist to get along in a country whose language he or she only has some basic knowledge of. An example will show the wide range of current mediating activities in the classroom.

4.2 An Example of Written Mediation in a School Context The mediation task: Un dessinateur de BD The following text is adapted from an article in Spiegel online11: Die Besessenheit des Art Spiegelman Der international bekannte und vielfach ausgezeichnete Comic-Künstler vergleicht die eigene Besessenheit mit der der Deutschen: besessen vom Thema Holocaust. In seinem weltberühmten Comic „Maus – Die Geschichte eines Überlebenden“ (“Maus. A survivor’s tale“) erzählt Spiegelman die Geschichte seiner Eltern, die mehrere Konzentrationslager überlebt haben. Sein älterer Bruder und die übrigen Verwandten wurden von den Nazis ermordet. Nach dem Krieg wanderten die Eltern zunächst nach Schweden aus, wo Art 1948 in Stockholm geboren wurde. 1951 ließen sich die Spiegelmans dauerhaft in New York nieder, dem der Künstler bis heute treu geblieben ist. „Maus“ wurde 1992 mit dem Pulitzer-Preis ausgezeichnet – als erster Comic überhaupt. Das liegt nicht zuletzt an der vielschichtigen Struktur dieser Graphic Novel: Spiegelman schildert nicht einfach nur das schreckliche Geschehen: Er fügt eigene Reaktionen ein und zeigt den Vater auch als wohlhabenden, unglücklichen alten Mann. Ein Kunstgriff, der auf Spiegelmans Humor hinweist, besteht darin, dass er seinem Comic die Form einer Fabel gibt: Die Juden sind die Mäuse und die Deutschen die Katzen. Auch für die anderen Nationen hat Spiegelmann Tiere gewählt: Hunde für die US-Amerikaner, Frösche für die Franzosen, und Schweine für die Polen – aufgebrachte Polen haben Spiegelmans Werk öffentlich verbrannt. Überhaupt ist der Humor ein prägender Charakterzug des Künstlers: Wenn er in der Greene Street in Soho, Lower Manhattan, etwas zum Essen kaufen will, kann es schon vorkommen, dass das italienische 11

www.spiegel.de 15-10-2008; 06-10-2013 47

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Lebensmittelgeschäft von einem zum anderen Tag einem Schuhladen weichen musste. „Dann esse ich eben Schuhe!“ sagt Spiegelman lachend. Ohne seine Distanz zu den Dingen hätte er einen weiteren Schicksalsschlag nicht überwinden können. Im Jahre 1968 beging seine Mutter, die sich niemals von den traumatischen Erlebnissen im Konzentrationslager erholt hat, Selbstmord - ohne irgendeine Nachricht zu hinterlassen. Art Spiegelman hätte erwartet, dass sie ihn von Schuld freispricht oder aber, dass sie in einem Abschiedsbrief gesagt hätte: „Wenn Du Dir öfter die Zähne geputzt hättest, würde ich noch leben.“ Aber dieses ‚tödliche‘ Schweigen, das durch nichts mehr zu durchbrechen war, traf ihn zutiefst. Das dunkle Geschehen hat er in dem kurzen Comic „Gefangener auf dem Höllenplaneten“ (“Prisoner on the Hell Planet“) aufgearbeitet. Auch wenn der Holocaust das Thema seines Lebens ist und Spiegelman deshalb gern mit Deutschen spricht, ist er durch und durch New Yorker. Hier lebt er, hier zeichnet er, hier hält ergleichsam die Linse, durch die er die Welt sieht, auf vergangene und aktuelle Ereignisse und verdichtet sie zu komplexen Graphic Novels. Schon kurz nach dem Anschlag vom 11. September 2001 auf das World Trade Center entstand aus Protest gegen die Politik der Bush-Administration die zehnteilige Comic-Serie “In the Shadow of No Towers“, die unter dem Titel „Im Schatten keiner Türme“ in der deutschen Wochenzeitung Die Zeit veröffentlicht wurde. Irgendwie erinnert Spiegelmans Streitbarkeit an die Positionen des über 90 Jahre alten Stéphane Hessel: Er hat als einziger aus seiner Familie unter wirklich grauenhaften Umständen den Holocaust überlebt und lebt in Frankreich. In seiner 2010 erschienenen kurzen Streitschrift ruft er uns zu: « Indignez-vous » („Empört Euch!“).

Description of the mediation task: Ton ami français, Émanuel, est un fan des bandes dessinées, surtout de celles de Art Spiegelman, un Américain juif d’origine allemande. Émanuel t’a envoyé comme pièce jointe l’article ci-dessus. Il voudrait savoir les informations les plus importantes et surtout les détails qui concernent le rapport de Spiegelman avec les Allemands. Travaillez en équipe de trois ou quatre. Lisez d’abord le texte (chacun pour soi) et notez en marge de chaque paragraphe un mot-clé ou un titre. De quoi parle le journaliste ? Comparez (et, peut-être, améliorez) vos notes. Sans doute, selon le journaliste, tous les détails servent à caractériser Spiegelman. Mais sont-ils tous intéressants pour Émanuel ? 

Qu’est-ce qu’on pourrait omettre dans le courriel à l’ami français ?



Quelles informations ne devraient être mentionnées que brièvement ?

 Quels passages du texte sont vraiment intéressants pour Emanuel (et, donc, à traiter plus en détails) ? Après avoir comparé la liste de votre équipe avec celle d’une autre équipe ou en discutant en plénière, écrivez ensemble le courriel (une version par équipe). Il n’est pas nécessaire de formuler toujours des phrases complètes ; parfois, il suffit d’énumérer les points que vous avez choisis. Corrigez vos courriels (par ex. à l’aide d’un dico et/ou de votre professeur) et exposez les versions finales en classe. Sont-elles semblables ou différentes ? Pourquoi diffèrent-elles ? Parlez-en en plénière.

This mediation task was an assignment students did in seat work. The following solution (Grade 10, French: second foreign language taught since grade 6) shows in what way a student summarized and paraphrased an article of a German online magazine for his Jewish friend in France. According to the learner, he searched the Internet for information and entered some formulations in a search engine. He corrected the final version with a French spelling program.

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Solution of the task Cher Émanuel, merci beaucoup de ton courriel. J’étais très content d’avoir de tes nouvelles. C’est avec beaucoup d’intérêt que j’ai lu l’article que tu m’as envoyé en pièce jointe. Je ne connaissais que le nom de ce dessinateur de BD. Mais tu es un expert ; c’est pourquoi j’omets tous les détails biographiques (origine, destin de la famille, l’émigration) et les références au contenu de « Maus ». Savais-tu que le prix Pulitzer que Spiegelman a remporté était le premier attribué pour une Bande Dessinée et que les Polonais ont brûlé le livre publiquement parce que Spiegelman les a représentés comme des cochons dans sa fable ? Le journaliste allemand donne un exemple de l’humour du dessinateur dans la vie quotidienne à New York, ville en changement perpétuel. Mais l’auteur de l’article voit dans ce sens de l’humour et de la distance surtout le moyen par lequel Spiegelman a réussi à surmonter un terrible choc, le suicide de sa mère. Tu connais sans doute la BD « Prisoner on the Hell Planet »dans laquelle le dessinateur aborde un sujet encore plus terrible, le fait que sa mère n’a laissé aucun message pour le consoler ou même pour l’accuser. Spiegelman ajoute qu’elle aurait pu dire : « Si tu t’étais lavé les dents plus souvent, je serais encore en vie » – autre signe de l’humour de l’artiste. L’engagement politique de Spiegelman qui ne se limite pas à l’Holocauste est important pour le journaliste. Il prend position face à l’actualité mondiale, mais surtout à celle de New York, par exemple avec la BD « In the Shadow of No Towers » publiée peu après le 11 septembre par l’hebdomadaire « Die Zeit » en Allemagne. L’engagement politique et le destin de la famille sont probablement les ressemblances que le journaliste voit entre Spiegelman et Stéphane Hessel, un survivant de l’Holocauste. Amicalement, Daniel

This example shows that (informal) mediation is rather a complex task. The greatest challenge is to decide what is important for the addressee, what can be left out and what has to be translated in a more or less “exact” way. Even in the informal context of the task above, it would be of great help for the learners to know that there were different ways of translating and interpreting the same source text. Nord’s claim for “knowledge of the most important approaches to Translation Studies and of their application to the practice of translation” (Nord 1977: 122; see Chapter 1 above) is rather justified. It is even more reasonable for advanced foreign language learners who want to study abroad and / or prepare for a job in a multilingual context.

5

Concepts of Translation and Interpretation

5.1 The Emergence of Translation Studies as an Academic Discipline Although translation (cf. footnote 2), comprising translation and interpretation (cf. Kade 1968: p. 35 and passim), had been practised for millennia, a scientific interest in products and processes of translation did not emerge in Europe and the entire West before the 1950s (Munday 2010: 420, also for the following). Earlier writings, from the observations of Cicero, Horace and St Jerome in Ancient times to those of Martin Luther and particularly Friedrich Schleiermacher only form part of the history of translation studies. The main focus of these essays is on the question whether a translation should be ‘literal’ or ‘free’. 49

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This dichotomy was influenced by the fact that translation was crucial for the spread of Christianity and that the relationship between source text and target text was, thus, of paramount importance. Therefore, it is hardly surprising that the emergent discipline of translation studies was dominated by (linguistic equivalence). In the past, translation studies favoured linguistic approaches. For several decades, the new discipline had been dominated by language pairing, i.e. the analysis of lexical and grammatical structures of two languages, e.g. English and German or Spanish and French. It is evident that translation activities, as learning aids in the foreign language classroom and the university training of (future) language teachers, followed similar linguistic options. A key term of these contrastive-linguistic approaches is equivalence. As lexical and structural comparisons proved inapplicable to translation or even non-productive, it was mainly Koller who offered a more differentiated model of equivalence (Koller 51997: passim). He distinguishes between five types of equivalence, i.e. 1. denotative, 2. connotative, 3. text normative, 4. pragmatic and 5. formal aesthetic equivalence, leaving it to the translator to choose which type and which degree of equivalence to prefer when confronted with certain translation problems. It is quite evident that Koller’s typology is inspired by literary translation. The fact that the awareness of the role of equivalence in literary translation is important for foreign language learners is underscored by the following problem-based activity in a translation course at Kassel University (Germany). Students – future teachers of French as a foreign language – compared excerpts of French novels with German translations. One example referred to the novel Syngué sabour – Pierre de patience by Atiq Rahimi, an Afghan author living in France. His first novels were written in his mother tongue Persian (Farsi). With Syngué sabour – Pierre de patience he started publishing in French and immediately won the prestigious literary prize Prix Goncourt in 2008. The novel was translated into German by Lis Künzli (2011). [A wife is keeping watch over her deathly ill, unconscious husband.] Confuse, elle se retourne, revient à sa place pour jeter un regard sur la page ouverte du Coran. Elle vérifie. « Seize jours … aujourd’hui c’est le seizième nom de Dieu que je dois citer. Al-Qahhâr, le Dominateur. Voilà, c’est bien ça, le seizième nom … » Pensive. « Seize jours ! » Elle recule. « Seize jours que je vis au rythme de ton souffle. » Agressive. « Seize jours que je respire avec toi. » Elle fixe l’homme. « Je respire comme toi, regarde. » Elle aspire l’air profondément, puis l’expire douloureusement. Au même rythme que lui. « Même si je n’ai pas la main sur ta poitrine, je peux maintenant respirer comme toi. » Elle se courbe vers lui. « Et même si je ne suis pas à tes côtés, je respire au même rythme que toi. « Elle s’écarte de lui. « Tu m’entends ?“ Elle lance des cris: « Al-Qahhâr », et recommence à égrener le chapelet. Toujours à la même cadence. Elle sort de la pièce. On l’entend : « Al-Qahhâr, Al-Qahhâr … » dans le couloir et ailleurs … « Al-Qahhâr … » s’éloigne. « Al-Qahhâr … » devient faible. « Al … » imperceptible. Disparaît.

(Rahimi 2008: p. 21)

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German translation: Verwirrt dreht sie sich um und kehrt an ihren Platz zurück, um einen Blick in den aufgeschlagenen Koran zu werfen. Sie vergewissert sich. „Sechzehn Tage … heute ist es der sechzehnteName Gottes, den ich aufsagen muss. Al-Qahhar, der Überlegene. Doch, doch, genau, der sechzehnte Name…“ Nachdenklich. „Sechzehn Tage!“ Sie weicht zurück. „Sechzehn Tage, die ich im Rhythmus deines Atems lebe.“ Aggressiv. „Sechzehn Tage, die ich mit dir atme.“ Sie fixiert den Mann. „Ich atme wie du, schau!“ Sie saugt die Luft tief ein, atmet sie schmerzlich wieder aus. Im selben Rhythmus wie er. „Inzwischen kann ich sogar atmen wie du, wenn meine Hand nicht auf deiner Brust liegt.“ Sie beugt sich zu ihm. „Und selbst wenn ich nicht bei Dir bin, atme ich im selben Rhythmus wie du.“ Sie rückt etwas von ihm ab. „Hörst du mich?“ Sie fängt an zu schreien: „Al-Qahhar, Al-Qahhar, …“ und betet wieder die Gebetskette herunter. Immer im selben Takt. Sie verlässt das Zimmer. Ihr „Al- Qahhar, Al-Qahhar, …“ ist erst im Flur, dann weiter weg zu hören … „Al-Qahhar…“ entfernt sich. „Al-Qahhar…“ wird schwächer. „Al-Qahhar…“ undeutlich. (Rahimi 2011, pp. 24-25)12

Verstummt.

Before reading the translation, every student made his own German version of the French text. Comparing their translations to the version by Liz Künzli, they realized that equivalence did not cause great problems, besides one word: le Dominateur translated by der Überlegene in Künzli's version. For the students, the connotations of the two words were quite different and they asked themselves how the German translator arrived at der Überlegene. So they entered Al-Quahhar in a search engine and discovered that the proposed English translation was very close to dominator. They hypothesized that Künzli chose der Überlegene in order not to denigrate Islam. Another hypothesis contributed much more to their learning about equivalence and literary translation. Invited by the teacher to reflect why, in their opinion, their versions were not far away from that of a professional translator, they found out that Rahimi, with the transition from Persian (Farsi) to French, did no longer write for an Afghan public but tried to explain Afghan life, mentality and culture to French (and other European) readers through his novels. Students of Turkish origin confirmed this view.

12

English translation (by Polly McLean:) Confused, she turns around, returns to her spot an glances at the open page of the Koran. Checks. ‘Sixteen days … so today it is the sixteenth name of God that I am supposed to chant. Al-Qahhar, the Dominant. Yes, that’s right, that is the sixteenth name …’ Thoughtful: ‘Sixteen days!’ She takes a step back. ‘Sixteen days that I’ve been existing in time with your breath.’ Hostile: ‘Sixteen days that I’ve been breathing with you!’ She stares at the man. ‘Look, I breathe just like you!’ She takes a deep breath in, exhales it laboriously. In time with him. ‘Even without my hand on your chest, I still breathe like you.’ She bends over him. ‘And even when I’m not near you, I still breathe in time with you.’ She backs away from him. ‘Do you hear me?’ She starts shouting ‘Al-Qahhar’, and telling the prayer beads again, still to the same rhythm. She walks out of the room. We hear her shouting, ‘Al-Qahhar, Al-Qahhar …’ in the passage and beyond … ‘Al-Qahhar …’ moves away. ‘Al-Qahhar …’ becomes faint. ‘Al …’ Imperceptible. Is gone. (Rahimi 2011: pp. 7-8)

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When comparing the original version of a novel with translations, the difference between the source and the target text increases with the differences between the cultures involved. This can be seen when confronting Orhan Pamuk’s Turkish novel Kar (2002) with the German translation (2005).

5.2 From the Cognitive to the Functionalist Approach From the outset of academic translation studies, especially from the late 1960s onwards, translation scholars have been interested in exploring not only the linguistic features of the translation product but also the processes that occur while translating, drawing on disciplines like cognitive psychology. The translation process is considered as a complex cognitive activity requiring a set of specific knowledge and abilities, mainly problem solving, decision making and the use of translation strategies (see Chapter 6, Translation Competence). Due to concomitant paradigm shifts caused by semiotic, cultural / intercultural and social turns13, different theoretical models were created. These shifts have led to revised objectives of foreign language methodology. With the increasing number of translations, particularly those of non-literary texts, translation studies began concentrating more and more on characteristics inherent in the target text. Formerly neglected ‘outward’ perspectives, especially the function of the translation in target cultural contexts, became more and more prominent. In the context of this more functional and sociocultural concept, translation means text production. Critics point out that adaptation can lead to an inadequate translation (Koller 2002: pp. 127-129). Coping with the myriad of diversified texts coming up through globalized digital media, such considerations do not lead to realistic objectives, neither in translation studies nor in the field of foreign language methodology.

5.3 Translation in Times of (Web)Globalization The debate about adaptation, more precisely about coherence of function or functional changes, becomes obsolete when translating and interpreting activities focus on localisation. Language localisation, in reality delocalisation, is the process of translating a product into different languages or adapting it for a specific country or region. Examples of localisation are computer software, video games, movies or television series which have to be adapted so that they “function” in several parts of the world. A particular type of localisation is the immediate translation of a website. A huge majority of current translation activities are concerned with non-literary texts, especially with the localisation of products. Shreve14 focuses on the obvious evolution of 13

Translation Studies are often referred to as interdisciplinary approaches. Even though Methodology may be more homogenous, it is not less interdisciplinary than translation theories. ‘Interdisciplinarity’, in current scientific contexts, is a characteristic trait of most fields of the Humanities and even of a great part of the Natural Sciences. 14 Gregory M. Shreve is professor at the Institute of Applied Linguistics, Kent State University, Ohio, which,

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translation and interpretation caused by globalisation. In the last decades, the advent of new texts was mostly caused by radio, film and television. In recent times, cyber-media brought up new electronic text forms with an enormous impact on translation. What formerly was called translation service has developed into huge language industries comprising producers (of source texts, e.g. enterprises, organisations), providers (not only translators, but also experts concerned with editing, proofing, writing), trainers, tool makers of specialised language processing tools (including terminology managers, machine translation tools and corpora managers) and facilitators, i.e. standards and norms. The following summary of Shreve is, in the author's opinion, valid not only for professionals but also for lay persons, such as foreign language learners and users, engaged in translation and interpretation. It is a viable basis for having a closer look at sub-competences that, in different combinations and constellations, constitute translation competence today. The increasing volume of information, growing differentiation of text / document types, the explosion of specialized terminologies and usages, the diversification of distribution media and the increasing digitization of information have literally transformed the context in which the profession of translation exists. As a result, the profession has been forced to change (Shreve 2000: 225). More than before, in times of globalisation and digitisation, translation and interpretation call for creative transpositions to be accomplished not only by professionals but also by lay persons.

6 Translation Competence: a Cluster of Sub-Competences This chapter has at least five objectives. Translation Competence is described as a combination of knowledge, ability and attitude. The ways mediation competence has been defined in the field of Foreign Language up to now will be delineated. These definitions, mostly in form of strategies, follow a broad concept of competence. However, they are not specific enough to allow for translation activities in the foreign language classroom that cover the future needs of language learners and users in times of internationalisation and globalisation (6.2). On the basis of an example drawn from vocational education and training (VET), new challenging goals are illustrated that go beyond the informal interpreting and translating by lay persons. In many professional contexts, foreign language learners and users will need formal or at least semi-formal translation and interpretation skills (cf. section 2.4: Nord 1997: 117). apart from the Monterey Institute of International Studies, is the leading U.S. institution concerned with the training of translators and interpreters.

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It is worthwhile to consider the natural translation ability of bilinguals who receive no special training. But these “natural” translation skills are no longer sufficient. Furthermore, mediation sub-competences of learners and users are already part of current training programmes. As they should be trained in more differentiated ways in the foreign language classroom, a closer look at competence models of translation studies is useful in order to specify the necessary mediation competence in the field of foreign language teaching and learning. An updated and enlarged model of Mediation Competence of foreign language learners and users will be proposed.

6.1 Broad Concepts of Translation Competence In translation studies as well as in foreign language methodology, translation competence – according to more recent concepts (Lersch 2007: 36 on the basis of Weinert 1999) – can be defined as a cluster of knowledge, skills or abilities that enable a person to act effectively and responsibly in everyday situations as well as on the job. Content-related knowledge and intellectual abilities, e.g. knowledge of the most important approaches to translation studies and of their application to the practice of translation (Nord 1997: 122), do not suffice to guarantee performance quality and quantity. Competence must be completed by meta-competence, i.e. the skills to apply sub-competences to a concrete task, to consciously monitor one’s own behaviour during problem solving phases and to become more and more aware of one’s actions. Furthermore, competence-related motivation plays a crucial role in actual problem solving behaviour and in the long-term acquisition of expertise. Beyond knowledge and skills, translation competence is based on an attitude towards the necessity and utility of translation and interpretation in modern societies forged by migration, globalisation and digitisation. (cf. details in section 6.5: A Model of Mediation Competence: Attitude).

6.2 Mediation Competence in Foreign Language Methodology Although Wolfgang Hallet already in 1995 considered translating and interpreting as communicative goals of foreign language teaching and learning, it took more than a decade until he tried a more specified definition of the sub-competences of Mediation. 6. In

2008 he defined interlingual mediation competence (“Interlinguale Sprachkompetenz”) on the basis of the CEFR as a complex communication task which combines personal, social, interactional and intercultural competences. Hallet’s distinction between (professional) translation (according to him, literal translation and interpretation in formal contexts) and mediation is rather obsolete nowadays (see above). Furthermore, the four sub-competences described by Hallet are too generic as to really facilitate the teaching and learning of mediation skills in 54

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the foreign language classroom. They refer to the overall aim of intercultural communication competence. Hallet (2008: pp. 4) differentiates between the following sub-competences: 7. linguistic-communicative competence 8. intercultural competence 9. interactional competence 10. strategic-methodological competence. In foreign language methodology, great attention is paid to interactional competence illustrating the role of the mediator in the triad (cf. Knapp 42006). Taking as a starting point the description of the CEFR (4.4.4; see Chapter 4.3), referring to the “neutrality” of the intermediary, the ability of a foreign language learner and user mediating in informal contexts consists in being able to comprehend the demands and particularities of the social situation as well as the relationship of the interlocutors, their objectives, interests and sometimes their previous knowledge. This requires a considerable amount of empathy of others’ positions and the ability to mediate in an accurate way, taking into account the cultural positioning of both interlocutors. In this sense interactional and intercultural competence are entwined. Hallet (2008: 6) himself is aware of the fact that the four subcompetences refer to any type of intercultural communication. It is probably this lack of specific characteristics that may induce foreign language teachers to focus more on strategies and tasks and to limit mediation strategies to informal translation and interpretation (Rössler 2009). A strategy, however, is a means to an end, i.e. clear objectives are needed before suitable strategies to meet these goals can be described.

6.3 Mediation Competence in Vocational Education and Training (VET) As aforementioned, the authors of the CEFR invite the users of the framework “to consider and where appropriate state the mediating activities in which the learner will need / be equipped / be required to engage” (Council of Europe 2001: 88). The CEFR proposes a wide range of competence reaching from informal translation and interpretation in everyday contexts to formal mediation activities. Up to now, the whole field of VET has only received marginal attention in foreign language teaching and learning. A borderline seems to separate informal mediation tasks that every foreign language learner and user may need and formal translation on the job left to professional translators and interpreters. The overall objective of the present article is a plea for at least semi-formal mediation competence which every foreign language learner and user, being trained in adequate strategies in the foreign language classroom, should acquire step by step. With the following example taken from an English lesson in a vocational school, the necessity of (semi-)formal training of language learners and users is to be underscored. The activity is taken from a unit entitled: How to deal with complaints? (CEFR B1) (De Florio-Hansen 2013a): 55

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 The Context of the Unit: a Simulation Nina Seidl and Aryan Avendi work together in the office of HighTechSolar, a worldwide operating German company that produces solar collectors. In comparison to Nina Seidl, who finished her vocational training only some month ago, the young man from India has a longer experience with business relationships due to the background of his family, his studies and his working period / experience in Great Britain. In general, we can expect him to be more conciliatory than Nina because of its Asian origin. In dealing with complaints - justified or unjustified -, Aryan will be more professional, more factual and more considerate. Nina, on the other hand, has an undeniable asset, her mediation ability. She translates from German into English and vice versa. Activity:

Damaged goods – how to formulate a written complaint We are sorry to inform you, but … – writing a complaint via e-mail

Task 1 On checking the delivery of an Asian supplier, Mr Lehmann, the sales manager of HighTechSolar, found that most goods were unusable. As he wanted to complain immediately, he called Nina and Aryan to his office. Please, help Nina to translate Mr Lehmann’s specifications into English so that Aryan can take notes. Vocabulary: to meet sth. or to correspond to sth. (etw. entsprechen); due to sth. (zurückzuführen auf etw.); replacement (Ersatz, Ersatzlieferung); to enclose sth. (etwas beifügen)

Mr Lehmann: Insgesamt entsprechen die gelieferten Waren nicht unseren Qualitätsstandards. …………………………………………………………………………………………………. Mr L.: 3 Items sind kaputt und 10 sind verkratzt. …………………………………………………………………………………………………......................... Mr L.: 2 weitere Items sind feucht geworden und verschmutzt. …………………………………………………………………………………………………......................... Mr L.: Das ist auf mangelnde Verpackung zurückzuführen. …………………………………………………………………………………………………......................... Mr L.: Wir dokumentieren das alles durch Fotos, die wir beifügen. …………………………………………………………………………………………………......................... Mr L.: Wir erwarten schnellstens Ersatz. Außerdem soll die Firma uns sagen, was wir mit den beschädigten Waren machen sollen. …………………………………………………………………………………………………......................... Mr L.: Es sollte deutlich werden, dass wir die Geschäftsbeziehung nicht fortsetzen, wenn die Ersatzlieferung nicht zu unserer Zufriedenheit ausfällt.

Task 2: Write a draft of an e-mail complaint to Mr Chung on the basis of Aryan’s notes. Work in pairs: – – – – – – –

delivered goods do not meet the quality standards of HTS; 3 items broken, 10 scratched; further 2 items damaged by moisture and dirt; the damages are caused because of poor packing; enclosure: photographs; request of immediate replacement of the damaged goods; what to do with the damaged items? If next delivery not to full satisfaction, HTS will not continue the business relationship with the supplier.

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To: [email protected] From: [email protected] Subject: complaint, order no. 16459 Dear Mr Chung We are sorry to inform you, but …………………………………………………………….................................................................

Task 3: As the complaints are numerous, it would be better to give the body of the e-mail a clearer structure. Please add expressions like: first, second, third, fourth or first of all, second / secondly etc. and rewrite the whole e-mail complaint in your notebook.

Solution of the task In the following, the solution elaborated by a student tandem in a vocational school in the context of dual vocational education and training in Germany is reproduced: To: [email protected] From: [email protected] Subject: complaint, order no. 16459 Dear Mr Chung We are sorry to tell you that on checking the delivered goods we have several complaints. First of all, the goods do not meet our quality requirements. Furthermore, we found that 3 items are broken, 10 are scratched, 2 are damaged by moisture and dirt because of insufficient packing. We regret to inform you that the delivered goods are unusable. Please find enclosed photographs of the damaged items for your information. We are holding them for your instructions. Please let us know by return when you will replace the damaged items. If you want us to continue our new business relationship, we shall expect your immediate action. Markus Lehmann Sales Manager HighTechSolar AG Heinrich-Hertz-Str. 29 D – 34123 Kassel Germany [email protected]

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It may be asked if this is not too demanding an objective for (advanced) learners in the “ordinary” foreign language classroom. In the author's opinion, it is not demanding at all. Most students in German vocational schools start at best with CEFR level A2. Another question that may be asked is about the content of the unit: Why should a foreign language learner deal with complaints? With the increase of Internet shopping – to think of only one example – most consumers will sooner or later be confronted with writing a complaint in English. The success, i.e. the disponibility of the trader to correspond to our requests, will in large measure depend on the grade of formality we will be able to express.

6.4 Translation Competence and Sub-Competences In general, all interlingual and intercultural communication has to take into account the (cultural) environment, the particular circumstances, the sphere of life (personal, official, professional), the field of communicative activity (e.g. a debate, a phone call, small talk) as well as the roles and functions of the interaction partners. A further implication of the above considerations is a preference for top-down strategies (bottom-up processes being a characteristic of translation theories based mainly on formal linguistics and language pairing). What are, then, the differences between the competence of a professional translator and interpreter and that of a foreign language learner and user? Shreve (1997: 120) subsumes translation competence under the general heading of Communication Competence. This specialized form of Communication Competence “is both knowing about translation and about knowing how to do translation” (Shreve 1997: 120). Already in the 1970s, professional translation competence was compared to the natural translation competence of bilinguals, the latter being considered as a by-product of evolving bilingualism (Harris 1977). Shreve points out the different function-form combinations of translation competence and continues: “Natural translation is a result of a translation ability evidenced by bilinguals communicating in real mediating situations. This kind of translation […] is sense oriented.” (Shreve 1997: 122). As aforementioned, this by-product of bilingualism is not trained, but it can be considered as the basis of every type of translation training. A great number of models of Translation Competence were developed, drawing on different disciplines such as applied linguistics, cognitive psychology and pedagogy, Most of them are componential models with different accentuations of the core components of translation competence. In the following, the model of the PACTE group (2003) will be described for two reasons: Firstly, it is one of the few models based on (greater) empirical research. Secondly, as it comprises many sub-competences, it allows for partial application to mediation in foreign language methodology more than is the case for minimalist conceptualizations such as the model by Pym (2003) based on only two skills: “the ability to generate a series of more than one viable target text for a pertinent source text, and the ability to select only one target text from this series” (Hurtado Albir 2010: 58). In 2003, after six years of research, the PACTE (Process in the Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation) group presented a revised holistic translation competence model, which is made up of five sub-competences (PACTE group 2003: pp. 58-59): 58

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 1. Bilingual sub-competence: pragmatic, socio-linguistic, textual, grammatical and lexical knowledge in the two languages plus inference control when alternating between the two languages; 2. Extra-linguistic sub-competence: bicultural knowledge, encyclopedic knowledge (about the world in general), subject knowledge (in special areas); 3. Knowledge about translation sub-competence: mainly knowledge about how translation functions; 4. Instrumental sub-competence: knowledge related to the use of documentation sources and information and communication technologies applied to translation; 5. Strategic sub-competence: procedural knowledge to guarantee the efficiency of the translation process and solve the problems encountered: a. to plan the process and carry out the translation project; b. to evaluate the process and partial results obtained in relation to the final purpose; c. to activate the different sub-competences and compensate for deficiencies in them; d. to identify translation problems and apply procedures to solve them.

In addition, the researchers of PACTE include psycho-physiological components such as memory and emotion, intellectual curiosity, critical spirit and confidence in one’s own abilities, creativity and logical reasoning (e.g. Kelly 2010a: pp. 89-90). The PACTE group (2003: p. 58) defines translation competence as the underlying system of knowledge needed to translate. “It includes declarative and procedural knowledge, but the procedural knowledge is predominant” (PACTE group 2003: p. 58). Particular attention is given to the strategic sub-competence “that affects all the others and causes interrelations amongst them because it controls the translation process” (PACTE group 2003: p. 59). Although between the conceptualizations of translation competence in the different disciplines, there are differences in detail, the overall similarities become more and more evident. This is, on the one hand, due to the changes in professional translation and interpretation caused by globalisation. On the other hand, the growing importance of mediation competence of lay persons calls for more challenging goals in the field of foreign language methodology.

6.5 A Revised Model of Mediation Competence in Foreign Language Learning The aim of the preceding chapters was to show that foreign language methodology can benefit from translation studies for two main reasons: In the field of professional translation, the purposes of target texts have become more and more prominent and often cause changes or even adaptations of the source text in order to reach the addressees of the respective target cultures. This fact brought about a more flexible attitude of professional translators and interpreters (De Florio-Hansen 2013b). At the same time, foreign language learners and users are no longer limited to the natural translation ability of bi- or trilingual people. In the aftermath of the CEFR, mediation tasks - often in form of simulations - have become part of foreign language teaching and learning focusing on informal talks between lay persons. These evolutions call for more specified definitions of the mediation competence of foreign language learners and users. In the author's perspective, the curricular goals fixed for 59

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mediation should go beyond more or less general descriptions of communication (cf. Chapter 6.2; e. g. Hallet 2008). Knowledge, skills / ability and attitude ought to be more clearly specified with regard to translating and interpreting. Declarative knowledge has to be automatized so that learners can apply their knowledge about translation and interpretation in a more or less effortless way, i.e. it has to be transformed into skills and ability. This is what the scholars of the PACTE group describe as “procedural knowledge” (cf. Chapter 6.4). Knowledge and skills / ability, however, are not a sufficient prerequisite for satisfying mediation. Furthermore, the way to communicative success in mediation activities is not only paved with good intentions, but it is grounded in empathy and respect of others and the firm will to contribute to interlingual and intercultural communication. Models of translation competence elaborated by translation scholars (cf. Chapter 6.4) are taken as a basis for the following proposal of a revised model of mediation competence in foreign language teaching and learning. Although the three components of (any) competence are inextricably entwined, they will be separated in order to allow for a stepby-step learning and training (Figure 1). Since ancient times, translation and interpretation have contributed to the evolution of mankind. Translation facilitates communication and, what is more, it offers insights into cultures different from one’s own (Kontrast-Kultur in Mudersbach's (2002: 170) German terminology. According to Mudersbach (2002: 188), every community and every individual needs at least one other cultural system in order to shape individual and collective identities. Multilingualism in Europe, as in most globalized societies, thus, requires translators and interpreters – professionals or lay persons – aware of their eminent cultural and social function.

7 Translation Methodology Although we can state an approximation of translation studies and foreign language Methodology with regard to the definitions of translation and mediation competence and the respective sub-competences, it is difficult for foreign language teachers to benefit from the professional training of interpreters and translators. Up to the present day, foreign language teaching and learning cannot draw on methodologies developed during the past few decades by scholars of translation studies. This does not mean that there are not methods worthwhile to be taken into consideration, but the different forms of education and training of professionals suffer from a lack of transparency. There is no systematic approach and no general curriculum of translation methodology (cf. Chapter 7.2). What is even more problematic is the fact that translation studies did not develop graded can do descriptions. In general, there is very little research done by translation scholars that even mentions the chapter about mediation in the CEFR.

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Mediation Competence of (Second / Foreign) Language Learners and Users

Knowledge Foreign language learners and users - know that there are different approaches to translation; - know that the same source text can be translated and interpreted in different ways; - know that comprehension depends on the cultural background of the interlocutors involved in the mediation activity; - are aware of the fact that there are close to never one-to-one correspondences between linguistic features of two languages; - know that communicative success, not equivalence, is the overall aim of mediation; - are aware of the impossibility and inadequacy of literal translation; - know that summarizing and paraphrasing are important activities in the mediation context; - know that there is a risk of inferences when alternating between two or three languages, - are aware that strategies are needed to gap their insufficient knowledge of the foreign language(s) concerned; - have adequate knowledge of the main web-based translation tools and documentation sources (besides print and online dictionaries).

Skills / Ability Foreign language learners and users - can, in a given informal or formal mediation activity, take the needs and interests of the addressee(s) or interlocutor(s) into adequate account; - can analyse the source text in order to prepare mediation; - are able to select, from an oral or written source, the units to be translated in a more or less “exact” way, those to be summarized or paraphrased and those to be left out with regard to the communicative affordances; - can, on the basis of the communication purpose, choose the adequate form of translation and interpretation regarding text type and genre; - can detect culture-bound expressions which need to be explained and / or commented; - can, if time permits and if necessary, take notes and / or prepare a glossary; - can use tools and sources in order to gap insufficient knowledge regarding language and culture; - are, especially in oral mediation, able to select the unit of interpretation by intervening between the turns or by limiting the utterances of the interlocutors in a polite way; - can, if necessary, ask the addressees or interlocutors for explanation of the meaning they want to convey; - can apply strategic sub-competence to identify translation problems and apply procedures to solve them; - have recourse to meta-cognitive sub-competence in order to evaluate the mediation process and the partial results obtained in relation to the purpose;

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 - are able to check the consistency of usage; - can bridge linguistic, cultural and situational gaps by reconciling differences; - can evaluate the congruence of two versions; - can draw on strategic and meta-cognitive sub-competences to activate the relations between all necessary sub-competences involved in the mediation processes of a given task.

Attitude Foreign language learners and users: - are willing to engage in translation and interpretation activities with the aim to facilitate intercultural communication; - have respect of others and do their best to understand the needs and interests of the counterparts that lack sufficient knowledge of the language(s) involved; - consider mediation as a support of others; they do not impose their opinions on the interlocutors or addressees; - have sufficient intellectual curiosity, creativity and emotion to engage in mediation; - have developed an adequate self-concept, e.g. are critical, but at the same time confident of their own abilities to perform the mediation tasks satisfactorily. Figure 1: Mediation Competence of Language Learners and Users

7.1 Graded Objectives to Reach Mediation Competence In general, at least at schools and universities, teaching and learning follow an explicit or implicit curriculum. Its design is based on links between planned intentions (expressed as objectives), course content, teaching and learning methods, and the assessment of student learning outcomes, taking into account student characteristics (Cannon & Newble 2000: pp. 142-143). In most European countries, efforts were made to deduct objectives for mediation from the CEFR and describe the many situations in which interlingual and intercultural transfer may occur. Teaching and learning methods are adapted from the various suggestions in foreign language curricula which, in general, follow the competence-based approach of the CEFR. During the last ten years, the assessment of mediation competence has been included in benchmarking tests and final examinations. As the CEFR does not contain illustrative scales (see above Chapter 3.3), these were elaborated in detail by experts of Goethe-Institute (Glabionat et al. 2005). General can do descriptors for German as a second or foreign language are always accompanied by concrete can do examples for each level of the CEFR from A1 to C2 (Glaboniat et al. 2005)15. Whereas the CEFR only distinguishes between interpretation (‘oral mediation’) 15

A1 (Glaboniat et al. 2005: pp. 114-115), A2 (Glaboniat et al. 2005: pp. 126-129), B1 (Glaboniat et al. 2005: 144-151), B2 (Glaboniat et al. 2005: 168-174), C1 Glaboniat et al. 2005: 189-194), C2 (Glaboniat et al. 2005:

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and translation (written mediation’), the can do descriptions of Goethe-Institute in addition differentiate between oral and written target texts and oral and written source texts, considering the multiple demands for mediation in globalized societies. The scales of Goethe-Institute also pay tribute to European multilingualism, including oral and written translation from or into languages other than the foreign language that is in the primary focus of the respective language class. The descriptions and examples of Goethe-Institute (Glaboniat et al. 2005: 173 f.) point out that there is more than interlingual and intercultural transfer in informal everyday situations to be incorporated in the mediation curriculum. The author's repeated pleas on this behalf are not to be taken as criticism of methodologists and teachers. Foreign language teaching and learning had a long way to go from translation as a learning aid and an assessment tool to mediation as an additional communication goal. Increasing internationalisation and globalisation in the decade after the publication of the CEFR, however, call for further steps toward formal mediation on the job to be carried out by foreign language learners and users, as professional translation can no longer be afforded in all situations in which language transfer is needed.

7.2 Training Designs for Professional Translators and Interpreters In translation studies, the process of designing training for students has not been carried out systematically (Kelly 2010a: 87), i.e. there are different approaches16. This is due to the fact that institutional translator training began only in the second half of the 20 th century, establishing programs in more and more countries. What exists is a collection of selfstanding courses and modules. Kelly (2010a: p. 87) describes the difficulties of establishing a coherent curriculum of translation and interpretation as follows: Some [programs] are fully integrated into the university system and thus linked to departments which also conduct research; these tend to include a higher portion of theoretical elements. Others are offered by institutions which do not belong entirely to the university system, granting vocational diploma which do not lead on to postgraduate education […] (Kelly 2010a: 87).

The aims of the programmes vary also from generalist training, to training in specific areas of translation (e. g., literary, technical, legal, audiovisual or screen translation). Length varies from short one year courses to long courses of up to five years. As in foreign language pedagogy, the approaches to professional translator training and education have evolved. Even though foreign language methodology has not been able to benefit from detailed features of translation methodology, there are nevertheless conformities between both disciplines with regard to broader methodological approaches. The following brief overview is limited to those concepts which closely resemble the

208-213). 16 The collection of teaching objectives formulated by Delisle (1993), who was inspired by the Canadian tradition of contrastivism, was probably too theoretical as to have a real impact on the practice of translator training and education.

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approaches practiced in the foreign language classroom during the past few decades (Kelly 2010b: 390 ff.): 

Learner-centered approaches underscore the importance of translation with a meaningful realistic purpose (Nord 1988 / 1991). Tasks should be authentic and as close as possible to real life.



Process-centered approaches are no longer (only) product-oriented, but emphasize the translation process, especially in the early stages of training (Gile 1995). Learners should be enabled to consider the processes that each of them goes through individually when engaged in interpretation and translation.



Cognitive and psycholinguistic approaches improve models of the translation process including affective factors and the self-concept of the translator (Kiraly 1995). Strategic and meta-cognitive competences do not only refer to the process and product of translation itself, but learners should become more and more aware of the aforementioned attitudes towards interlingual and intercultural communication.



Task-based approaches draw on task-based learning, “well established in foreign language learning” (Kelly 2010b: p. 394), and have developed a great variety of outcome-oriented activities (Hurtado Albir 1999). This is a claim for tasks which follow the task cycle and comprise a wide range of activities wide-spread in theory and practice of foreign language methodology.



Sociocultural approaches advocate collaborative and project-based learning referring to earlier situational approaches (Kiraly 2000). In foreign language classrooms, cooperative and project-based learning should represent the greatest part of mediation activities.

What, in the author's opinion, is missing is a competence-oriented approach, developed out of task-based, situational and sociocultural learning. The efforts of foreign language methodology in this direction might be supported by a respective (holistic) model for professional translator training and education.

8 Conclusion There is an imperative necessity of more reflection in both disciplines accompanied by empirical research. Malmkjær (2010) concludes her article, entitled “Language learning and translation”, with a statement of interest for foreign language methodology: It would be valuable to have results of studies examining the use of properly situated translation and even interpreting tasks in language classrooms ( Malmkjær 2010: 189).

In order to prepare language learners for a wide range of informal and formal mediation, foreign language teaching and learning should pay more attention to the following objectives:

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

Translation theories and their application in practice should enter the curricula of language methodology.



Existing task formats of professional translator training can contribute to the creation of more challenging mediation activities.



Comparing the details of the sub-competences in both disciplines may help foreign language methodology to focus on sub-competence components relevant to more realistic mediation activities (cf. 6.5).



Foreign language learners and users will benefit especially from components of (professional) strategic competence.



Translation studies should elaborate can do descriptions at least for three levels (A, B, C) in order to create greater transparency.



Community Interpreting effectuated by the children of migrants should be incorporated in foreign language classrooms, at least in those with a relevant number of students of foreign descent.

These objectives are of essential importance both for research and practical teaching.

References Ahamer, Vera (2012). Unsichtbare Spracharbeit. Jugendliche Migranten als Laiendolmetscher. Integration durch “Community Interpreting”. Bielefeld: transcript. Baker, Mona & Saldanha, Gabriela (eds.) (22009). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London & New York: Routledge.

Bausch, Karl-Richard et al. (eds.) (2002). Der Gemeinsame europäische Referenzrahmen in der Diskussion. Tübingen: Narr. Camerer, Rudi Cornelsen.

& Mader, Judith (2012). Intercultural Competence in Business English. Berlin et al.:

Cannon, Robert & Newble, David (2000). A Handbook for Teachers in Universities and Colleges. London: Kogan Page. Chen, Weiwei (2012). Nicht-professionelles Gesprächsdolmetschen in deutsch-chinesischen Mehr-ParteienInteraktionen: Eine gesprächsanalytische Untersuchung. München: iudicium. Cieplinska, Agniezka (2007). Verständigung im gedolmetschten Gespräch: Probleme, ihre Ursachen und Bearbeitungsstrategien. Saarbrücken: Dr. Müller. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. De Florio-Hansen, Inez (2013a): How to deal with complaints – writing adequate letters and e-mails. Stuttgart: Raabe.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 De Florio-Hansen, Inez (2013b): Sprachmittlung in alltagsweltlicher Kommunikation. Eine komplexe Herausforderung für Fremdsprachenlehrer und -lerner. In Reimann, Daniel & Rössler, Andrea (eds.)Sprachmittlung im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Tübingen: Narr, 65-92. Delisle, Jean (1993). La traduction raisonnée. Manuel d’initiation à la traduction professionnelle de l’anglais vers le français. Ottawa: Université d’Ottawa.

European Commission (2012). The Status of the Translation Profession in the European Union. Studies on translation and multilingualism 7/2012 (Final Report, 24 July 2012). Strasbourg: European Commission. Gile, Daniel (1995). Basic Concepts and Models for Interpreter and Translator Training. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Glaboniat, Manuela et al. (2002). Profile deutsch. Gemeinsamer europäischer Referenzrahmen. Berlin & München: Langenscheidt. Glaboniat, Manuela et al. (2005). Profile deutsch. Lernzielbestimmungen, Kannbeschreibungen, Kommunikative Mittel, Niveau A1-A2, B1-B2, C1-C2. Berlin & München: Langenscheidt. Gross-Dinter, Ursula (2007). Portfolio für das bilaterale Konsekutivdolmetschen: Translationswissenschaftliche und pädagogische Grundlegung, Entwicklung und Erprobung eines didaktischen Konzepts. Berlin et al.: Europäischer Universitätsverlag. Hallet, Wolfgang (1995). Interkulturelle Kommunikation durch kommunikatives Übersetzen. Lernziele des Übersetzens im schulischen Englischunterricht. In Beyer, Manfred (ed.). Realities in Translating. Anglistik & Englischunterricht 55/56. Heidelberg: Winter, 277-312. Hallet, Wolfgang (2008). Zwischen Sprachen und Kulturen vermitteln. Interlinguale Kommunikation als Aufgabe. Der fremdsprachliche Unterricht Englisch 93, 2–7. Harris, Brian (1977). The importance of natural translation. Working Papers on Bilingualism 12, 96-114. Hurtado Albir, Amparo (ed.) (1999). Enseňar a trducir. Metodología en la formacón de traductores e intérpretes. Madrid: Edelsa. Hurtado Albir, Amparo (2010). Competence. In Gambier, Yves & van Doorslaer, Luc (eds.). Handbook of Translation Studies. Vol. 1. Amsterdam & Philadephia: Benjamins, 55-59. Kade, Otto (1968). Zufall und Gesetzmäßigkeit in der Übersetzung. Leipzig: Enzyklopädie. Kelly, Dorothy (2010a). Curriculum. In Gambier, Yves & van Doorslaer, Luc (eds.). Handbook of Translation Studies. Vol. 1. Amsterdam & Philadephia: Benjamins, 87-91. Kelly, Dorothy. (2010b). Translation didactics. In Gambier, Yves & van Doorslaer, Luc (eds.). Handbook of Translation Studies. Vol. 1. Amsterdam & Philadephia: Benjamins, 389-396. Kiraly, Donald (1995). Pathways to Translation. Pedagogy and Process. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. Kiraly, Donald (2000). A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education. Empowerment From Theory to Practice. Manchester: St Jerome. Knapp, Karlfried (42006). Dolmetschen im Fremdsprachenunterricht. In Jung, Udo O. H. (ed.) in Zusammenarbeit mit Heidrun Jung, Praktische Handreichung für Fremdsprachenlehrer (Bayreuther Beiträge zur Glottodidaktik Bd. 2). Frankfurt am Main et al.: Lang, 175-180. Koller, Werner (51997). Einführung in die Übersetzungswissenschaft. Wiesbaden: Quelle und Meyer.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Koller, Werner (2002). Linguistik und kulturelle Dimension der Übersetzung – in den 70er-Jahren und heute. In Thome, Gisela et al. (eds). Kultur und Übersetzung. Methodologische Probleme des Kulturtransfers. Tübingen: Narr, 115-130. Lerch, Rainer (2007). Kompetenzfördernd unterrichten. 22 Schritte von der Theorie zur Praxis. Pädagogik 12, 36-43. Malmkjær, Kirsten (2010). Language learning and translation. In Gambier, Yves & van Doorslaer, Luc(eds.). Handbook of Translation Studies. Vol. 1. Amsterdam & Philadephia: Benjamins, 185-190. Morrow, Keith (ed.) (2004): Insights from the Common European Framework. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mudersbach, Klaus (2002). Kultur braucht Übersetzung. Übersetzung braucht Kultur. (Modell und Methode). In Thome, Gisela et al. (eds.). Kultur und Übersetzung. Methodologische Probleme des Kulturtransfers. Tübingen: Narr, 169-225. Munday, Jeremy (2010). Translation Studies. In Gambier, Yves & van Doorslaer, Luc (eds.). Handbook of Translation Studies. Vol. 1. Amsterdam & Philadephia: Benjamins, 419-428. Nord, Christiane (1991; German 1988). Text Analysis in Translation. Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Amsterdam: Radopi. Nord, Christiane (1997). Verstehen – Deuten – Vermitteln: Übersetzen als „Kulturtechnik“ unserer Zeit. Hispanorama 76, 117-122. PACTE group (2003). Building a translation competence model. In Alves, Fabio (ed.). Triangulating Translation. Perspectives in process oriented research. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: Benjamins, 43-66. Pamuk, Orhan (2002). Kar. Istanbul: Iletişim. Pamuk, Orhan (2005): Schnee. München: Hanser. Philipp, Elke & Rauch, Kerstin (2010): Verständigung durch Austausch. Grundlagen, Bedeutung und Potenzial der Sprachmittlung. In Der fremdsprachliche Unterricht Französisch 108, 2-7. Pym, Antony (2003). Redefining Translation Competence in an Electronic Age. In Defense of a Minimalist Approach. Meta 48/4, 481-497. Rahimi, Atiq (2008). Syngué sabour. Pierre de patience. Paris: P.O.L. Rahimi, Atiq (2011). Stein der Geduld. München: List. Rahimi, Atiq (2011). The Patience Stone. London: Vintage. Rössler, Andrea (2009). Strategisch sprachmitteln im Spanischunterricht. Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen (FLUL) 38, 158-174. Rogers, Margaret (2008). Translation and Foreign Language Learning. A Synergistic Exploration of Research Problems. In Krings, Hans P. & Mayer, Felix (eds.). Sprachenvielfalt im Kontext von Fachkommunikation, Übersetzung und Fremdsprachenunterricht. Berlin: Frank & Timme, 117-127. Schmitt, Peter A. (ed.) (2000). Paradigmenwechsel in der Translation. Festschrift für Albrecht Neubert zum 70. Geburtstag. (Stauffenburg Festschriften). Tübingen: Stauffenburg. Shreve, Gregory M. (1977). Cognition and the Evolution of Translation Competence. In Danks, Joseph H. et al. (eds.). Cognitive Processes in Translation and Interpreting. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 120-136.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Shreve, Gregory M. (2000). Translation at the Millennium: Prospects for the evolution of a profession. In Schmitt, Peter A. (ed.). Paradigmenwechsel in der Translation. Festschrift für Albrecht Neubert zum 70. Geburtstag. Tübingen: Stauffenburg, 217-234. Slapp, Ashley M. (2004). Community Interpreting in Deutschland. Gegenwärtige Situation und Perspektiven für die Zukunft. München: InterPartes. Thome, Gisela (2012). Übersetzen als interlinguales und interkulturelles Sprachhandeln. Theorien – Methodologie – Ausbildung. Berlin: Frank & Timme. Wadensjö, Cecilia (1998). Community Interpreting. In Baker, Mona & Malmkjær, Kirsten (eds.). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London & New York, Routledge, 43-48. Weinert, Franz Emanuel (1999). Konzepte der Kompetenz. Paris. Wilton, Antje (2009). Lachen ohne Grenzen. Eine gesprächsanalytische Untersuchung zu Scherzkommunikation in zweisprachigen Interaktionen. München: iudicium. Zimmermann, Stefan (2009). Community Interpreting, Sprach- und Kulturmittlung und Kommunikation mit russischsprachigen Patienten im medizinischen Bereich. Wien: Universität Wien (Diplomarbeit).

Author: Prof. Dr. Inez De Florio-Hansen Kassel University Foreign Language Teaching and Acquisition Research (Fremdsprachenlehr- und -lernforschung) Intercultural Communication (Interkulturelle Kommunikation) Georg-Forster-Str. 3 34109 Kassel Germany E-mail: [email protected]

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Konjunktionen im deutsch-koreanischen Sprachvergleich Schwierigkeiten koreanischer Lerner beim Erwerb des deutschen Konjunktionalsystems Bok Ja Cheon-Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany / Frank Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany)

Abstract (Deutsch) Die Konjunktionalsysteme des Deutschen und des Koreanischen unterscheiden sich erheblich voneinander und können im Spracherwerbsprozess zu sprachkontrastiv bedingten Fehlern führen. Während im Deutschen Konjunktionen und Konjunktionaladverbien als syntaktische Verknüpfungszeichen mit verschiedener Verknüpfungsbedeutung verwendet werden, werden im Koreanischen temporale, konditionale und kausale Konjunktionalformen als Suffixe an einen Stamm angehängt. Einige der postverbalen Konjunktionalformen können polyfunktional verwendet werden und stellen aus diesem Grund wiederum eine Lernschwierigkeit für muttersprachliche und fremdsprachliche Lerner dar. Die Schwierigkeiten koreanischer Lerner beim Erwerb des deutschen Konjunktionalsystems werden exemplarisch auf der Basis einer Studie von Kim (1994) beschrieben. Stichwörter: Konjunktionen, Konjunktionaladverbien, Spracherwerb, Kontrastive Linguistik, Deutsch, Koreanisch

Abstract (English) The conjunctional systems of German and Korean differ considerably, thus inducing possible errors in the language acquisition process. Whereas in German, conjunctions and conjunctional adverbs are used as connectors with different connecting meanings, the (temporal, conditional, causal) conjunctional forms of Korean are suffixed to a word stem. Some of the postverbal conjunctional forms can be applied polyfunctionally, thus providing a further potential learning difficulty. The difficulties of Korean learners in the acquisition of the German conjunctional system are exemplarily described on the basis of a study carried out by Kim (1994). Key words: conjunctions, conjunctional adverbs, language acquisition, contrastive linguistics, German, Korean

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1 Einleitung Sprachkontrastive Untersuchungen belegen die deutlichen Unterschiede zwischen dem deutschen und dem koreanischen Konjunktionalsystem. Während es sich bei den Junktionen17 im Deutschen entweder um eingliedrige (und, dass, ob, seit, bis), komplexe (damit, obwohl, wenngleich), mehrteilige (so dass, insofern, es sei denn dass) oder paarige Junktionen (sowohl - als auch, nicht nur - sondern auch, entweder - oder; vgl. Duden 2006, 627) handelt, existieren im Koreanischen zum einen Konjunktionalformen, die als Suffixe an die Verbalbasen, die erweiterten Stämme oder die Partizipialformen des Verbs angehängt werden und zum anderen nominalwertige Konjunktionalformen, die im Kern aus einem Nomen oder einem nominalwertigen Wort bestehen. Die solchermaßen generierten Bedingungsgefüge und Abhängigkeitsverhältnisse des Nebensatzes zu seinem Folgesatz können nach Lewin (1970, 34) höchst unterschiedlicher Art sein (koordinativ, temporal, konditional, kausal, konzessiv, adversativ, distributiv, alternativ, final, resultativ, gradativ, mutativ und stativ). Während die Funktionen der deutschen Konjunktionen denen der koreanischen Konjunktionalformen weitgehend ähneln, ist die Schnittmenge semantisch bedeutungsgleicher Konjunktionen geringer. So weisen beispielsweise sowohl das Deutsche als auch das Koreanische im Bereich der Temporalität Konjunktionalformen auf, die den Kategorien der Vorzeitigkeit und der Nachzeitigkeit zuzuordnen sind, während die Kategorie der Gleichzeitigkeit im Deutschen nicht vollkommen identisch ist mit der Kategorie der Abruptheit im Koreanischen (자 – (cha (kaum)), 즈음 – (chuum (gerade als)), 대로 – (taero (sobald als)). Des Weiteren stehen Konjunktionalformen des Deutschen, die ausschließlich einer Kategorie (z.B. konzessiv, kausal, konditional) zuzuordnen sind, teilweise polyvalente Formen des Koreanischen gegenüber, beispielsweise nominalwertige Konjunktionalformen, die in lokativer oder instrumental-direktionaler Funktion auch adverbial verwendet werden können. Diese und weitere Unterschiede zwischen den Konjunktionalsystemen des Deutschen und des Koreanischen können im Spracherwerbsprozess zu sprachkontrastiv bedingten Fehlern führen. Hinsichtlich der antizipierbaren Konvergenzen und Divergenzen zwischen dem Koreanischen und dem Deutschen muss auch die unterschiedliche sprachtypologische Verortbarkeit dieser beiden Sprachen bedacht werden. Während das Deutsche zu den Sprachen mit flektierendem (auch: fusionierendem) Sprachbau gehört, die die Tendenz haben, die syntaktischen Beziehungen im Satz durch stammverändernde Elemente auszudrücken, gehört das Koreanische zu den agglutinierenden Sprachen, bei denen syntaktische Beziehungen im Satz durch Stammmarkierungen ausgedrückt werden. Die flektierenden Sprachen sind formal durch äußere (Affixe: schnell – schneller) oder aber innere Flexion (Ablaute: gib– gab; Umlaute: Vater – Väter) gekennzeichnet. Während in den indoeuropäischen Sprachen die Tendenz zur äußeren Flexion dominiert, sind viele der semito-hamitischen Sprachen (Arabisch, Hebräisch) durch innere Flexion gekennzeichnet. Im Gegensatz zu den agglutinierenden Sprachen ist in der Gruppe der flektierenden Sprachen eine eindeutige Segmentierung von Wurzel und grammatischer Kennzeichnung zumeist nicht möglich. Die Wörter in agglutinierenden Sprachen scheinen aus aneinander geleimten Morphemen zu bestehen, die hinsichtlich ihrer Form und Funktion eindeutig segmentierbar sind. Zu den agglutinierenden Sprachen gehören neben dem Koreanischen und Japanischen aus der ural-altaischen Sprachfamilie auch das Oberbegriff für Konjunktionen und Subjunktionen (vgl. Duden Band 4: Die Grammatik. Mannheim 2006: 627)

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Finnische und Ungarische aus der finno-ugrischen Sprachfamilie sowie das Türkische und das Swahili. Kontrastiv erwartbar ist, dass Konjunktionalformen, die nur in einer der beiden Sprachen existieren, beim Erwerb der jeweils anderen Sprache zu Fehlern führen oder aber im Sinne einer Vermeidungsstrategie vollkommen ausgelassen werden. Gleichzeitig können Übergeneralisierungen ähnlicher und vermeintlich sicher beherrschter Formen antizipiert werden. Um der Frage nachzugehen, welche Fehler im deutschen Konjunktionalsystem bei koreanischen Lernern des Deutschen auftreten, sollen in dem vorliegenden Beitrag, basierend auf einer Studie von Kim (1994), Schwierigkeiten fortgeschrittener koreanischer Lerner beim Erwerb des deutschen Konjunktionalsystems beschrieben und analysiert werden. Zuvor jedoch sollen die Konjunktionalsysteme des Deutschen und des Koreanischen dargestellt und linguistisch differenziert werden.

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Zur Differenzierung der Konjunktionen im Deutschen und im Koreanischen

Buscha (1989, 9) betrachtet Konjunktionen als „in morphologischer Hinsicht unveränderliche Worteinheiten, die als syntaktische Verknüpfungszeichen ohne Satzgliedwert mit je verschiedener Verknüpfungsbedeutung gebraucht werden“. Dieser Aspekt einer unflektierbaren und nicht satzgliedfähigen Wortart wird auch von Bußmann (1983, 258) betont, die zudem, hinsichtlich ihrer Stellungseigenschaften, zwischen echten und unechten Konjunktionen unterscheidet. So seien echte Konjunktionen wie aber, allein, denn, oder, und, sondern nicht vorfeldfähig, während sich unechte Konjunktionen (Konjunktionaladverbien) satzgliedhaft wie Adverbiale verhielten und eine Inversion bewirken könnten. Lewandowski (1985, 562) nimmt hinsichtlich der syntaktischen Kriterien eine Unterscheidung zwischen subordinativen und koordinativen Konjunktionen vor und rechnet zu den letzteren die kopulativen (und, sowohl … als auch), die disjunktiven (oder, entweder … oder), die restriktiven (außer), die adversativen (aber, jedoch, sondern) und die kausalen Konjunktionen (denn). Während subordinative (subordinierende) Konjunktionen „einen von ihnen eingeleiteten Nebensatz in einen übergeordneten Satz, der ein Hauptsatz oder ein Nebensatz sein kann“ (vgl. Helbig & Buscha 1986, 182) einbetten, verbinden koordinative (koordinierende) Konjunktionen Hauptsätze, Nebensätze gleichen Grades oder Satzglieder miteinander. Bei der Verwendung hauptsatzverbindender Konjunktionen stehe das finite Verb hinter der Konjunktion und dem ersten Satzglied. Die Positionierung sei denn auch das entscheidende Kriterium der Differenzierung zwischen Konjunktionen und Adverbien (Konjunktionaladverbien). Die differenzierteste Unterscheidung hinsichtlich der Bedeutungen und Funktionen von Konjunktionen findet sich bei Buscha (1989, 16 ff.), der neben den von Bußmann und Lewandowski genannten Kategorien eine Reihe weiterer Differenzierungen vornimmt und 71

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zusätzlich unter anderem zwischen alternativ-konzessiv subordinierenden (ob … ob), explikativ koordinierenden (das heißt), final subordinierenden (auf dass, damit, dass, um … zu), instrumental subordinierenden (als dass, um … zu), irreal-konsekutiv subordinierenden (als dass), komitativ subordinierenden (indem), konditional subordinierenden (falls, sofern, wenn) und temporal subordinierenden (als, da, indes, seitdem) Konjunktionen unterscheidet. Helbig & Buscha (1986) differenzieren in den jeweiligen Gruppen der subordinierenden und koordinierenden Konjunktionen zwischen einfachen, zusammengesetzten und mehrteiligen Konjunktionen. Zu den einfachen subordinierenden Konjunktionen rechnen Helbig & Buscha (1986, 182) die Konjunktionen dass, weil, bevor, ehe, obwohl, als, obgleich, während, damit, falls, indem, wenn und sobald. Zu den zusammengesetzten subordinierenden Konjunktionen werden die Konjunktionen als dass, so dass, (an)statt dass, ohne dass, als ob, als wenn und außer dass gerechnet. Typisch für die zusammengesetzten subordinierenden Konjunktionen sei ihr gleichzeitiges Miteinanderauftreten und Nebeneinanderstehen und die Untrennbarkeit der beiden Komponenten (Er erlaubt sich ein Urteil, ohne dass er die Literatur gründlich kennt). Eine Trennung der beiden Konjunktionskomponenten sei in diesen Fällen nur durch die Einfügung eines Korrelats möglich (Er erlaubt sich ein Urteil, ohne die Tatsache, dass er die Literatur gründlich kennt). Mehrteilige Konjunktionen können nach Helbig & Buscha (ebd.) sowohl in subordinierender (je … desto, wenn auch … so doch) als auch in koordinativer Funktion (entweder … oder, nicht nur … sondern auch) auftreten. Nach Lewin (1970, 34ff.) sind die Konjunktionalformen des Koreanischen insbesondere in Bezug auf die Anschlusstypen zu differenzieren, die als Basen für die konjunktionalen Endungen dienen können. Hierbei könne zwischen athematischen (Anschlusstyp 1) und thematischen Verbalbasen (Anschlusstyp 2), den Konverbal- (Anschlusstyp 3) und den Temporalstämmen (Anschlusstyp 4) sowie dem Präsens- (Anschlusstyp 5), dem Präterial(Anschlusstyp 6) und dem Futurpartizip (Anschlusstyp 7) differenziert werden. Lewin (1970, 35ff.) beschreibt die semantischen Funktionen der koreanischen Konjunktionalformen exemplarisch anhand der temporalen, konditionalen und kausalen Marker.

2.1 Temporale Konjunktionalformen Die im Folgenden aufgeführten deutschen Beispielsätze dienen einer möglichst exakten Übersetzung der koreanischen Konjunktionalformen Für diese intendierte Nähe zum Ausgangstest werden hier im Deutschen bewusst Normabweichungen in Kauf genommen.

2.1.1 Postverbale Verwendung / Vorzeitigkeit (der Nebensatzhandlung) Die im Folgenden aufgelisteten koreanischen Konjunktionen werden postverbal verwendet, also als Suffixe an ein Verb angehängt, und markieren dabei die Vorzeitigkeit 72

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der Nebensatzhandlung18: 아/어 (nachdem, Konverbalstamm) 서 3-so (nachdem) 서야 3-soya (erst wenn) 고서 1-goso (als, wenn) 고는 1-gonun (als, nachdem) 고야 1-goya (nachdem) 면서부터 2-myonsobuto (seitdem)19

Die oben aufgeführten, postverbal verwendeten koreanischen Konjunktionen werden im Folgenden in ihrer Verwendung in einem satzwertigen Kontext illustriert. 서: 선물을 사서 곱게 쌌어요.20 Ich habe das Geschenk schön eingepackt, nachdem ich es gekauft hatte. 고서: 아이는 숙제를 하고서 밥을 먹었다. Nachdem es die Hausgaben gemacht hatte, hat das Kind gegessen. 고야: 아이는 숙제를 하고야 밥을 먹었다. Nachdem es die Hausgaben gemacht hatte, hat das Kind gegessen.

고서야: 아이는 숙제를 하고서야 밥을 먹었다. Das Kind hat gegessen, erst nachdem es die Hausaufgaben gemacht hatte. 면서부터:일을 시작하면서부터 그 남자는 잠을 설쳤다. Er schlief nicht gut, seitdem er mit der Arbeit angefangen hatte.

2.1.2 Nominalwertige Verwendung Im Gegensatz zu den unter Punkt 2.1.1 aufgeführten postverbalen Konjunktionen handelt es sich bei den im Folgenden aufgelisteten Konjunktionen um nominalwertige Konjunktionen, die ebenfalls als Suffixe verwendet werden, aber in diesem Falle statt einem Verb einem Nomen folgen: 뒤(에) 6-dui(e) (nachdem) 후(에) 6-hu(e) (nachdem) 사이(에) 6-sai(e) (nachdem) 다음(에) 6-daum(e) (nachdem) 지 6-ji (nachdem, seitdem) 이래(로) 6-irae(ro) (seitdem)

Die oben aufgeführten, nominalwertig verwendeten koreanischen Konjunktionen werden im Folgenden in ihrer Verwendung in einem satzwertigen Kontext illustriert. Die angegebenen Ziffern beziehen sich auf den jeweiligen konjunktionalen Anschlusstyp (Levin 1970: 34ff). 19 Die in Kap. 2 zitierten, nicht satzwertigen Beispiele stammen aus Lewandowski (1970: 35 ff.) 20 Alle in Kap. 2 aufgeführten, satzwertigen Beispiele stammen von den Autoren des vorliegenden Beitrags. 18

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 후(에): 식사 후에 산보를 갔다. Nachdem wir gegessen hatten, gingen wir spazieren. 뒤(에): 식사를 한 뒤에 산보를 갔다. Nachdem wir gegessen hatten, gingen wir spazieren. 다음 (에): 식사를 한 다음에 산보를 갔다. Nachdem wir gegessen hatten, gingen wir spazieren. 지: 서울로 이사한 지 삼 년이 지났다. Drei Jahre sind vergangen, seitdem wir nach Seoul umgezogen sind. 이래(로): 서울로 이사한 이래 삼 년이 지났다. Drei Jahre sind vergangen, seitdem wir nach Seoul umgezogen sind. 사이(에): 서울로 이사한 사이에 삼 년이 지났다. Drei Jahre sind vergangen, seitdem wir nach Seoul umgezogen sind.

2.1.3 Gleichzeitigkeit Die im Folgenden aufgelisteten koreanischen Konjunktionen werden postverbal verwendet, also als Suffixe an ein Verb angehängt, und dienen der Markierung der Gleichzeitigkeit: 매 2-mae (als) 면서 2-mynso (während) 니(까) 2-ni(kka) (als) 더니 1,4-doni (als, retrospektiv) 때 – 7 ttae (als, wenn) 무렵(에) – 7 muroyp(e) (während) 동안(에) – 5 tongan(e) (während) 사이(에) – 5 sai (e) (während) 중에 – 5 chunge (während) 길(에) – 5 kyol(e) (während) 적(에) – 7 chok(e) (wenn, gelegentlich) 제 – 7 che (wenn, gelegentlich) 족족 – 5 chokchok (jedesmal wenn)

Die oben aufgeführten, postverbal verwendeten koreanischen Konjunktionen werden im Folgenden in ihrer Verwendung in einem satzwertigen Kontext illustriert. 면서: 그는 텔레비젼을 보면서 저녁을 먹습니다. Er sieht fern, während er isst.

(으)ㄹ 때: 선생님을 뵈러 갈 때는 선물을 사 가지고 갔어요. Wir haben ein Geschenk mitgenommen, als wir unseren Lehrer besuchten.

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적(에): 선생님을 뵈러 갈 적에 선물을 사 가지고 갔어요. Wir haben ein Geschenk mitgenommen, als wir unseren Lehrer besuchten.

동안(에): 그는 밥을 먹는 동안 텔레비젼을 봅니다. (auch: 사이에, 중에) Er sieht fern, während er isst.

2.1 4 Nachzeitigkeit Die im Folgenden genannte koreanische Konjunktion wird postverbal verwendet, und dient der Markierung der Nachzeitigkeit: 기(도)전에 – 1 ki(do)jone (bevor)

Das folgende Satzbeispiel illustriert den Gebrauch der postverbal verwendeten Konjunktion zur Markierung der Nachzeitigkeit: 기(도) 전에: 겨울이 오기도 전에 그녀는두꺼운 외투를 장만했다. Bevor der Winter kam, hat sie einen dicken Wintermantel gekauft.

2.1.5 Abruptheit Die im Folgenden aufgelisteten koreanischen Konjunktionen werden postverbal verwendet und dienen der Markierung der Abruptheit eines Geschehens: 자 – 1 cha (kaum) 자마자 – 1 chamaja (kaum) 자말자 – 1 chamalja (kaum) 다(가) – 1 ta(ga) (kaum) 즈음 – 7 chuum (gerade als) 차 – 6 ch’a (gerade als) 참에 – 5 ch’ame (gerade als) 대로 – 5 taero (sobald als) 기가바쁘게 – 1 ki-ga pappuge (kaum)

Die folgenden Satzbeispiele illustrieren den Gebrauch der postverbal verwendeten Konjunktion zur Markierung der Abruptheit: 자: 해가 돋자 바다가 붉게 물들었다. (auch: 자마자, 자말자. Kaum ging die Sonne auf, färbte sich das Meer rot. 차에, 참에, 즈음: 서류를 막 작성할 참에 과장의 전화를 받았다. Der Abteilungsleiter hat mich angerufen, gerade als ich das Formular ausfüllen wollte.

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2.2

Konditionale Konjunktionalformen

2.2.1 Postverbale Verwendung Die im Folgenden aufgelisteten konditionalen Konjunktionalformen werden postverbal verwendet, also als Suffixe an ein Verb angehängt: 면 - 2 myon (wenn) 다면 – 1 tamyon (wenn, Quot.) 자면 – 1 chamyon (wenn, Opt.) 느라면 – 1 nuramyon (wenn) 느라니까 – 1 nuranikka (wenn) 느니 – 1 nuni (wenn) 거든/어든 – 1 (k)odun (wenn) 건대/언대 – 1 (k)ondae (wenn) 고는 – 1 konun (wenn) 고서는 – 1 kosunun (wenn) 고야 – 1 koya (wenn) 서야 – 3 soya (wenn) 야 – 3 ya (nur) 던들 – 1 tondul (gesetzt den Fall)

Die folgenden Satzbeispiele illustrieren den Gebrauch der postverbal verwendeten konditionalen Konjunktionalformen: (으) 려면: 김 교수님을 만나려면 연구실로 가 보세요. Gehen Sie in sein Büro, wenn Sie Professor Kim treffen wollen. 자면: 한국에 살자면 한국말부터 배워야 합니다. Sie müssen zuallererst Koreanisch lernen, wenn Sie in Korea leben wollen. 거든/어든: 한국에 살려거든 한국말부터 배우십시오. Lernen Sie zuerst Koreanisch, wenn Sie in Korea leben wollen.

2.2.2 Nominalwertige Verwendung Die im Folgenden aufgelisteten konditionalen Konjunktionalformen werden nominalwertig verwendet: 들 – 6 tul (wenn) 진대 – 7 chindae (gesetzt den Fall)

Das folgende Satzbeispiel dient der Illustration der nominalwertigen Konjunktion 진대. 진대: 한국에 살려고 할 진대 한국말부터 배우십시오. Lernen Sie zuerst Koreanisch, wenn Sie in Korea leben wollen.

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2.3 Kausale Konjunktionalformen 2.3.1 Postverbale Verwendung Die im Folgenden aufgelisteten, kausalen Konjunktionalformen werden postverbal verwendet, also als Suffixe an ein Verb angehängt: 니(까) – 2 ni(kka) (weil) 느니 – 1 nuni (weil) 나니 – 1 nani (weil) 거니 – 1 koni (weil) 더니 – 1 toni (weil) 거늘 – 1 konul (weil) 매 – 2 mae (weil) 서 – 3 so (weil) 느라고 – 1 nurago (da gerade) 관대 – 1 kwandae (etwas wegen)

Die folgenden Satzbeispiele illustrieren der Gebrauch der postverbal verwendeten kausalen Konjunktionalformen: 니(까): 날씨가 추우니까 옷을 따뜻이 입어라. Zieh (dich) doch wärmer an, weil es sehr kalt ist. 더니: 비가 오더니 날씨가 추워졌습니다. Es wurde kälter, weil es geregnet hatte. 서: 비가 와서 소풍을 못 갔습니다 . Wir konnten keinen Ausflug machen, weil es regnete.

2.3.2 Nominalwertige Verwendung Die im Folgenden aufgelisteten, kausalen Konjunktionalformen werden nominalwertig verwendet. 므로 – 7 muro (dadurch dass) 고로 – 5,6 koro (weil) 기로 – 1 kiro (in Anbetracht von) 기에 – 1 kie (dadurch dass) 길래 – 1 killae (dadurch dass) 기때문(에) – 1 ki-ttaemun (e) (weil) 까닭(에) – 5,6,7 kkadalk (e) (aus dem Grunde dass) 바람에 – 5 parame (infolge) 걸 – 6 kyol (infolge)

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 나머지(에) – 5,6 namoji (e) (bedingt durch) 사이(에) – 7 sai (e) (weil) 대로 – 5,6,7 taero (entsprechend) 지라 – 5,6 chira (weil) 지니- 7 chini (weil) 즉 – 6 chuk (weil)

Die folgenden Satzbeispiele dienen der Illustration der nominalwertigen kausalen Konjunktionen: 때문에: 비 때문에 소풍을 못 갔습니다. Wir konnten keinen Ausflug machen, weil es regnete. 기 때문에: 비가 오기 때문에 소풍을 못 갔습니다 . Wir konnten keinen Ausflug machen, weil es regnete. 기에: 비가 오기에 소풍을 못 갔습니다 . Wir konnten keinen Ausflug machen, weil es regnete. 까닭에: 비가 오는 까닭에 소풍을 못 갔습니다 . Wir konnten keinen Ausflug machen, weil es regnete. 바람에: 비가 오는 바람에 소풍을 못 갔습니다 . Wir konnten keinen Ausflug machen, weil es regnete.

Lewins Analyse zeigt, dass die postverbalen Konjunktionalformen sowohl mono- als auch polyfunktional verwendet werden können. Dabei verweist Lewin auf die Polyfunktionalität der Konjunktionalformen insbesondere in den temporal-kausal-konditionalen und den konzessiv-adversativen Bereichen. So können beispielsweise die Formen 니(까) (-ni(kka)) und 서 (so) postverbal zur Markierung der Temporalität (Gleichzeitigkeit) als auch als postverbale kausale Konjunktionalformen verwendet werden.

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Schwierigkeiten koreanischer Lerner beim Erwerb der deutschen Konjunktionen

In einer empirischen fehleranalytischen Untersuchung markanter Fehler fortgeschrittener koreanischer Deutschlerner analysierte Kim (1994) auch die Probleme dieser Lerner beim Erwerb des deutschen Konjunktionalsystems. Dabei konnte er feststellen, dass es im Bereich der subordinierenden Konjunktionen häufig zu Vertauschungen der finalen Konjunktion damit mit der kausalen Konjunktion weil kommt. Nach Buscha (1989, 56) haben die Konjunktionen damit und um … zu finale Bedeutung und drücken aus, „dass der Sachverhalt des Nebensatzes bzw. des Infinitivs die Absicht (den Zweck, das Ziel) des Hauptsatz-Sachverhalts darstellt“. Die Absicht sei „an ein personales Subjekt gebunden und mit einem Willenselement verbunden, das auf die Realisierung des Hauptsatz-Sachverhalts gerichtet ist“. Es seien zwei Varianten der Realisierung des Finalsatzes feststellbar, bei denen das wollende Personalsubjekt und das 78

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realisierende Subjekt identisch (Er beeilt sich, damit der den Zug noch erreicht) oder aber nicht identisch (Er stellt mir den Ausländer vor, damit ich ihn kennenlerne) sein können. Die Konjunktion weil hat nach Buscha (1989, 125) eindeutig kausale Bedeutung und drückt aus, „dass der Nebensatz-Sachverhalt der Grund (die Ursache) für den HauptsatzSachverhalt ist“. Der Nebensatz stehe häufig als Nachsatz, sei aber auch als Vordersatz möglich. Im Hauptsatz könnten auch Korrelate wie darum, deshalb, deswegen, aus diesem Grund auf den Nebensatz verweisen. Kim (1994) stellte fest, dass von den beobachteten Lernern zur Markierung eines Zwecks oder einer Absicht statt der finalen Konjunktion damit häufig die Konjunktion weil verwendet wird, die als Anschlussmittel für Kausalsätze fungiert:21 Man lernt Fremdsprachen, weil man anderes Volk verständigen kann. → damit 다른 민족과 소통하기 위해 사람들은 외국어를 배운다

Auch der umgekehrte Fall der Verwendung einer finalen Konjunktion zur Markierung eines kausalen Bedingungsgefüges konnte von Kim (ebd.) festgestellt werden. Ich lerne Deutsch, damit ich mich für Deutsch interessiere. → weil 나는 독일에 관심이 많기 때문에 독일어를 배운다. Damit ich Deutschroman lesen möchte, lerne ich Deutsch. → Weil 나는 독일어소설을 읽기 위해 독일어를 배운다.

Ein häufig anzutreffender Fehler ist darüber hinaus die Vertauschung der finalen Konjunktion damit mit der Infinitivkonstruktion um … zu, die ebenfalls zur Realisierung eines finalen Bedingungsgefüges verwendet wird. Aber ich will Fremdsprachen lernen, damit ich Ausländer verstehen will. → um Ausländer zu verstehen. 그러나 나는 외국인들을 이해하기 위해 외국어를 배우려고 한다. Ich muss fließend Deutsch sprechen, um die Schüler auch gut Deutsch zu sprechen. → damit die Schüler auch gut Deutsch sprechen. 학생들이 독일어를 잘 말할 수 있게하려면 내가 독일어를 유창하게 말할 수 있어야 한다.

Kim (1994: 79) konnte feststellen, dass eine fehlerhafte Verwendung der Konjunktion damit insbesondere dann auftritt, wenn parallel die Modalverben sollen und können verwendet werden, die ihrerseits bereits einen Willen, eine Absicht oder einen Wunsch markieren, so dass die zusätzliche Markierung des Willenselements durch die finale Konjunktion damit redundant erscheint. Die Beobachtungen Kims stehen insgesamt in Einklang mit den Überlegungen Lewins zur Polyfunktionalität der koreanischen Konjunktionalformen. Offenbar wird von den Lernern die im Koreanischen bestehende Polyfunktionalität im Sinne eines Sprachentransfers auf das zielsprachliche deutsche Konjunktionalsystem übertragen. Eine von koreanischen Lernern häufig vermiedene Konjunktion ist die konditionale Konjunktion wenn bei gleichzeitiger Übergeneralisierung der Wendung „es … dass“. Die Vermeidung der Konjunktion wenn mag aus sprachkontrastiver Perspektive zunächst Die deutschen Satzbeispiele in Kap. 3 stammen aus Kim (1994: 79ff); die koreanischen Satzbeispiele stammen von Cheon-Kostrzewa und Kostrzewa. 21

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überraschen, da im Koreanischen eine ganze Reihe postverbaler und nominalwertiger Konjunktionalformen mit äquivalenter Bedeutung existieren (postverbal u.a.: 면 - myon, 다 면 – tamyon, 자면 – chamyon, 느라면 – nuramyon, 느라니까 – nuranikka; nominalwertig: 들 – tul). Möglicherweise wird die Konjunktion wenn von den Lernern vornehmlich als temporale subordinierende Konjunktion, die der Markierung von Gleichzeitigkeit oder Vorzeitigkeit dient, betrachtet. Ein weiterer Grund für die Vermeidung der Konjunktion wenn als subordinierender konditionaler Konjunktion könnte zudem darin bestehen, dass insbesondere die Verwendung dieser Konjunktion in irrealen Konditionalsätzen auch eine Verwendung des Konjunktivs erforderlich macht. Es wäre besser, dass wir Fremdsprache in ihrer Art denken. → wenn 우리가 외국어의 방식으로 사고를 하면 더 나을 것이다. Es ist dem Körper gesund, dass man jeden Tag ein Glas Milch trinkt. → wenn 매일 우유를 한 잔씩 마시면 건강에 좋을 것이다.

Eine im Allgemeinen von koreanischen Lernern leicht zu erlernende Konjunktion ist hingegen die temporale Konjunktion dann, die ihnen in eben jener Funktion aus ihrer L2 Englisch als Konjunktion then bekannt ist. Dennoch treten auch in diesem Fall Fehler auf, wie das folgende Beispiel illustriert. Als Deutschlehrer muss ich Deutschland und Deutsche gut verstehen, deshalb kann ich noch besser lehren. → dann 독일어 교사로서 나는 독일과 독일인을 잘 이해해야 한다, 그러면 나는 더 잘 가르칠 수 있다.

4 Zusammenfassung Im vorliegenden Beitrag wurden unter Einnahme einer sprachkontrastiven Perspektive die Konjunktionalsysteme des Deutschen und des Koreanischen beschrieben und miteinander verglichen. Dabei wurde für das Deutsche eine Differenzierung zwischen echten und unechten sowie koordinierenden und subordinierenden Konjunktionen vorgenommen. In Anlehnung an Lewandowski und Buscha wurde die Gruppe der subordinierenden und koordinierenden Konjunktionen weiter ausdifferenziert (kopulativ, disjunktiv, restriktiv, adversativ etc.). Für das Koreanische als einer agglutinierenden Sprache konnte mit Lewin festgestellt werden, dass die entsprechenden Konjunktionalformen an die Verbalbasen, die erweiterten Stämme bzw. an die Partizipialformen angehängt werden. Die durch die Verwendung der Konjunktionalformen entstehenden Nebensätze wurden als koordinativ, temporal, konditional, kausal, konzessiv, adversativ, distributiv etc. beschrieben. Es wurden in Anlehnung an Lewin insgesamt sieben Anschlusstypen benannt, die als Basen für konjunktionale Endungen dienen können. Die semantischen Funktionen der Konjunktionalendungen wurden anhand der temporalen, konditionalen und kausalen Konjunktionalendungen illustriert. Bezüglich der Schwierigkeiten koreanischer Lerner beim Erwerb des deutschen Konjunktionalsystems konnte festgestellt werden, dass Vertauschungen finaler (damit) und 80

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kausaler (weil) Konjunktionen auftreten. Offenbar wird in einigen Fällen die Polyfunktionalität koreanischer Konjunktionalformen auf das deutsche Konjunktionalsystem transferiert. Im Sinne einer Vermeidungsstrategie wurden von den beobachteten koreanischen Lernern bestimmte Konjunktionen (z.B. die konditionale Konjunktion wenn) bei gleichzeitiger Übergeneralisierung anderer Formen (z.B. es … dass) ausgelassen. Konjunktionalformen, die den Lernern bereits aus dem Erwerb anderer Fremdsprachen (z.B. then aus dem Englischen) bekannt sind, bereiten ihnen nur in wenigen Fällen Schwierigkeiten.

Bibliographie Buscha, Joachim (1989). Lexikon deutscher Konjunktionen. Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie. Bußmann, Hadumod (1983). Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Stuttgart: Kröner. Duden Band 4 (2006). Die Grammatik. Mannheim : Bibliographisches Institut. Helbig, Gerhard & Joachim Buscha (1986). Kurze deutsche Grammatik für Ausländer. Leipzig: VEB Enzyklopädie. Kim, Yong-Shin (1994). Schwierigkeiten beim Lernen und Lehren der deutschen Sprache durch Koreaner. Eine fehleranalytische Untersuchung bei koreanischen Deutschlehrern an Oberschulen. Eichstätt: (unveröffentlichte Magisterarbeit). Lewandowski, Theodor (1985). Linguistisches Wörterbuch Band 2. 4. Auflage Heidelberg: UTB. Lewin, Bruno (1970). Morphologie des koreanischen Verbs. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Autoren: Prof. Dr. Frank Kostrzewa Pädagogische Hochschule Karlsruhe Institut für deutsche Sprache und Literatur Bismarckstr. 10 D-76133 Karlsruhe E-Mail: [email protected]

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Dr. Bok Ja Cheon-Kostrzewa Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT) Lehrbeauftragte für Deutsch als Fremdsprache Kaiserstraße 12 D-76131 Karlsruhe E-Mail: [email protected]

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Tropos en la crónica beisbolera en emisiones televisivas latinoamericanas Sara Quintero Ramírez (Guadalajara, Mexico) Abstract (Español) En el presente estudio nos proponemos determinar los tropos más frecuentemente utilizados por diferentes narradores de la televisión latinoamericana en tres crónicas de béisbol. En una crónica deportiva oral el narrador se encarga de presentar a la audiencia de manera inmediata los hechos que acontecen en un partido y de explicarlos a través de interpretaciones y valoraciones (Armañanzas 2008). Tanto en la narración de los hechos como en las valoraciones ofrecidas a la audiencia, el cronista de béisbol produce una diversidad de tropos. En nuestro corpus registramos 331 metáforas 55 metonimias, 39 hipérboles, y por último, 5 símiles . Palabras clave: cronista beisbolero, metáfora, metonimia, hipérbole, símil.

Abstract (English) The objective of the study presented in this article is to identify the tropes that are most commonly used by different sports reporters on Latin American television by examining three baseball live emissons. In their oral accounts, it is the reporters' task to present the events of the game to the audience right after they have hppened. However, the reporters not only describe the mere events, but, in their role as sports experts, also explain them through analyses and evaluations (Armañanzas 2008). In their description of events and in their analyses, the baseball reporters use a variety of tropes. In the present research, 331 metaphors, 55 metonymies, 39 hyperboles and 5 similes have been registered. Keywords: baseball narrator, metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, simile.

1

Introducción

El deporte es sin duda alguna un fenómeno cultural de gran atracción social y juega un papel protagónico en la industria de la comunicación: Por la importancia que ha adquirido en las sociedades modernas y su influencia en las costumbres, comportamientos sociales y formas de expresión se ha convertido en objeto de estudio científico de diversas áreas de conocimiento, tales como la sociología, las ciencias de la comunicación y la lingüística. (Castro, 2012: 1).

En el marco de la lingüística, el lenguaje utilizado en el deporte, y en específico en la crónica deportiva oral, resulta de gran interés por las particularidades que despliega en su vocabulario técnico, en el uso frecuente de extranjerismos, pero sobre todo en la creatividad léxica que se evidencia a través del empleo de una diversidad de tropos por parte de los cronistas deportivos en su afán por resultar originales y creativos en sus narraciones orales. En este sentido la crónica de béisbol resulta un excelente campo de 83

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estudio, ya que los cronistas de este deporte saturan sus textos de todos estos fenómenos lingüísticos. En efecto, Lanzagorta, célebre cronista beisbolero en México y América Latina, señala: “Parte importante de la crónica para bien o para mal, son las frases personales de cada cronista” (Lanzagorta (2009: 10). Es por lo anterior que el análisis de la crónica beisbolera resulta muy enriquecedor, pues son numerosos y muy diversos los fraseologismos y la terminología que pueden encontrarse en estos textos. En este respecto, Tristá (1998: 120) señala que la creación de fraseologismos y el uso sumamente frecuente de metáforas por parte de los cronistas beisboleros resultan sumamente importantes a tal grado que han alcanzado el habla de todos los días, de manera que los autores de diccionarios han considerado pertinente incluir dichas voces como pertenecientes a la realidad cotidiana de aquellos países que gustan de escuchar las narraciones de este deporte. Luego de presentar un panorama general respecto a la importancia de la crónica deportiva, en específico de béisbol en el área del conocimiento lingüístico, hemos de señalar que el objetivo del presente estudio consiste en identificar los tropos más frecuentemente empleados en tres crónicas beisboleras de diferentes emisoras de televisión de Latinoamérica. Lo anterior con la finalidad de determinar la relevancia de los tropos en el marco discursivo de la crónica deportiva, y más específicamente de aquélla de béisbol. Para ello, consideramos conveniente comenzar con el marco teórico donde explicaremos cada uno de los tropos que se emplean con mayor asiduidad en la crónica beisbolera; dicha explicación servirá de base para el apartado del análisis. Enseguida, continuaremos con la metodología del estudio en la que exponemos cómo está constituido nuestro corpus y cómo procedimos para clasificarlo. Posteriormente, se hará una presentación y análisis de los datos obtenidos en el corpus. Finalmente, daremos lugar a las conclusiones producto de la presente investigación.

2

Marco teórico

Indiscutiblemente se han realizado un número considerable de investigaciones lingüísticas respecto a la crónica deportiva. Hemos observado que los estudios entorno a la narración futbolística resultan los más abundantes como el caso de Mapelli (2004), Medina Montero (2007 & 2009), Segura Soto (2009), Morales (2009) y Corado Valenzuela (2011). Asimismo, las investigaciones lingüísticas referentes a la crónica pugilística no se quedan atrás gracias a Armañanzas (2008) y Armañanzas & Sánchez (2009). En cuanto a la crónica beisbolera, contamos con el trabajo de Lanzagorta (2009), con notas periodísticas como las de Rodríguez Menéndez (2009) y Rodríguez Juliá (2011) así como conferencias en simposios como la de Castro (2012). Así pues, con base en los textos antes aludidos hemos de elucidar los elementos teóricos más relevantes para nuestro estudio.

2.1. Concepción de la crónica beisbolera Antes que nada, nos parece preciso ofrecer una definición del tema que nos ocupa, esto es la crónica beisbolera. Para ello, recurrimos a Armañanzas quien define la crónica 84

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deportiva como la narración inmediata de unos hechos, desarrollados a lo largo de un tiempo determinado, que han tenido como testigo al narrador junto a un público y que, además de informar de ellos, también los interpreta y los valora como experto dándole al texto su impronta personal (Armañanzas 2008: 6).

Nosotros retomamos esta definición y la adaptamos al contexto de la crónica beisbolera, de tal suerte que la definimos como la narración simultánea o inmediata de los hechos que tienen lugar en el marco de un partido de béisbol a lo largo de nueve entradas o más y que tienen como testigo a los narradores y a la audiencia. Los cronistas de béisbol no se dedican exclusivamente a ofrecer información al público que los escucha sobre los eventos deportivos que van aconteciendo en un partido, sino también a interpretarlos, valorarlos y dar su opinión respecto a ellos. Asimismo, algunas ocasiones dejan por momentos la crónica para realizar comentarios aledaños a lo que sucede a fin de hacer remembranzas de eventos parecidos así como para comentar hechos extra beisboleros. En la definición de Armañanzas (2008) observamos que la narración deportiva se caracteriza por sus rasgos informativos, pero también por sus tintes interpretativos y valorativos. En efecto, para Lanzagorta, “(l)a estadística si no va acompañada de una debida interpretación no sirve (...) Si la estadística no se usa para explicar o anticipar una situación de juego, no debe utilizarse” Lanzagorta (2009: 5). Para el propio Lanzagorta, el cronista beisbolero debe poseer grandes conocimientos y habilidades verbales para mantener al público realmente interesado y absorto en el partido; de otra manera, “se hará del béisbol un somnífero excelente, lleno de estadísticas y de anécdotas de peloteros de antaño que no interesan más que a aquellos que les vieron jugar” (Lanzagorta 2009: 5). Con base en lo anterior, Armañanzas y Sánchez (2009: 5) ubican la crónica deportiva en una tipología textual híbrida entre los textos informativos y los interpretativos. Y es que para estos autores, el objetivo primordial de las crónicas consiste en informar a través de las estadísticas, pero añadiendo inteligentemente comentarios valorativos de los hechos, tal como señala Lanzagorta (2009). De esta manera, se le da un valor periodístico a los simples números. En su afán por hacer emotiva e interesante su narración, el cronista de béisbol hace uso de una diversidad de tropos tanto en el momento de informar como en el de valorar; esto a fin de suscitar un nivel de expectativa, interés y emoción en el espectador que escucha con atención su crónica.

2.2. Tropos en la crónica deportiva El lenguaje figurado tiene una importante manifestación en los tropos. La palabra tropo se deriva del griego trepo que significa girar, dar vueltas, rodear un objeto dando una vuelta en torno a sí mismo. En otras palabras, tropo significa la modificación del sentido propio de las palabras a otro figurado. Como señalábamos anteriormente, el béisbol constituye un perfecto campo de estudio 85

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lingüístico porque su crónica se encuentra repleta de tropos. Barragán concuerda con lo anterior y advierte: El béisbol (...) conoce de impecables y eficaces metáforas para señalar una posición o una tarea, sintetizar unos resultados o amagar otros (...) El tropo es quizá la más importante victoria de una lid deportiva: el que va multiplicándose, cadencioso, hasta obtener carta de ciudadanía, sin temor de los templos y templarios de la academia Barragán 2004: 3) . Así pues, es importante elucidar los conceptos de aquellos tropos que son empleados con mayor frecuencia por parte de los cronistas beisboleros. Nosotros para el presente estudio hemos considerado únicamente la metáfora, la metonimia, la hipérbole y la comparación por ser los tropos que hemos observado más asiduamente en nuestro corpus. Corado Valenzuela (2011: 28) señala que la metáfora se considera el tropo más importante en la crónica deportiva y consta de tres elementos: el tenor o término real que es el referente del que se habla; el vehículo o término imaginario que es el término que se usa para comparar al término real; y finalmente, el fundamento que consiste en denominar una cosa con un término con el que se asemeja. En su investigación Medina Montero (2009) presenta un considerable número de metáforas que no designan al tenor, únicamente nombran el término imaginario; estamos hablando de metáforas puras. Cabe mencionar que esto mismo sucede en nuestro estudio, tal como se verificará más adelante. Siguiendo con Corado Valenzuela (2011: 28), la metonimia es una voz que significa trasnominación y se define como “un tropo por el cual se designa a una cosa con el nombre de otra por la relación de causa y efecto o de sucesión y de tiempo que entre ambas existe”. De acuerdo con Nomdedeu (2004: 150 y ss.), las metonimias más frecuentes en la crónica futbolística son aquéllas que designan al jugador por su nacionalidad, por el color de la camiseta, por el número que porta y por alguna característica sobresaliente de éste. Las metonimias que hemos localizado en nuestro corpus, tal como veremos más adelante, corresponden más comúnmente a la designación del beisbolista por la posición que desempeña en el equipo, por su nacionalidad y por las hazañas que ha logrado a lo largo de su carrera deportiva. La hipérbole entendida como la exageración mediante el aumento o la disminución de la realidad, es un tropo empleado por los cronistas deportivos a fin de llamar la atención del receptor del mensaje. En nuestro corpus se observa que además de este propósito, el cronista beisbolero hace uso de la hipérbole para generar un momento de humor en el auditorio que lo escucha. Armañanzas y Sánchez (2009: 19) ofrecen un par de ejemplos en la crónica escrita pugilística: un sombrero mejicano negro bordado en oro de metro y medio de diámetro en el ala y ese corazón de Urtain que es tan grande como una casa de Cestona. Las exageraciones depositadas en el sombrero mexicano y en el corazón de Urtain en los ejemplos anteriores hacen pasar un momento divertido al destinatario del texto. El símil o comparación se fundamenta en la asociación de ideas por semejanza y consiste 86

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en presentar dichas asociaciones a través de diversos elementos lingüísticos como los verbos parecer, comparar, ser aunado al elemento comparativo como, entre otros. Corado Valenzuela (2011) en su trabajo de investigación registra todo un abanico de símiles en la crónica futbolística, por ejemplo: se salvó como gato panza arriba, como emperador aparece desde el fondo Christian Noriega, mete fuerte la pierna como hierro, o el balón en las alturas como cohete. En todos estos ejemplos advertimos el elemento comparativo como. En nuestro corpus este tropo no se ha registrado con la recurrencia de los anteriormente presentados, tal como veremos más adelante. Luego de observar las definiciones de los tropos más relevantes para nuestro estudio y el rol que juegan en la crónica deportiva, es importante hacer notar que éstos se emplean muy a menudo de manera intencionada, aunque no siempre, a fin de lograr diferentes propósitos. En efecto, Morales (2009: pp. 6-8) señala que los tropos desempeñan diversas funciones dependiendo de los textos en los que se utilizan, por ejemplo, en la publicidad su función consiste en persuadir al auditorio; en la poesía se encargan de crear un efecto estético y emotivo; y en el periodismo se ocupan de captar y mantener la atención del receptor, tal como acontece en las crónicas beisboleras que constituyen el tema central de nuestra investigación. Los tropos están integrados a la crónica deportiva, en especial a la crónica beisbolera, haciendo de ésta un texto muy particular. Los cronistas y comentaristas, independientemente de los conocimientos que poseen respecto al béisbol, recurren a estas unidades léxicas algunas ocasiones de manera inconsciente y momentánea, pero otras ocasiones lo hacen de una forma intencionada tratando de crear un estilo propio que los caracterice y defina, tal como sucede con el cronista mexicano Alfonso Lanzagorta que es conocido por múltiples frases que contienen diferentes tropos como símiles y metáforas, por ejemplo: corre como ratero de mercado; pitcheo mefistofélico de cola, trinche y cuernos; ese lanzamiento no fue suficiente para enamorar la garganta del tercero en discordia; lo dejó como pollo rostizado, en el calor y dando vueltas; entre otras. De acuerdo con Segura Soto (2009: 72), un sinnúmero de vocablos ligados al campo semántico bélico aparecen en la crónica de futbol, dichos términos aumentan la emoción de la narración y le añaden cierto valor a la retórica del cronista deportivo. Algunos ejemplos que ofrece el autor en su estudio son sustantivos como: disparo, tiro, balazo, bombazo, escopetazo, fogonazo, misil, cañonazo, y riflazo para referirse a remates a la portería. Asimismo, Medina Montero (2009: 160) señala que existen metáforas ya lexicalizadas en el discurso futbolístico relacionadas con atacar, ataque y todas sus variantes como: lanzarse al ataque, subir al ataque, subir a atacar, o línea de ataque. En el caso del béisbol también es fácil localizar términos tomados del campo semántico bélico-militar para hacer referencia a un lanzamiento muy fuerte por parte del pitcher como cañonazo, disparo, riflazo, proyectil, entre otros. Asimismo, contamos con sustantivos como tropa para hacer referencia a un equipo. Igualmente, observamos frases como ir al ataque cuando un equipo comienza a hacer hits. Por último, Rodríguez Juliá (2011: 7) nos recuerda la célebre frase metafórica quedarse con la carabina al hombro que se refiere a la situación en la que el bateador no hace swing al lanzamiento del pitcher y resulta ponchado. 87

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Además de hacer uso de términos bélicos, los narradores de béisbol también utilizan vocablos de otra naturaleza, por ejemplo: almohadilla o cojín para referirse a las bases que se encuentran dentro del cuadro, la palabra registradora22 para señalar que alguien ha pasado por el plato y por ello ha anotado una carrera, lomita o colina para denominar el montículo de tierra donde se ubica el lanzador, diamante para hacer referencia al cuadro en el terreno de juego, guardabosques para referirse a los jardineros, entre otros términos.

3

Metodología

Para la realización de este estudio, recurrimos a la grabación de las crónicas de tres partidos de Béisbol de las Grandes Ligas narrados por diferentes cronistas y comentaristas de televisión latinoamericana que tuvieron lugar durante los meses de septiembre y octubre del año 2012. Los partidos que se tomaron en consideración para el estudio fueron: Yankees de Nueva York en casa de los Azulejos de Toronto el 29 de septiembre a través de Televisa Deportes con los comentaristas José Segarra, Enrique Burak y Antonio de Valdés. Medias Rojas de Boston en casa de los Yankees de Nueva York el 3 de octubre de 2012 por ESPN 2 con los narradores Luis Alfredo Álvarez y Ernesto Jerez. Gigantes de San Francisco en casa de los Tigres de Detroit (Juego 4 de la Serie de Campeonato de la Liga Americana) el 28 de octubre de 2012 por Fox Sports con los cronistas José Pablo Coello y Ernesto del Valle.

Luego de haber grabado las crónicas de los tres partidos, nos dimos a la tarea de elaborar un listado de todos los tropos empleados por los cronistas. Posteriormente, llevamos a cabo la clasificación de los tropos encontrados en las siguientes cuatro categorías: a) metáfora, b) metonimia, c) hipérbole y d) símil. Cabe señalar que los cuatro tropos antes aludidos no fueron los únicos que se encontraron en las crónicas, pero sí resultaron los más empleados por los cronistas y por eso, decidimos centrar el estudio únicamente en ellos. Por último, determinamos los tropos que resultaron más recurrentes en las narraciones que constituyeron nuestro corpus para finalmente lograr esclarecer algunas conclusiones de nuestro estudio respecto al papel que juegan los tropos en la crónica beisbolera.

4 Análisis En las tres crónicas beisboleras de nuestro corpus se registró un total de 430 tropos. Es importante comentar que el número de tropos resultó un tanto desigual entre una crónica y otra, pues mientras los cronistas de Fox Sports, José Pablo Coello y Ernesto del Valle, 22

Aquí se toma como punto de similitud el timbrazo que se escucha en la registradora de un establecimiento luego de que entra una ganancia. En el béisbol se escucha un estruendo por parte del público luego de que entra una carrera. (Rodríguez Juliá 2011: 10).

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así como los de Televisa Deportes, José Segarra, Enrique Burak y Antonio de Valdés, utilizaron 186 y 156 tropos respectivamente en sus partidos, los comentaristas de ESPN, Luis Álvarez y Ernesto Jerez apenas emplearon 88. Antes de presentar ejemplos de los cuatro tropos que nos ocupan en la presente investigación, podemos destacar que éstos juegan un rol significativo en las narraciones beisboleras. La tabla 1 recapitula las cantidades en las que se registraron los tropos en cada crónica:

Tropos

Televisa Deportes

Fox Sports

ESPN

Metáforas

121

151

59

Metonimias

20

17

18

Hipérboles

14

14

11

Símiles

1

4

-

156

186

88

Total

Tabla 1. Tropos localizados en el corpus

Así pues, a continuación daremos lugar al análisis de nuestro corpus, comenzando con las metáforas que fueron por mucho el tropo más recurrente; continuaremos con las metonimias que fueron el segundo tropo más frecuente; posteriormente, expondremos las hipérboles que fueron menos utilizadas que las otras dos figuras; y por último, presentaremos los símiles que resultaron los tropos menos recurrentes.

4.1 Metáforas Las metáforas constituyeron el tropo más utilizado en todas las crónicas que constituyen nuestro corpus. En efecto, en la narración de Fox Sports registramos 151 metáforas; en la narración de Televisa Deportes contabilizamos 121 expresiones metafóricas; finalmente, en el texto de los periodistas de ESPN encontramos 59 metáforas. Ahora bien, demos paso a las metáforas mediante las cuales los cronistas denominan una cosa a través de un término con el que dicha cosa guarda alguna similitud. Tal como señalábamos en el apartado teórico, nuestro estudio al igual que el de Medina Montero (2009) presenta sólo metáforas puras, esto es que únicamente nombran el término imaginario y no designan al tenor. En (1) y (2) observamos dos ejemplos empleados por dos cronistas de dos televisoras diferentes que se basan en el mismo principio de similitud.

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Ejemplos: (1) Y colgó la argolla Robertson. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012) (2) Cain cuelga un cero importante. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012)

Ambos utilizan el verbo colgar, en (1) la argolla y en (2) un cero importante, para señalar que el lanzador logró que no le hicieran carrera y por lo tanto, consiguió que su equipo se mantuviera con cero carreras admitidas. Por un lado, el verbo colgar es utilizado con frecuencia en el discurso beisbolero porque en antaño solía haber un encargado de colgar en la pizarra del estadio los números que indicaban las carreras de los equipos. Actualmente, es más común el uso de una pizarra electrónica; sin embargo, los cronistas continúan utilizando el verbo colgar. Por otro lado, en (1) el empleo del término argolla tiene una motivación en la similitud de ésta con la forma del cero. En (3) y (4) apreciamos las frases metafóricas trepar a la lomita y trepar a la loma de las responsabilidades empleadas ambas por el mismo cronista deportivo para señalar que los relevistas han sido elegidos por el entrenador para que realicen la labor de lanzar en el partido. Ejemplos: (3) Boone Logan trepa a la lomita. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012) (4) Y trepa Delabar a la loma de las responsabilidades. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 )

Aquí la similitud del término loma radica en que el lanzador debe situarse en el montículo que se encuentra en el centro del cuadro; empero en el béisbol es sabido que la gran responsabilidad de que un equipo no permita carreras depende considerablemente del lanzador, de ahí el uso de la frase preposicional de las responsabilidades en el caso de (4) que se aúna al sustantivo loma. En (5-8) advertimos la metáfora atacar y al ataque, que nos recuerda el lenguaje bélico sumamente recurrente en la crónica de futbol en los estudios de Segura Soto (2009) y Medina Montero (2009). Ejemplos: (5) Le faltó atacar con determinación y por ello permite que se embase Robinson Canó. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) (6) Gomes que no ha tenido un partido muy afortunado, no ataca bien la pelota. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) (7) Ataca en el derecho, cierra y captura el batazo de Swisher. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2 )

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No obstante, en el discurso futbolístico cuando el cronista emplea la palabra atacar o ataque lo hace para referirse a que un equipo toma la iniciativa del juego para crear una oportunidad de gol. Empero, los cronistas beisboleros hacen referencia en (5-7) a que un jugador ataca la pelota, es decir que el beisbolista logra detener la bola lanzada por el bateador para evitar una jugada de peligro por parte del equipo contrario, esto es en el marco de una jugada defensiva. Es interesante notar que en (5) y (6) el cronista se refiere a la falta de pericia para atacar la pelota por parte de los jugadores y por ende, a una acción negativa; mientras que en (7) se hace referencia a una acción positiva. Finalmente, en (8) se advierte el uso del sustantivo ataque y no del verbo atacar; aquí el cronista señala que el equipo de Detroit va a batear. En este caso concreto se alude a una jugada ofensiva, como sucede en el futbol, es decir que el equipo que debe batear es el equipo que tiene oportunidad de hacer carreras. En (9) y (10) observamos las metáforas aplicar la grúa y salir con la grúa respectivamente. Ejemplos: (9) (10)

Le aplican la grúa al ilustre veterano. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) Sale con la grúa por Valentine. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012 )

En ambos ejemplos los cronistas de Televisa Deportes y de ESPN señalan que el entrenador del equipo ha decidido sacar del partido al lanzador. La similitud radica en que una grúa normalmente sirve para remolcar vehículos automotores cuando éstos no funcionan. En el discurso beisbolero, un entrenador debe sacar del partido a su lanzador cuando éste no está funcionando en el partido. Finalmente, en (11) y (12) se vuelven a distinguir dos frases metafóricas basadas en el mismo principio de semejanza. Ejemplos: (11) Muy pensativo Pettite porque el partido está en el alambre. (Televisa Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 )

Deportes, Nueva York en

(12) El duelo sigue en el alambre. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012)

Estar en el alambre como un funámbulo que debe pasar caminando en una cuerda floja o alambre en el marco de una atracción circense. Esta frase sirve para referirse a que alguien está en una situación de peligroso equilibrio, de tal manera que no se sabe si se va a caer o va a continuar andando. Así, tanto los comentaristas de Televisa Deportes como los de Fox Sports utilizan esta frase para referirse a que el juego no está definido y por ende, la victoria puede pertenecer a cualquiera de los dos equipos.

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4.2. Metonimia La metonimia fue el segundo tropo más utilizado en las tres crónicas de nuestro corpus. En la narración de Televisa Deportes ubicamos 20 metonimias; en la crónica de Fox Sports registramos 17, y finalmente, en el partido de ESPN examinamos 18. Hemos señalado que la metonimia designa una cosa mediante el nombre de otra a través de una relación que existe entre ellas (Corado Valenzuela 2011). El caso de metonimia más comúnmente encontrado en nuestro corpus es el de designar al beisbolista por la posición que desempeña en el equipo, por su nacionalidad y por las hazañas que ha logrado en su carrera deportiva. Los ejemplos de metonimia en los que el cronista se refiere al beisbolista por la posición que juega son variados en nuestro corpus. En efecto, algunos términos metonímicos hacen referencia al jugador a través de la posición que juega a la defensiva, esto es cuando se encuentra ubicado en el terreno de juego. Otros términos hacen referencia al jugador por el número de la posición que se le asigna típicamente situado en el terreno de juego23. Por último, otros ejemplos de metonimia se utilizan para nombrar al jugador a través del orden que tiene en su equipo al momento de batear. En (13-15) se advierte cómo los cronistas designan a los beisbolistas por las posiciones que juegan éstos en el momento de estar en el campo: el cátcher, el pitcher y el jardinero para hacer referencia a Buster Posey, a Daisuke Matsuzaka y a Nick Swisher respectivamente. Ejemplos: (13) Es el cátcher, es el que está esperando turno. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 ) (14) Robinson Canó, el primero a medirse a los envíos del pitcher. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012 ) (15) Va de 1-0 el jardinero de los Yankees. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012)

En (16-19) se observa que los cronistas de ESPN reiteradamente hacen referencia a la jugada en la que intervienen el jugador en segunda base y el de primera base para así lograr el ponche, a través del número de posición que tienen en el campo de juego. Ejemplos: (16) Del 4 al 3 retirado James Laury. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012) (17) Del 4 al 3, 2 outs. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012) Cabe señalar que en el béisbol existen nueve posiciones del campo de juego y cada posición está asociada con un número: uno es para el lanzador, dos para el receptor, tres para el primera base, cuatro para el segunda base, cinco para el tercera base, seis para el parador en corto, siete para el jardinero izquierdo, ocho para el jardinero central y nueve para el jardinero derecho. Los números facilitan la anotación de las jugadas que realizan los equipos a la defensiva.

23

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Finalmente, en (20-25) notamos que los cronistas denominan a los jugadores por el orden que ocupan en su equipo al momento de batear. Ejemplos: (20) El primero en el orden para enfrentar a Matsuzaka. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 ) (21) Es dominado el primero en el orden. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012 ) (22) El cuarto en el orden y cátcher de los Gigantes que deja pasar. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012) (23) Hombre en posición de anotar, la oportunidad ahora es para el séptimo en el orden al bat. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 ) (24) Aquí está de regreso a la caja de bateo, el noveno en el orden. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012 ) (25) Los de abajo en el orden de los Azulejos son los que vienen a batear ahora. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 )

El primero en el orden, el cuarto en el orden, el séptimo en el orden, el noveno en el orden y los de abajo en el orden. Cabe señalar que en (22) no sólo se designa al jugador por el orden que ocupa en el bateo sino también por la posición que ocupa en el campo de juego. Por último, en (25) se habla de los de abajo en el orden para aludir a los que ocupan el lugar siete, ocho y nueve para batear. A continuación, observamos ejemplos en los que los cronistas identifican a los jugadores a través de su nacionalidad. Ejemplos: (26) Son 12 temporadas en grandes ligas para el japonés y sin querer la cosa hoy llega a 1907 partidos. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) (27) El curazaleño sólo bateó basura, en dos ocasiones lo mandaron a morder el polvo. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) (28) Se va el canadiense gritándole quién sabe cuántas cosas al ampáyer principal. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) (29) 3 y 1 la cuenta para el venezolano. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012)

En (26) los cronistas hablan del japonés para referirse a Ichiro Suzuki, en (27) del curazaleño para hacer referencia a Andruw Jones, en (28) del canadiense para designar a Russell Martin y finalmente, en (29) del venezolano para identificar a Miguel Cabrera.

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En (30-33) podemos apreciar que el cronista deportivo de Televisa Deportes distingue al jugador Derek Jeter mediante su nombramiento de capitán en cuatro ocasiones: capitán yankee (en dos ocasiones), capitán de los Yankees y capitán neoyorkino. Ejemplos: (30) Y aquí está el capitán yankee que abre por cuarta ocasión la alineación de los Yankees. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) (31) La rola no llevaba mucha pólvora, y no pudieron fulminar al capitán yankee en la primera. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) (32) Ahora viene a batear el capitán de los Yankees. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 ) (33) Y eso es precisamente lo que quisiera repetir el capitán neoyorkino. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 )

Cabe señalar que no todos los equipos de las Grandes Ligas tienen un capitán tal como sucede en otros deportes de conjunto como el futbol. En realidad, se trata de un nombramiento honorífico que se le otorga a un jugador que ya tiene mucho tiempo jugando con el equipo y que despliega rasgos de liderazgo tanto en los vestidores como en el campo de juego: El rol de capitán en un equipo de béisbol generalmente se le da a un jugador que puede encargarse de la estrategia (...). Eso hace que la posición normalmente - pero no siempre - vaya a un jugador con excelentes capacidades en el terreno (Hoch 2008: 1).

Finalmente, en (34-36) observamos que los cronistas de Fox Sports aluden a Miguel Cabrera a través de su hazaña lograda durante la temporada 2012. Ejemplos: (34) Ahí está el ganador de la triple corona para su presentación en el Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 )

partido. (Fox Sports, San

(35) El ganador de la triple corona pone adelante a Detroit que va ganando 2 a 1. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 ) (36) Aquí vemos al ganador de la triple corona que viene a la caja de bateo. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012)

Esto es como ganador de la triple corona, ya que precisamente el beisbolista venezolano logró obtener el mejor promedio de bateo, el número más grande de carreras impulsadas y el mayor número de jonrones durante la temporada regular. 4.3. Hipérbole La hipérbole fue el tercer tropo más utilizado durante las crónicas de nuestro corpus. Tanto en la narración de Televisa Deportes como en la de Fox Sports registramos 14 hipérboles; mientras que en la crónica de ESPN situamos 11. 94

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No obstante, cuando los narradores hacían uso de este tropo era para aumentar la emoción de las jugadas que ellos consideraban más interesantes o para exagerar alguna situación deportiva e incluso extra deportiva. Con la gran mayoría de dichas hipérboles los cronistas tenían la intención de hacer pasar un momento de humor a su teleauditorio. En (37) los cronistas utilizan la hipérbole dejar viendo visiones para señalar que el lanzamiento del pitcher fue un strike rápido y bien colocado que el bateador no tuvo oportunidad de hacer swing. Ejemplo: (37) Buen lanzamiento, se va ponchado Buster Posey, lo dejó viendo visiones Scherzer. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 )

En (38) los cronistas dicen que hay silencio total en el estadio para indicar que los aficionados ya no están haciendo el ruido que estaban haciendo anteriormente en el juego, esto evidentemente porque su equipo está perdiendo el partido. Ejemplo: (38) Silencio total aquí en el Comerica Park. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 )

En (39) el cronista exagera la hazaña de Miguel Cabrera de quedarse con el liderato en los tres departamentos de bateo de la Liga Americana: promedio de bateo, jonrones y carreras impulsadas, y señala que hasta el Cy Young se puede llevar, cuando éste es un premio destinado exclusivamente para los lanzadores. Ejemplo: (39) Si Miguel Cabrera se queda con la triple corona de la Liga Americana hasta el Cy Young se puede llevar. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 )

En (40) el periodista habla de su compañero y exagera la búsqueda que éste realiza en Internet. Ejemplo: (40) Luis Ernesto ha abierto como 37 ventanitas para buscar los datos. (ESPN, Nueva York en Boston, 3 de octubre de 2012 )

De tal manera que señala que ha abierto como 37 ventanitas en su computadora cuando evidentemente no han sido tantas ventanas. Finalmente, en (41) y (42) apreciamos la misma hipérbole enunciada por el cronista José Segarra.

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Ejemplos: (41) Se fue mascullando toda clase de improperios. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de ) (42) Lawrie se va mascullando toda clase de improperios (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 )

La hipérbole mascullar toda clase de improperios sirve para exagerar la molestia del bateador luego de la decisión del tercer strike por parte ampáyer.

4.4 Comparación o símil Hemos señalado anteriormente que el símil fue el tropo que menos se utilizó en las crónicas beisboleras de nuestro corpus. En el partido de Televisa Deportes apenas se registró 1 símil; en la narración de Fox Sports fueron 4 las comparaciones; y en la crónica de ESPN no se registró ninguna. Las pocas comparaciones que registramos asocian las ideas semejantes mediante el comparativo como así como los verbos parecer y ser aunado a un adjetivo. Ejemplo: (43) Ahí vemos a Girardi preocupado, realmente los Yankees han tenido una temporada como si fueran equilibristas de circo. (Televisa Deportes, Nueva York en Toronto, 29 de septiembre de 2012 )

En (43) contamos con una comparación de los jugadores de los Yankees con los equilibristas de circo por las altas y las bajas que tuvieron durante toda la temporada, los elementos lingüísticos que permiten la comparación son como y si. En (44) la comparación se produce entre dos lanzadores, Cain y Sherzer. Ejemplo: (44) Matt Cain que es un pitcher bastante ponchador como Scherzer. (Fox Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012)

Sports,

San

Luis

en

Los elementos lingüísticos que permiten el símil son el verbo ser + sintagma nominal + como. Finalmente, en (45) el cronista compara la situación de los Yankees con la de Detroit.

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Ejemplo: (45) No ha podido el bateo de Detroit y ya muchos dicen que se parece al gran pitcheo que tuvo Detroit pero contra los Yankees. (Fox Sports, San Luis en Detroit, 28 de octubre de 2012 )

El símil se produce a través del verbo parecer. Así pues, luego de presentar el análisis de nuestro corpus, constatamos que los tropos son sumamente utilizados en la crónica beisbolera. En primer lugar, la metáfora, enseguida la metonimia, posteriormente la hipérbole, y por último el símil o comparación.

5 Conclusiones Hemos visto a lo largo de este estudio que los tropos actualmente constituyen un elemento muy frecuente en la crónica beisbolera. En nuestro corpus constituido de tres crónicas de diferentes narradores latinoamericanos de diversas cadenas televisivas logramos determinar que la metáfora resultó por mucho el tropo más frecuentemente empleado, pues en dos de las tres crónicas las metáforas se contabilizaron más de cien ocasiones. El segundo tropo más asiduo en nuestros registros fue la metonimia, ya que a menudo se designa al jugador por las diferentes características que lo distinguen, éstas pueden ser: su posición tanto en el terreno de juego como en el orden al bate, su nacionalidad y las hazañas que ha logrado a lo largo de su carrera. El tercer tropo más registrado en nuestro corpus fue la hipérbole, ya que los cronistas exageran algunas situaciones que acontecen en el partido con la finalidad de llamar la atención de sus televidentes y así, mantenerlos atentos a las situaciones tanto dentro del terreno de juego como fuera. Por último, otro tropo que ubicamos en nuestro corpus, aunque con menor asiduidad que los otros, fue el símil; los cronistas beisboleros suelen comparar poco y cuando lo hacen recurren al elemento comparativo como así como a los verbos parecer y ser. Asimismo, con base en nuestro corpus, nos dimos cuenta de que existen comentaristas que hacen mayor uso de los tropos que otros. En efecto, los cronistas de Fox Sports y los de Televisa Deportes recurrieron más frecuentemente a los tropos que los narradores de ESPN. En nuestro corpus registramos que los periodistas de Fox Sports emplearon 186 tropos, los de Televisa Deportes 156 y finalmente, los de ESPN sólo 88 en sus respectivos partidos, tal como puede apreciarse en la tabla 1. Finalmente, es conveniente señalar que los resultados que arroja el presente estudio no son de ninguna manera definitivos. Es por ello que existe la necesidad de seguir investigando respecto al tema de los tropos en el marco de las crónicas deportivas. Y es que las narraciones de otros deportes como el futbol, el boxeo, el futbol americano, el basquetbol, entre otros también presentan un considerable número de figuras retóricas.

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Bibliografía Armañanzas, E. (2008). Entre el crochet y el endecasílabo. Manuel Alcántara cronista de boxeo. VV.AA, El artículo literario: Manuel Alcántara, pp. 239-261. Armañanzas, E. y Sánchez, F. (2009). El lenguaje de lucha en las crónicas de boxeo de Manuel Alcántara. Círculo de Lingüística Aplicada a la Comunicación N° 39, pp. 3-34. Barragán, L. (2004). Las sociedades del chaleco antibala. Consultado el 20 de febrero de 2013 en: http://www.analitica.com/va/politica/opinion/3597645.asp. Castro, L. (2012). Lenguaje y béisbol en Cuba. Consultado el 19 de febrero de 2013 en: http://www.lajiribilla.cu/articulo/lengua-beisbol-cuba. Corado Valenzuela, H. (2011). Análisis Retórico de los Signos Sonoros y Lingüísticos de la Narración Radiofónica de Futbol en Emisoras de Frecuencia Modulada. Tesis. Guatemala: Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala. Hoch, B. (2008). En verdad valoran el privilegio. Un trío de capitanes aprecian el tan importante papel. Consultado el 20 de febrero de 2013 en: http://mlb.mlb.com/es/news/article.jsp?ymd=20080302&content_id=2400322&vkey=news_mlb_es&fext=. jsp&c_id=mlb Lanzagorta, A. (2009). Análisis periodístico de la crónica del béisbol. Razón y Palabra. Deporte Cultura y Comunicación N° 69, pp. 1-11. Mapelli, G. (2004). Locuciones del lenguaje del fútbol. Atti del XXI Congresso dell’AISPI, Letteratura della memoria. La memoria delle lingue: la didattica e lo studio delle lingue della penisola iberica in Italia, pp. 171-181. Medina Montero, J. F. (2007). La metáfora en el léxico futbolístico: el caso de los participantes en español y sus posibles equivalencias en italiano. In Luque Toro L. (ed.), Léxico español actual (Actas del I Congreso Internacional de Léxico Español Actual, Venecia, 14-15 de marzo de 2005), Venezia, pp. 197239. Medina Montero, J. F. (2009). La metáfora en el léxico futbolístico: el caso de la actividad deportiva en español, y algunas propuestas de traducción al italiano. In Luque Toro L. (ed.), Léxico español actual II, pp. 155-202. Morales, J. (2009). Estudio comparativo del lenguaje retórico utilizado por los narradores y comentaristas de fútbol de Emisoras Unidas y Red Deportiva. Tesis. Guatemala: Universidad de San Carlos. Nomdedeu, A. (2004). Terminología del fútbol y los diccionarios: elaboración de un diccionario de especialidad para el gran público. Tesis doctoral. España: Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona. Rodríguez Juliá, E. (2011). El béisbol y sus metáforas. Dilo: Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española N° 4, pp. 6-10. Rodríguez Menéndez, R. (2009). La jerga beisbolera al bate con las bases llenas. Consultado el 25 de febrero de 2013 en: http://www.radiocubana.cu/index.php/articulos-especializados-sobre-la-radio/41locucion/424-la-jerga-beisbolera-al-bate-con-las-bases-llenas. Segura Soto, G. A. (2009). Prepara, apunta, dispara… fusila al portero, la metáfora bélica en el fútbol. Káñina, Revista de Artes y Letras N° XXXIII Especial, pp. 67-74. Tristá, M.A. (1998). El nuevo diccionario de cubanismos: un diccionario contrastivo. Anuario de Estudios lingüísticos N° 29/30.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Corpus: Bustillos, R. (Productor). (2012, 29 de septiembre). Béisbol de las Grandes Ligas Nueva York en Toronto. [Emisión televisiva]. México, D. F.: Televisa Deportes. Landino, L. (Productor). (2012, 3 de octubre). Béisbol de las Grandes Ligas Nueva York en Boston. [Emisión televisiva]. Boston, Massachusetts: ESPN. Luis, M. (Productor). (2012, 28 de octubre). Béisbol de las Grandes Ligas San Francisco en Detroit. [Emisión televisiva]. Detroit, Michigan: Fox Sports.

Autora: Sara Quintero Ramírez Doctora en Estudios Literarios y Lingüísticos Universidad de Guadalajara Departamento de Lenguas Modernas Calle Guanajuato 1045 Col. Alcalde Barranquitas. C. P. 44260 Guadalajara, Jalisco, México E-mail: [email protected]

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II. University Report

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Language Knowledge and Language Skills - Prerequisites, Relativity, Methodology - The Second Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign Language Teaching

Thomas Tinnefeld (Saarbrücken, Germany)

Abstract (English) The present article presents a report on the The Second Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign LanguageTeaching that took place at Saarland University of Applied Sciences in Saarbrücken (Rotenbühl Campus), Germany, from November 7th to 9th, 2013. The conference featured the theme "Language Knowledge and Language Skills" with 52 talks, inclusive of one keynote speech, being held in six thematic sections: linguistics, methodology, languages for specific purposes, communication and interculturality, the Internet and multimedia as well as product-oriented presentations. The conference was the second one of the Saarbrücken conference series, started in 2011. Convening at the interval of two years, the third conference is scheduled to take place in 2015.

Abstract (Deutsch) Der Artikel repräsentiert einen Bericht über die 2. Saarbrücker Fremdsprachentagung, die vom 7. bis 9. November 2013 an der Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft des Saarlandes (Campus Rotenbühl) stattfand. Die Tagung zu dem Thema "Sprachwissen und Sprachkönnen - Voraussetzungen, Verhältnismäßigkeit, Vermittlung" umfasste - zusätzlich zu einem Hauptvortrag - 52 Vorträge in sechs thematisch ausgerichteten Sektionen: Linguistische Positionen, (hoch)schuldidaktische Ansätze, (hoch)schuldidaktische Ansätze in den Fachsprachen, Kommunikation und Interkulturalität, Internet und Multimedia sowie produktorientierte Präsentationen. Die Tagung war die zweite in der Reihe der im Jahre 2011 ins Leben gerufenen Saarbrücker Fremdsprachentagungen. Die 3. Saarbrücker Fremdsprachentagung ist - in Umsetzung des angestrebten Zweijahres-Rhythmus - für das Jahre 2015 geplant.

1 Introduction Featuring the theme "Language Knowledge and Language Skills - Prerequisites, Relativity, Methodology", the Second Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign Language Teaching took place at Saarland University of Applied Sciences in Saarbrücken (Rotenbühl Campus), Germany from November 7th to 9th, 2013. In addition to a keynote speech, the conference comprised six sections in which 52 talks were given by researchers from different language domains. The conference was attended by around 130 participants from 23 countries. With leading researchers of their respective fields being represented at and taking part in the conference, the talks given were invariably of high quality and aroused inspiring 103

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discussions. The overall atmosphere, described by participants as both academic and cordial, permitted an intensive exchange of ideas, which was supported by the framework programme that intensified networking. The present report will first cover the keynote speech and then briefly describe the talks given in the various sections.

2 Keynote Speech The conference's keynote speech was given by Franz-Joseph Meißner from Giessen University (Germany), a renowned Romance language methodologist. The topic of his talk being "Foreign Language Learning Competence", Meißner first defined the very term and then elaborated on the design of relevant tasks. The concept of foreign language learning competence, which has newly been introduced into the education standards for English and French A-Level examinations by the German Assembly of Ministers of Education in Germany, can be referred to any foreign language being learnt and therefore represents a wide-ranging and holistic term. Language learning competence refers to both language knowledge and language skills. As some of the terms which are central for this field - like competence orientation, intercultural learning, intercomprehension or language awareness, - had been used rather inexactly, the Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches towards Foreign Languages and Cultures, published by the European Council in 2007, aims at clarifying these terms by means of an operational competence model which is reflected in the term foreign language learning competence. The keynote speaker stresses that as each of the four basic linguistic skills - listening and speaking, reading and writing - is characterised by its own mental programme, separate tasks need to be defined and designed for them in the framework of foreign language learning competence. This work is of utmost importance for language teachers and the potential learning outcome of their students. Professor Meißner's keynote speech fruitfully opened up the conference track by tackling a topic which is of overall significance to language teaching and learning and which, therefore, widely affects foreign language methodology. Following the keynote speech, individual talks were given in six sections at the conference.

3 Sections The sections defined on the occasion of this conference covered the following research fields:

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•

Linguistic approaches (Section 1)

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Methodological approaches (Section 2)

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Methodological approaches in LSP (languages for specific purposes) (Section 3)

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Communication and interculturality (Section 4)

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Internet and Multimedia (Section 5)

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Product-oriented presentations (Section 6)

The relative distribution of the talks held at the conference was as follows:

Table 1: Distribution of the talks by section This pie chart shows that the number of talks on methodology was the highest one (42.3% altogether), followed by those on linguistics (19.2%). The other three sections reached a share (38.5%) that roughly equalled the methodological sections. This means that the majority of the conference talks were methodological and linguistic ones, with most of the talks given in sections 4 and 5 also being methodology-oriented. Language methodology, then, was by far the most important field at the Second Saarbrücken Conference. A brief outline on the individual sections will be given in the following.

3.1 Section 1: Linguistic Approaches Section 1, chaired by Heinz-Helmut Lüger (Koblenz-Landau, Germany), focused on Linguistic Approaches. The first talk in this section was given by Karl-Heinz Eggensperger (Potsdam, Germany). As traditional language curricula have widely lost their importance 105

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with the introduction of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), which has not only been taken positively, the presenter aimed at substantiating such descriptors as extendible basic knowledge, basic means of expression or basic language usage in terms of a communicative minimum for French as a foreign language. In this way, the presenter contributed to concretising a vague descriptive approach thus making teaching more practical in this respect. In Eggensperger's wake, Katrin Henk (Heilbronn, Germany) tackled the question of how to facilitate the acquisition of grammatical structures. On the background of the two extremes existing on a fictitious continuum - the Non-Interface-Hypothesis on the one hand and the existence of a marked interface between explicit language knowledge and practical language skills on the other- , the presenter raised the question of whether and, if so, how explicit language knowledge can positively influence natural language acquisition processes. Taking real classroom situations in to account, in which natural language acquisition hardly ever takes place, Henk modified this question, asking whether findings on natural language acquisition processes could foster the explicit teaching of linguistic structures. The presenter also described some preliminary findings made in her study (in progress) on empirical tests with eighth-grade students with French as their second language at a German grammar school. A lexical approach represented the centre of the talk by Katarina Zipser (Innsbruck, Austria), who reflected on integrative learner-centred vocabulary acquisition. Though vocabulary acquisition represents a learner-centred approach, the role of the teacher is of central importance in this context. The renunciation from the mere memorisation of vocabulary from word lists has not made the knowledge of words superfluous - on the contrary. Methodologically, vocabulary acquisition should be individual and oriented towards students' individuality, need centred and aiming at students' intrinsic motivation, linked to students' previous knowledge, and situated in students' socio-cultural surroundings. The presenter showed that this method of vocabulary acquisition represents a logical way to pursue in the foreign language classroom. Another lexicological approach which leads to the mastery of German legal language was presented by Inge Hudalla (Saarbrücken, Germany), who regards phraseologisms as a means to teach legal terminology and legal knowledge to students of German as a foreign language. Phraseologisms, albeit being an integral part in the teaching of (general) German, have been widely neglected up to the present day in terms of their use for GSP (German as a specific language). This is all the more problematic as teaching phraseologisms gives students insights not only into legal terminology but also into the structure and the relevant fact of the legal system of the target language. In this, way an important change is missed if phraseologisms are not made good use of in teaching legal language. It may be added here that this statement is not only true for legal language but can be extended to any specific language. With linguistics as its point of departure, Vincent Lepalestel (Kehl, Germany) elaborated upon the teaching of intercultural experiences in a university context with French as a foreign language. On the basis of contracted forms like T'en manges plus? instead of Tu n'en manges plus?, the presenter stated that German learners of French often have 106

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problems understanding spoken French because of native speakers' abundant use of such contracted forms. Teachers therefore have the obligation to equip their students with the knowledge of the existence and usage of these contracted forms. The presenter also showed how the contraction of forms could be taught by and by so as to help students get used to them gradually. The side effect of this approach consists in the fact that students’ comprehension level of spoken French will be enhanced and their wide-spread fear of learning this language may be alleviated. Isabelle Mordellet-Roggenbuck (Freiburg, Germany) dealt with the importance of language knowledge in the area of French orthography. Pointing to the fact that in no other Romance language, there is as big a gap between spoken and written language (code écrit and code parlé) as is the case in French, she underlined that the mastery of French orthography is a complex matter for the French learner as well as the French native. Yet, According to the presenter, it is not so much the development of an "orthographic competence", as defined in the CEFR, which is of vital importance, but rather the intellectual comprehension of the French orthographic system which enables the learner to make reflections on language and to develop a grammatical consciousness that supports their learning process. Sketching her theoretical concept of orthography in the framework of linguistics, the presenter also defined the place that orthography should take in modern language teaching. Katrin Ziegler (Macerata, Italy) also worked on orthography, outlining the importance and the orientation of German orthography in the case of German taught to Italian natives. Communicative skills traditionally having been in the focus of the German classroom, the correct use of formal aspects of language like grammar and orthography is often neglected. According to the presenter, too big a tolerance level with regards to correct spelling often leaves learners disoriented. On the basis of her own corpus of texts written by advanced Italian learners of German, the presenter conducted an overall analysis of errors and found that the relationships between sound and letters relevant for Italian are as a tendency - transferred to German, which represents an important source of errors together with other interferences appearing in parts of the writing process. The speaker finished her talk by a brief description of some learning aids potentially helpful to Italian learners to auto-correct their German texts. Another aspect of intercultural language learning was exemplified by Barbara Teuber (Dornburg-Camburg, Germany) who drew a line between intercultural communication and the teaching of grammar. The presenter showed how grammar (e.g. transitive verbs, relative clauses, comparison of adjectives) can be taught by means of interculturally relevant topics like The Market. This topic provided a common ground for 49 students from nine different countries representing Asia, Europe and South-America to exchange their ideas, learn new structures, apply them to practical communication and, at the same time, learn about the varieties of what a market in different cultural settings is. The Market is just one of those topics which offer students a considerable learning potential. Heinz-Helmut Lüger (Koblenz-Landau, Germany) dealt with conversational competencies in the CEFR. The researcher stressed that although communicative competence had been declared the central learning objective in the 1970s, not much progress has been made up 107

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to the present day. Drawing a balance of the present situation, the orator concentrated on the phenomenon of conversational competencies as presented and defined in the CEFR and found that the operationalisation procedures outlined there as well as the various levels defined are not sufficient and do not satisfactorily take into account the findings of conversational linguistics. In addition to this, the descriptors offered do not define exactly enough the communicative activities relevant for the concept of conversational competence. On the basis of Theodor Fontane's novel Frau Jenny Treibel, the presenter stated that aspects of communicative ethics, maxims of politeness and intercultural understanding should be included in the CEFR. Setting in the context of teaching German to Arabic speakers, Abdel-Hafiez Massud (Egypt and Frankfurt, Germany) explored the issue of linguistic politeness in potential situations of conflict. The basis of his analysis consisted in speech acts like refusing offers and denying invitations. Since speech acts of this kind are closely interculturally bound, their specificity makes it necessary to raise students' awareness in the foreign language classroom. The speaker concentrated on showing how to attenuate such speech acts of conflict and on pointing out how to modify them so as to keep communication going. Three Arabic and three German editorials formed the data base of his empirical study, with their similarities and differences being shown as to such face-threatening speech acts. Two relevant textbooks of German were also analysed with a view to drawing conclusions for the interculturally oriented teaching of German as a foreign language (B2 band of the CEFR). Apart from this theoretical analysis, a questionnaire approach served the presenter to define and possibly extend potential consequences for teaching. The talk was finished with some methodological reflections. All in all, talks in Section 1 hinted at the fruitful relationship between (applied) linguistic and its implications for language teaching. Linguistics definitely possess the power to inspire methodology, and methodology in turn empowers linguistics. In this sense, both disciplines do not so much compete with each other, but rather complement each other.

3.2 Section 2: Methodological Approaches Presided by Dirk Siepmann and Christoph Bürgel (both Osnabrück, Germany), Section 2 hosted talks addressing issues related to methodology. Questioning the generally agreed approach to teaching and assessing foreign languages at the university level, Peter Tischer (Saarbrücken, Germany) gave an inspiring and also provocative talk on the objectives and certifications concerning university language courses. After a description of the traditional practice of a holistic course and assessment model in which all the four basic language skills are homogeneously developed and tested with the objective of acquiring a high level of competence in several languages, the presenter raised the question whether this model is still feasible and argued that, based on their learning requirements, learners may not need the same level in writing as they do in reading, for example. The competencies necessary for academic professions also need to be defined. The presenter stressed that in view of increased (student and job) mobility, new EU languages to be learnt, more closely defined education and training programmes 108

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with a focus on partial competencies, such questions represent important challenges and have to be raised and discussed in the framework of language methodology. Günter Schmale's talked about the justification of idiomatic expressions in foreign language teaching. His talk which investigated the necessity or superfluousness of idiomatic expressions in foreign language teaching was based on five hypotheses: (1) Highly metaphorical expressions are reserved to native speakers; their use by non-natives may be negatively sanctioned by natives. (2) On the basis of corpus-based studies on the actual use of idioms, foreign language methodology does not dispose of the means to define the very idioms to be acquired by learners. (3) Highly idiomatic expressions come with manifold connotations and context-based usages that even highly advanced learners can hardly master them. These structures can hardly ever be taught in artificial classroom situations. (4) Metaphorical idioms are often modified (i.e. rephrased, paraphrased) by native speakers according to the very communication situation. Language learners can hardly be expected to perform accordingly. (5) On the grounds of the above hypotheses, the following consequences can be drawn for foreign language teaching: (a) Metaphorical idioms are a taboo for the foreign language classroom. (b) Lists of idioms which are to be memorised by learners but which, per definitionem, are not context-based, should not be used. (c) Metaphorical idioms should only be used when "naturally" evoked in texts studied in class or in classroom situations (d) If idioms are ever dealt with in class, it should only be done for students to understand them rather than for them to use them actively. The above reflections of the researcher were illustrated with abundant examples in his talk. In the framework of students' oral performance, Samira Al-Hosni (Oman) developed ideas on learners' EFL production on the basis of communicative tasks, departing from the generally received presumption that those classroom tasks that elicit negotiations of meaning represent "authentic" communication and, thus, are the desirable ones. The speaker presented her own empirical study and analysed the communicative potential of tasks triggering specific linguistic forms and those triggering general samples of language and which, both, offer learners chances to negotiate meaning, i.e. to act communicatively. The presenter's talk was illustrated by various practical examples. Liliya Nazarenko (Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic) also worked on students' oral performance with a focus on bilingual students’ language interference and ways how to overcome it. In view of phonetic, lexical and grammatical interference, corrective strategies were presented, especially with respect to the functional teaching of grammar. The presenter hinted that in this sense morphology can be taught on a syntactic or textual basis, and syntax can be taught communicatively. The focus of the talk was laid on special exercises on language interference in terms of collocation errors which can help students to identify their own mistakes and to auto-correct them. Focusing on students' writing competence, Ana Iglesias (Hildesheim, Germany) detailed her ideas on informed learning of Spanish in university settings. As Spanish is generally learnt as the second or third foreign language in Germany, the systematicity of language is familiar to most students. The language awareness they have developed after learning at least one foreign language enables them to learn any other foreign language in an informed way. On this background, the speaker presented the first findings of her thesis 109

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project, in which she examines the potential outcome of reflection tasks on a writing portfolio in combination with language counselling. In a more general approach, Mohammadreza Dousti Zadeh (Tehran, Iran) reported on curriculum design in the field of German as a foreign language at universities in Iran. He concentrated on the central guiding lines of a curriculum fostering students' four language skills, to enhance their intercultural competence and to develop their scientific thinking. One objective of the talk, according to the presenter, was to contribute to a new beginning of the relationship between qualification research and curriculum design at universities in Iran. An overall concept of characteristic job tasks and work processes as well as the jobrelevant language knowledge and language skills as a starting point for curriculum design and its rationale were outlined in this talk. In the framework of assessment, Christoph Nickenig (Bolzano, Italy) developed ideas on how to test students at a trilingual university, where courses are taught in Italian, German, and English and where students master at least two of these three languages. The language centre of Bolzano University assigned the task to assess students' language competence in the course of the admission procedure and to re-assess it at the end of their studies. Specific university regulations were set to define students' respective admission and graduations levels. In practice, there have been repeated complaints of students because of the discrepancy that exists between language courses offered at the language centre and the curricular language courses. The new language policy of the university, implemented in 2010, was analysed, and the assessment of students' receptive competencies by means of an electronic test was discussed. Last but not least, the question was raised whether the new language policy of Bolzano University offers students fair chances to do their studies in three languages and to become "trilingual" themselves. Another form of assessment - that of product and product orientation assessment - was investigated by Tamara Makarova (Leipzig, Germany). Product work having resulted in new ways of task assessment, relevant aspects of project and product parameters, project monitoring stages, as well as project and product presentation and assessment were analysed. The presenter was of the opinion that a dilemma might be that the quality of the project is not always equivalent to the quality of students' presentations. This dilemma needs to be taken into account for future analysis. In a video talk, Veronika Timpe (Princeton, (NJ), USA / Dortmund, Germany) developed ideas on the importance of input for the development of pragmatics. According to the presenter, pragmatics, although having been developed decades ago, is still widely characterised by under-representation in classroom settings. Given this background, she examined the questions whether German EFL / ESL learners' socio-pragmatic competence varied in interdependence with the opportunities and contexts of learning English they were offered and which types of input might boost students' receptive sociopragmatic competence. A two-phase approach was adopted in this study: in the first phase, a test to operationalise and measure students' pragmatic knowledge of American English was developed. In the second phase, 105 German university students with English as their L1 took the socio-pragmatic competence test and a questionnaire to evaluate their 110

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experience in the target-language environment. Together with a one-way ANOVA and multiple regression analyses, the results of the study showed that the frequency of students' exposure to audiovisual media represented a major influence on the development of socio-pragmatic competence and that this exposure was even more fruitful than a longer stay in the United States. The findings confirmed the value of utilising films, sitcoms and soap operas as learning aids - all highly contextualised - for the development of socio-pragmatic competence even without direct exposure in the target-language country or countries. The overall results led the speaker to advocate the integration of pragmatic knowledge into tests of English. While Veronika Timpe dealt with the importance of input for language learning, Tricia Pinkert-Branner focused on the importance of comprehensible output in form of music and movement in the acquisition of Spanish. Although the receptive values of music and movement have been proved to be contributive to the memorisation of content and the establishment of associations which influence mood and behaviour, music and movement combined have not been empirically researched upon. In the presenter’s opinion, the combination of gestures and music may facilitate students’ learning of lexical concepts such as prepositions. Combining them with the method of Total Physical Response may enhance this effect even more. In her study, students' comprehension was assessed immediately after having been taught a teacher-induced dancing lesson that included instrumental music, vocabulary (i.e. prepositions) and singing. Working with the evaluation of teaching materials, Yi-Ling Lillian Tinnefeld-Yeh (Saarbrücken, Germany) presented a comparative study of three CFL (Chinese as a Foreign Language) textbooks published respectively in China (New Practical Chinese Reader), the UK (Discover China), and Germany (Liao Liao). Her study aimed at identifying the strong points of one textbook which can/could be used as a reference for improvement of the other textbooks so as to, in the presenter's words, take a leaf out of each other's book. With a focus on the A1 band of the CEFR, the speaker identified three domains which are especially relevant to teaching Chinese on this level: the presentation of lexical items (forte of Discover China) and the distribution of lexical items (forte of New Practical Chinese Reader); the naturalness of language illustrated by the presentation of modal particles and formulaic expressions (forte of Liao Liao); and the presentation of Chinese characters (forte of Discover China). Pedagogical implications for the improvement of students’ language knowledge and language skills were drawn from these findings. Focusing on a special type of language interaction, Dietmar Wozniak (Birmingham, UK) presented practical findings on incorporating face-to-face tandems into traditional language courses. Taking the generally agreed benefits of tandem learning - inclusive of its intercultural implications and its positive impact on students' awareness of linguistic registers - as a basis, the speaker described the situation in Great Britain where the desired linguistic homogeneity of the two tandem partners is rarely to be found, which represents challenges to both partners concerned as well as the tandem designers/ coordinators. After having experimented with a mixture of traditional classes of German and tandem learning for eight years, tandem learning has now been integrated as an integral part in a number of optional language classes at the University of Birmingham. Learning processes have been found to be more efficient, students' motivation having 111

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increased considerably. The results of this experiment are very promising, not only for the language pair German-English, but also for other language pairs. The principles of face-toface tandem learning can also be transferred to e-tandems. From this perspective, the concept model developed in Birmingham may serve as a reference for other language centres. The talks given in this section stand for the wide applicability of methodology dealing with linguistic aspects (or alternatively, linguists dealing with methodological aspects), and ranging from curriculum and textbook design via students' performance and student assessment to learner-friendly forms of language acquisition. Altogether, this section saw the impressive efforts that had been and were being made by the researchers to enhance language teaching and learning. Seen in this light, the methodology section of the Conference adequately reflected the methodological world. Further methodological reflections were presented in Section 3 that dealt with issues in the same orientation, but in an LSP (languages for specific purposes) context.

3.3 Section 3: Methodological Approaches in LSP Chaired by Ines-Andrea Busch-Lauer (Zwickau, Germany), Section 3 was dedicated to methodological approaches in language for specific purposes (LSP). The section was opened up by Ronald Kresta (Nurnberg, Germany) who addressed the treatment of errors in an LSP context at a university level, particularly at universities of applied sciences. The presenter described the phenomena that students often reach their phase of fossilisation even before entering the job market and expounded the possible reasons: their linguistic deficits and the previously acquired errors even after long years of schooling, the faulty acquisition of new LSP vocabulary and structures during their studies as well as wrong input induced by contacts with non-native speakers of English during their studies. To help students to minimise their language errors and to never consider their language acquisition process as completed, the presenter pleaded for the use of welldefined exercises/tasks to raise students' language awareness by classifying relevant types of errors and giving example exercises. The presenter also reported his observation and findings that a large number of errors are due to German- English linguistic interference. In his talk, Michael Klenner (Zwickau, Germany) addressed structural relationships between paratexts of seminar presentations. As a rule, any presentation comes with an accompanying text, be it slides (like in PowerPoint), a manuscript or a handout which generally follows and supports the content of the presentation. In cases where there are several accompanying texts for one and the same presentation, these texts may vary not so much in content, but in terms of design and intention. On the basis of a close comparison of these accompanying texts, the speaker presented relationships (similarities and differences) found between them in terms of content and outline. He inquired whether differences can be found between students studying different subjects. The findings of the 112

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study are to serve for the development of a technical concept for the support of text types characterised by a content overlap. Based on her practical experience of designing a German-Slovakian textbook on statics, Zuzana Tuhárska (Banská Bystrica, Slovakia) engaged herself in the teaching of LSP knowledge in the German foreign language classroom at a technical university in the field of physics, in particular statics, focusing relevant principles, methods, and contents. As relevant methodological principles for the design of such textbooks, she identified the transition from relatively easy to relatively difficult matters, the importance of technical knowledge of the subject in question, and the importance of exercises to consolidate the previously learnt knowledge. According to the presenter, further principles to be taken into account, for example, are the link between technical competence and language competence, the overlap of content taught in the content course (taught in Slovakian) and the language course (taught in German), and the reflection of students' language competence by the methodology employed. As far as content is concerned, the speaker highlighted the lexical level, especially technical terms and word formation. Chris Sheppard (Waseda, Japan) reported on curriculum design in ESP courses at Waseda University in Japan. Three principles are applied to the study programme offered to 4,000 students, 30% of whom will become researchers after graduation. The first principle is the knowledge of language structures being helpful to students for acquiring the necessary skills. The second principle is repetition which is assured within and between the different courses of the study programme. The third principle is task complexity, with the tasks starting at an easy level and becoming increasingly complex during the four-year study programme until they would reach the degree of complexity that characterises the professional world. The presenter brought his talk to an end with a depiction of the evaluation of the successful implementation of these goals and the effectiveness of this language learning approach. In a live video talk from Taiwan (the People’s Republic of China), Chris Merkelbach (Taipei) addressed the teaching of legal German at National Taiwan University as a contribution to intercultural LSP instruction. Due to the fact that in Taiwan, the legal system of the People's Republic of China is valid which, in turn, belongs to the European sphere, a considerable number of Taiwanese law students go to Germany to do research. Such being the case, German legal language is an integral component of the curriculum in legal studies. In his talk, the presenter made reflections on the planning and implementation of courses featuring the German legal language at National Taiwan University, and especially stressed the importance of the methodological aspects. According to the presenter, a balance between language knowledge and language skills needs to be realised, with language awareness and language learning awareness rounding off the picture. Another talks oriented towards legal language was given by Maria Mushchinina (Mainz, Germany), who concerned herself with language competence and information transfer in the legal text type contract. She reported on a research project in which constitutive components of contracts - such as the morphosyntactic and stylistic quality of the texts, the text structure and visual design - were systematically altered and then presented to (contract) managers and lay persons for evaluation. One of the findings presented in the 113

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talk was the importance of text (type) competence for text production and text reception. Mikaela Petkova-Kessanlis (Sofia, Bulgaria) addressed German online dictionaries on linguistics, especially their functions and target groups. Out of the around twenty online dictionaries presently available on the market, the presenter analysed two in terms of organisational structure and user friendliness, the choice and extent of entries, the potential target groups, and the texts of the articles. Finally, she discussed the usability of these dictionaries in a university context. Ferran Robles i Sabater (Valencia, Spain / Heidelberg, Germany) presented a contrastive study of his on discourse markers in specialised genres with respect to teaching translation, carried out at the Institute of Applied Modern Languages of the Universitat de València (Spain). Acknowledging the importance of discourse markers for communication, which is always objective-oriented, the target of this study is the elaboration of a semanticpragmatic model of analysis for discourse markers for Spanish, Catalan, English, German, and Italian. Such a model, including the use, the restrictions and the combination of discourse markers with other components of discourse, may improve the scientific description of these elements in the respective languages as well as the textual genres concerned In addition, it may invite further studies on their contrastive analysis. Ines-Andrea Busch-Lauer (Zwickau, Germany) wound up the session by giving an experience-bases overview of two new forms of assessment in LSP teaching: science slam and poster session. These forms of mini presentations respond to the target-oriented development of students' communicative skills and the often stipulated authenticity of communication tasks. The speaker presented the results of the use of such mini presentations in ESP courses for physicists and IT students at Zwickau University of Applied Sciences offered in the summer semester 2013. The results showed that students engaged themselves with these practice-oriented tasks in a highly motivated way and that they welcomed the use of these presentations as a form of assessment. An addition to that, students' linguistic performance could be improved. The talks held in Sections 3 showed the impressively wide range of fields in which LSP methodology is being researched upon. Moreover, the impressive number of presentations given points to the fact that LSP teaching and research have been holding a significant share in the research field of methodology. With the expectations of language learners and the society as a whole, it will definitely continue showing an impressive development / attracting further research in the future.

3.4 Section 4: Communication and Interculturality Section 4, presided by Frank Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany), featured various aspects of the range covered by the two central terms through which the section was defined. Ran Ji (Metz, France) initiated the talks in this section with her reflection on the cultural impact of French as a foreign language on Chinese students doing their studies in France. 114

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The fundamental crux of the study she presented was the fact that Chinese students have huge mental hurdles that refrain them from speaking freely in class, which poses methodological problems to teachers. The presenter elucidated the socio-cultural differences between the Chinese students' behaviour and the teaching practices in China and France. The parameters taken into account for this qualitative study, in which seven Chinese students participated, were: classroom atmosphere, Teacher-student relationship, the role of the teacher and the methodology employed. Apart from these factors, it was found that a lack of intercultural awareness could cause a culture shock in students when in France. The presenter thus stressed the urgent need of intercultural sensitisation for students, which is also true for their teacher in China and also for their teachers in France whose task it is to ease students' cultural adaptation and to raise their awareness of classroom behaviour which responds more adequately to their teachers' expectancies in French settings. Another talk dedicated to intercultural differences was given by Nadine Rentel (Zwickau, Germany), who focused on methodological aspects of French-German business communication and presented a contrastive analysis of French and German hotel websites. The immense importance of cultural and linguistic differences in the fields of business communication and marketing being taken into account, the presenter first outlined methodological concepts that have/had to be developed to teach students both linguistic and LSP skills as well as intercultural competencies. In this context, Internet texts offer an adequate platform for analysis, due to their rising importance. In the second part of her talk, the speaker presented a methodological model in a classroom setting where students who got enrolled in Languages and Business Administration and participating in a course of French for Business were requested to analyse 20 German and 20 French hotel web sites. In a first phase, they had to analyse structural patterns and categories of content. Then, they were asked to scrutinise from a linguistic perspective those parts which were to convince potential customers of the services offered. In this way, critical discourse analysis and contrastive textology were combined and complemented in this approach. In her interculturally-oriented talk, Ana Stipančević (Novi Sad, Serbia) reported teaching intercultural competence in German as a foreign language by means of soap operas. In the presenter’s opinion, one of the advantages of TV series is that, unlike many traditional movies, they present normal people in their everyday lives and thus offer insights into target cultural phenomena such as education, existing norms in the relationship between men and women, the professional codes of ethics and ritualised forms of communication. Apart from this, soap operas enable students to learn not only everyday language but also specific registers like youth slang. In this talk, methodological opportunities were discussed with the background of relevant experiences of the presenter using German soap operas in foreign language classroom settings in Serbia. Mariska Kistemaker and Peter Broeder (Tilburg, The Netherlands) reflected upon multilingualism in the classes where students’ school language is not the same as the one they speak at home. In the presenters’’ point of view, a better understanding of these two languages and their roles can help solve the problems of teaching and learning caused in multilingual classes. Furthermore, it may also help boost students' school performance which is influenced by the gap between school and home language. After detailing the 115

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theoretical background with respect to literacy, interaction, learning, and presentation, the researchers presented some results found in two relevant studies: a top-down study investigating six experts from different European countries and a bottom-up study in which 58 teachers from 33 cities in North-Rhine-Westphalia (Germany) were interviewed. These studies gave further insight into the problem described. With the background of the EU policy of multilingualism having been implemented in the Czech Republic in 2013, Marie Müllerová and Lysann Poláčková-Schönherr (Hradec Králové, Czech Republic) investigated the motives, parents' educational background and the image of Germany as factors which make Czech pupils choose German as a foreign language. In their study, a survey was carried out, with data being collected on 200 Czech junior high school pupils. The results of their survey also served as a feedback on the training of future teachers of German. Andrea Bicsar (Innsbruck, Austria) reported on an empirical study on students' ability to talk about emotions in German as a foreign language - an ability that constitutes an inherent part of daily communicative competence. In her study, emotional utterances made by Hungarian speakers of German as a foreign language were evaluated in comparison with emotional patterns of German native speakers. The starting point of the study was represented by findings of contrastive linguistics which hint at considerable interlingual and intercultural differences of expression emotions in different languages. The two central points on which the talk was pivoted referred to the basic lexical differences in learners' and native speakers’ communication on emotions and on the impact of stays abroad on learners' adequate communication of emotions. Beate Lindemann (Tromsø, Norway) and Johannes Brinkmann (Oslo, Norway) talked about their pilot study examining the way in which Norwegian L3 speakers of German react to moral concerns in conversations with German natives and how their reactions are perceived by their German interlocutors. In a further stage of the pilot study, the question of how German natives react to similar moral concerns uttered in German conversations with their Norwegian interlocutors will be investigated. Although comparatively less numerous than the talks given in the first three sections, the talks given in Section 4 presented a number of new and different perspectives on the topics worked upon and offered participants a glimpse into the areas which are presently topical in applied research.

3.5 Section 5: Internet and Multimedia Section 5, featuring Internet and Multimedia, was presided by Michael Langner (Freiburg (Switzerland / Luxemburg). It comprised six talks on various aspects related to the media. Karl-Hubert Kiefer (Berlin, Germany / Warsaw, Poland) gave a talk on media as a "glue" between professional authenticity and learner reality. It is the task of LSP teaching to provide learners with aspects of communication characteristic of certain subjects, 116

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professional fields or work places and to do so as authentically as possible. The presenter demonstrated the potential digital that media can have for designing professionally relevant tasks in the LSP classroom in a reality and target-group orientation, using the professional field audit as an example. Hans W. Giessen (Saarbrücken Germany) reported the potential of digital media even in a setting as traditional as the teaching of literature. In the framework of a teaching unit held at a Polish university, the researcher utilised media-oriented forms of presentation in foreign language teaching and integrated visual elements into his teaching of German literature to facilitate students’ understanding of the reading. It was found that students’ comprehension was improved. Based on her own teaching experience Monika Dorothea Kautenburger (Ulm, Germany) reported general and LSP teaching units in which Internet resources were used to prepare students for a stay abroad for studies or research. The Internet, being fully integrated into students' daily and academic lives, proved to be a strong motivation factor for them to get regular exposure to the target language. Bärbel Kühn (Bremen, Germany), Jacqueline May (Stuttgart, Germany) illustrated the eportfolio EPOS which represents the further electronic development of the European Language Portfolio as a network generator. The EPOS network presently consists of the language centres of the Universities Bremen, Bochum, Paderborn, Potsdam, Saarbrücken, Stuttgart (all Germany), Bolzano (Italy), and - as associate members, the King's College in London as well as the London school of Economics (both UK). The talk presented the general attractiveness of EPOS and the way it integrates the Open Source learning platform Moodle and the open source portfolio Mahara. Also presented in the talk were the ways how EPOS can nurture life-long learning and how individual language centres can benefit from utilising it. Sigrid Behrent, Ilka Dönhoff (both Paderborn, Germany) and Anikó Brandt (Bremen, Germany) addressed the use of e-portfolios for language teaching and teacher training. In the context of an innovative project carried out at the language centre of Paderborn University (Germany), learning portfolios were introduced in language courses while teaching portfolios were introduced in teacher training, with the above-mentioned eportfolio EPOS, developed at Bremen University (Germany), serving as a basis. The speakers presented tested learning scenarios for multi-fold uses of EPOS for blended learning, for accompanying autonomous learning (such as tandem), as an instrument of diagnosis for learning counselling as well as for teacher training. Laura Pihkala-Posti (Tampere, Finland) described part of the intermediate results of her doctoral thesis in which she explores multi-modal e-learning concepts concerning the teaching of German as a foreign language using the web 2.0 and other interactive applications. At Tampere University, the researcher is currently testing and evaluating the use of Internet and Web 2.0 in the Finnish German-language classroom at a senior-highschool and university level with a view to developing innovative e-learning concepts out of a combination of pedagogical and technological solutions. According to the presenter, this approach is highly promising and motivating for learners in that it not only enables 117

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students to get in virtual touch with representatives of the target-language culture but also improves their communicative competence. The talks presented in Section 5 pointed to inspiring developments in the field of electronic media which will, without any doubt, continuously alter and complement language learning and teaching. The changes occasioned in the years to come may not be as "revolutionary" as those having been developed in the past two or three decades, but they will still be innovative enough to receive consideration.

3.6 Section 6: Product-Oriented Presentations Presided by Christine Sick (Saarbrücken, Germany), Section 6, planned for publishing houses to present their newest products, offered conference participants a chance to get themselves informed about latest developments in the publishing market and more. This section hosted talks by Geoff Tranter (on testing technical English proficiency), Sandra Hohmann (on the assessment of students' oral and written performance), Susanne Ley (on creating m- & e-learning materials on the basis of the authoring tool emL), Angela Pitt (on authenticity in the teaching of Business English), Christine Sick (on TechnoPlus English going mobile), and Ludwig Kuhn (on the platform E & m Learning Publisher). Altogether, these talks brought added dynamism and vibrancy to the book exhibition which has been set a traditional component of the Saarbrücken Conferences.

4 Conclusions The Second Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign Language Teaching slightly outweighed its predecessor, providing even more talks than in 2011 and more talks in English. The conference saw a comparable number of participants. Notwithstanding the first conference language still being German, English was rather prevalent in conference halls and corridors. With the first two conferences of the Saarbrücken Conferences on Foreign Language Teaching having been completed, there is reason to believe that a new tradition has been initiated and to hope that the Saarbrücken Conferences on Foreign Language Teaching will become an institution both in the field of academia and practical language teaching, presenting a meeting place in which linguistics meets methodology and in which methodology has its due place. As was the case with the First Saarbrücken Conference, manuscripts of the talks given at the Second Conference will be entitled to be submitted for publication. All the articles accepted in a peer-review process conducted by the conference chairman and section moderators will then be edited and published in the Saarbrücken Series on Linguistics and Language Methodology (SSLLM) (German: Saarbrücker Schriften zu Linguistik und Fremdsprachendidaktik (SSLF)). Apart from a paper publication, an electronic version will 118

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also be available on the conference website. The Third Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign Language Teaching is scheduled to take place from October 29th to 31st, 2015.

Author: Prof. Dr. Thomas Tinnefeld Saarland University of Applied Sciences Business School Chair of Applied Languages Chairman of the Saarbrücken Conferences on Foreign Language Teaching Waldhausweg 14 66123 Saarbrücken Germany E-Mail: [email protected]

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III. Book Reviews

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Martin, Luginbühl & Stefan Hauser (Hrsg.): MedienTextKultur. Linguistische Beiträge zur kontrastiven Medienanalyse. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik 2010, 210 Seiten (= Beiträge zur Fremdsprachenvermittlung, Sonderheft 16) (ISBN 978-3-941320-17-8). Methodische Fragen und Probleme des Sprach- bzw. Kulturvergleichs von Texten und Textsorten sind in der kontrastiv ausgerichteten linguistischen Forschung ein immer wieder aktuelles Thema (vgl. z.B. Lüger & Lenk 2008). Dass diesbezüglich weiterhin Diskussionsbedarf besteht, zeigt der von Martin Luginbühl und Stefan Hauser herausgegebene Sammelband in aller Deutlichkeit. Der Titel des Bandes MedienTextKultur verweist auf einen wichtigen Themenkomplex der kulturorientierten sprachwissenschaftlichen Forschung und macht gleichzeitig durch seine Schreibweise ohne Wortzwischenräume deutlich, dass Medien, Texte und Kulturen in einem Beziehungsgeflecht zueinander stehen. Die Einordnung in den disziplinären linguistischen Kontext erfolgt im Untertitel: Es handelt sich um Beiträge zur Kontrastiven Medienanalyse. Der Band enthält ein einleitendes Kapitel und sieben Aufsätze. Jedem Beitrag sind ein Abstract in deutscher Sprache und eine durchnummerierte inhaltliche Gliederung vorangestellt. In der Einleitung geben die Herausgeber zunächst einen Überblick über Schwerpunktsetzungen in der kontrastiven Textologie im Laufe ihrer Entwicklung als linguistische Teildisziplin bis hin zu der Einsicht, dass Kulturalität als konstitutives Textsortenmerkmal anzusehen ist (vgl. z.B. Fix 2008). Anschließend werden vier unterschiedliche Analyseperspektiven bzw. Herangehensweisen der kontrastiven Medienanalyse, die an die Forschungstradition der kontrastiven Textologie anknüpft, benannt und erläutert. Die Verfasser unterscheiden zwischen kulturkontrastiven, diachron ausgerichteten, intermedialen und interlingualen Vergleichen, weisen aber darauf hin, dass sich diese Analyseperspektiven auch kombinieren lassen. Des Weiteren thematisieren die Herausgeber grundlegende methodologische Probleme kontrastiver Untersuchungen: Ausgehend vom jeweils zugrunde gelegten Kulturverständnis und der Art und Weise, wie kulturell bedingte Normen und Werte Texte und Textsorten prägen, stellen sie die Frage in den Vordergrund, „mit welchen Konzepten das Makrophänomen ‚Kultur‘ mit der Mikroanalyse von Texten verbunden werden kann“ (10). Sie konstatieren, dass in vielen kontrastiven Studien nationale Spezifik als Kulturspezifik „etikettiert“ wird, und diskutieren die Berechtigung dieser Vorgehensweise. Zudem verweisen sie auf weitere Fragestellungen in der kontrastiven Medienlinguistik: Von welchem tertium comparationis ist auszugehen, welche Konsequenzen ergeben sich aus der Methode des Vergleichens, wie wirken sich Globalisierung und Internationalisierung einerseits sowie Tendenzen kultureller Fragmentierung andererseits auf medienlinguistische Untersuchungen aus? Die einzelnen Beiträge sollen nun, so das Anliegen der Herausgeber, die Diskussion der genannten Fragen und Probleme weiterführen (12). Insgesamt zeichne sich die aktuelle Diskussion durch eine „erweiterte Perspektivierung des Gegenstandsbereichs sowie durch Neukonzeptualisierungen einzelner Theoreme und Begrifflichkeiten“ (7) aus. Impulse einer solchen „Neuperspektivierung“ liefern auf die eine oder andere Weise alle Beiträge: Dies zeigt sich besonders deutlich bei der Infragestellung eines ausschließlich nationalen bzw. sprachbasierten Kulturverständnisses (Adamzik, Hauser). In die gleiche Richtung gehen der Vorschlag, bei Kultur-/Sprachvergleichen als tertium comparationis nicht lediglich Textsorten, sondern größere textsortenübergreifende textuelle Komplexe zu verwenden (Adamzik), das Plädoyer für eine (stärkere) Einbeziehung der diachronen Dimension bei kontrastiven Medienanalysen (Eckkrammer) und nicht zuletzt die empirischen Nachweise der Relevanz subkultureller Prägungen 123

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 (Ruiz / Lenk). Zu den Beiträgen im Einzelnen: Die Diskussion wird mit dem wegweisenden Beitrag von Kirsten Adamzik eröffnet, der den Titel Texte im Kulturvergleich (17-41) trägt. Die Autorin zeigt die Grenzen korpusbasierter textsortenvergleichender Untersuchungen auf, die zum Ziel haben, interkulturelle Differenzen aufzudecken: So vermögen es derartige Studien ihrer Ansicht nach u.a. nicht, die Effekte interkultureller Kontakte und ihre Konsequenzen für die Textebene zu erfassen, und blenden „die grundlegende Relativität der Kulturgebundenheit von Texten“ (19) aus. Darüber hinaus weist Adamzik darauf hin, dass ein überschaubares Textkorpus einen „allenfalls sehr begrenzten Aufschluss über die [Hervorhebung i.O.; M.P.-K.] verglichenen Kulturen“ gibt (30). Des Weiteren kritisiert sie die starke Orientierung textsortenvergleichender Untersuchungen am Textprodukt und verweist auf die Notwendigkeit von Nutzer- bzw. Rezipientenverhaltensanalysen und der Berücksichtigung des Alltagswissens bei der Textanalyse. Die Argumentation wird unterstützt durch den Vorschlag eines Textproduktionsmodells und durch die Thematisierung der Rahmenbedingungen für das Funktionieren von Texten. In diesem Zusammenhang macht Adamzik darauf aufmerksam, dass der kommunikative Erfolg von Texten unterschiedlich zustande kommt und sich keinesfalls immer aufgrund kompetitiven Handelns einstellt; unterschieden wird deswegen zwischen Selbstläufern und Konkurrenten. In dem Beitrag wird plädiert für eine stärkere Einbeziehung medienwissenschaftlicher Fragestellungen und vorgeschlagen, dass „nicht Textsorten, sondern ‚Gefäße‘, in denen die verschiedensten Textsorten kombiniert vorkommen“ (31) verglichen werden. Diese Textsortenkombinationen finden sich nach Auffassung der Autorin in „textuellen Biotopen“ (40), die eine „echte soziale Relevanz“ aufweisen wie Programmen, Formaten und Serien. Nach einer Diskussion des Kulturbegriffs, bei der der Schwerpunkt auf die Träger einer gegebenen Kultur gesetzt wird, werden die zwei zentralen Thesen des Aufsatzes formuliert (und anschließend erörtert): „Kulturen sind nicht an Einzelsprachen und/oder Nationen gebunden, und die Artefakte, die in ihnen hervorgebracht werden, sind keine ausreichende Grundlage für die Charakterisierung und das Verständnis einer Kultur“ (39). Eva Martha Eckkrammer unterbreitet in ihrem Beitrag Kontrastive Medientextologie und die historische Dimension (43-65) den Vorschlag für eine Subdisziplin, die angesichts der „kulturbestimmende[n] Rolle“ der Medien (51) und ihrer „textsortenkonstitutive[n] Wirkung“ (56) als Kontrastive Medientextologie zu bezeichnen wäre. Die Verfasserin plädiert zudem für eine Erweiterung der Ebene des Sprach-, Kultur- und Medienvergleichs um die Komponente der Historizität. Des Weiteren geht sie auf den Mehrwert ein, der sich aus diachron angelegten Untersuchungen für die Medientextanalysen ergibt, benennt aber auch mögliche Problemfelder (wie beispielsweise die Alterität kommunikativer Haushalte früherer Epochen). Der Beitrag von Birte Bös People’s voices (67-93 ist den Zitierpratiken in der britischen Presse im Zeitraum 1700–2000 gewidmet. Gegenstand dieser korpusbasierten, diachron angelegten und qualitativ ausgerichteten Untersuchung ist die Verwendung echter und simulierter persönlicher Zitate in britischen Nachrichtentexten. Die mit vielen Beispielen illustrierte Analyse ergibt, dass die veränderten Zitierpraktiken - keine Wiedergabe mündlicher Rede im Rahmen einer individualisierten Personendarstellung zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhundertes, häufiger Gebrauch persönlicher Zitate im 19. Jahrhundert bis hin zu deren explosionsartiger Zunahme im 20. Jahrhundert - in einem engen Zusammenhang mit gesellschaftlichen Veränderungen stehen wie der Umsetzung technischer Innovationen und den Veränderungen des beruflichen Selbstverständnisses im Bereich Journalismus. Außerdem stellt die Autorin fest, dass derartige Zitate zunächst in Boulevardzeitungen und „nur allmählich und in gemäßigteren Umfang“ (90) in 124

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Qualitätszeitungen verwendet werden. Ein wenig problematisch wirken allerdings die Untersuchungsergebnisse, wenn man bedenkt, dass sie lediglich auf der Analyse von Nachrichtentexten basieren, denn es ist nicht auszuschließen, dass Untersuchungen an anderen Pressetextsorten zu divergierenden Ergebnissen gelangen. Auf Letzteres verweist aber die Autorin selbst im letzten Abschnitt ihres Beitrags. Der Aufsatz von Heiko Girnth und Sascha Michel (95-117) handelt von einer dem breiten Publikum wenig bekannten, im deutschsprachigen Raum keinesfalls etablierten Textsorte, die aus den USA „importiert“ und bis jetzt vor allem von der CDU als Wahlkampfinstrument eingesetzt wurde – von der Rapid Response. Hierbei wird ein virtueller Dialog inszeniert, „der die Aufwertung der Eigengruppe und die Abwertung der Fremdgruppe zum Ziel hat“ (96). Die Autoren beschreiben die Textsorte, indem sie auf die für sie charakteristischen Bausteine, Sprechhandlungen und auf die Themenentfaltung eingehen. Anschließend wird das persuasive Potential erfasst. Interessant ist der darauffolgende intermediale Vergleich, bei dem die Verfasser auf Textsortenvarianten in anderen Kommunikationsbereichen, d.h. außerhalb des politischen Wahlkampfes, aufmerksam machen. Kritisch angemerkt sei allerdings, dass die Autoren bei dem Phänomen Rapid Response von einem Texttyp ausgehen. Meines Erachtens wäre hier die Kategorisierung als Textsorte angebrachter, und zwar in der unspezifischen Lesart des Begriffs (vgl. Adamzik 1995: 14). Einen interessanten Einblick in die Gothic-Subkultur bietet die Untersuchung von Luisa Gutiérrez Ruis und Hartmut E.H. Lenk (119-148), die der Textsorte Kontaktanzeige in einem GothicMusikmagazin gewidmet ist. Aufgrund der Analyse der Makrostruktur, der verwendeten Lexik und der stilistischen Gestaltung der untersuchten Textsortenexemplare ermitteln die Verfasser textsortentypische Merkmale, die die Kontaktanzeigen im Gothic-Musikmagazin mit konventionellen Kontaktanzeigen teilen, sowie spezifische Merkmale, die sie voneinander unterscheiden. Auf diese Weise wird die subkulturelle Prägung der untersuchten Texte aufgezeigt. Stefan Hauser macht in seinem Beitrag Zum Problem des Vergleichens von Medientexten aus kulturkontrastiver Perspektive (149-178) darauf aufmerksam, dass bilaterale Vergleiche, d.h. Vergleiche, bei denen zwei Textkorpora gegenübergestellt werden, eine begrenzte Aussagekraft haben, da dadurch „die Reichweite einer bestimmten Merkmalsausprägung“ (153) nicht zu erfassen sei. Als Vergleichsbasis sollte seiner Ansicht nach eine größere Anzahl verschiedener Teilkorpora dienen. Der Autor betont zudem, wie wichtig es ist, zwischen Kultur, Nation, Sprache und Kommunikationsgemeinschaft zu differenzieren. Zu diesem Zweck schlägt er eine Modifizierung des – in der kontrastiven Textologie und der Medienlinguistik standardmäßig angewandten (vgl. Lüger / Lenk 2008: 19f.) – Verfahrens der Paralleltextanalyse vor: Verglichen werden vier Teilkorpora, die Pressetexte überregionaler Zeitungen aus vier Nationen (Deutschland, Schweiz, England, Australien) umfassen. Kontrastiert werden aber lediglich zwei Sprachen: das Deutsche und das Englische. Anhand einer vergleichenden Analyse der Textsorte Presseinterview und der Redeeinleitung bei direkten Redezitaten, wird u.a. demonstriert, wie problematisch es ist, „Kulturalität primär an die nationale Herkunft des Vergleichsmaterials zu knüpfen“ (174). In dem – den Band abschließenden – Beitrag von Martin Luginbühl mit dem Titel Sind Textsorten national geprägt? (179-201) wird das in kontrastiv ausgerichteten linguistischen Studien weit verbreitete Konzept „einer primär national geprägten Kulturalität von Textsorten“ (179) hinterfragt. Mehr noch: Die „Annahme einer homogenen, national oder einzelsprachlich definierten Kulturspezifik“ hat für Luginbühl einen „problematischen Status“ (193). Auf der Basis eines diachron angelegten Vergleichs zweier Fernsehnachrichtensendungen (der Schweizer Tagesschau und der amerikanischen CBS Evening News), stellt der Autor fest, dass die beiden von ihm analysierten Sendungen keine nationale Prägung erkennen lassen, sondern dass ihre 125

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Gestaltung eher auf eine „übernationale Entwicklung“ (192) verweist. Ausgehend von diesem empirischen Befund diskutiert der Verfasser das Konzept der nationalen Prägung von Textsorten, den Kulturbegriff und das Konzept der „journalistischen Kulturen“ (190-197). Daraus leitet er methodische Konsequenzen für die kontrastive Textologie ab: Dazu gehören beispielsweise der Hinweis auf die Notwendigkeit, Textsorten nicht isoliert, sondern im Hinblick auf ihren Stellenwert innerhalb eines Textsortennetzes zu analysieren, sowie der Vorschlag, die diachrone Dimension in die Analyse einzubeziehen. Alles in allem liegt hier ein lesenswerter Sammelband vor, der Einblick in den aktuellen Stand der methodischen Diskussion in der kontrastiven Medienlinguistik bietet. Dass der Band einen gewichtigen Beitrag zu dieser Diskussion bereits geleistet hat, zeigen jüngste, theoretischmethodisch orientierte Beiträge wie beispielsweise Adamzik (2012), Lenk (2012) und Lüger (2013).

Bibliographie Adamzik, Kirsten (1995). Aspekte und Perspektiven der Textsortenlinguistik. In: Adamzik, Kirsten (1995): Textsorten – Texttypologie. Eine kommentierte Bibliographie. Münster: Nodus, 11–40. Adamzik, Kirsten (2012). Kontrastive Textologie am Beispiel des Schulbuchs. In: tekst i dyskurs – text und diskurs 5, 53–91. Fix, Ulla (2008). Was heißt Texte kulturell verstehen? Ein- und Zuordnungsprobleme beim Verstehen von Texten als kulturellen Entitäten. In: Fix, Ulla (Hrsg.) (2008): Texte und Textsorten – sprachliche, kommunikative und kulturelle Phänomene. Berlin: Frank & Timme, 103–130. Lenk, Hartmut E.H. (2012). Methodologische Probleme des Textsortenvergleichs am Beispiel des Kommentars. In: tekst i dyskurs – text und diskurs 5, 155–171. Lüger, Heinz-Helmut (2013). Probleme des Text(sorten)vergleichs. In: Berdychowska, Zofia / BilutHomplewicz, Zofia / Mikołajczyk, Beata (Hrsg.) (2013): Textlinguistik als Querschnittsdisziplin. Frankfurt a. M. u.a.: Lang, 55–66. Lüger, Heinz-Helmut / Lenk, Hartmut E.H. (2008): Kontrastive Medienlinguistik. Ansätze, Ziele, Analysen. In: Lüger, Heinz-Helmut / Lenk, Hartmut E.H. (Hrsg.) (2008): Kontrastive Medienlinguistik. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, 11–28.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Rezensentin: Dr. Mikaela Petkova-Kessanlis, M.A. St.-Kliment-Ochridski-Universität Sofia Lehrstuhl Germanistik und Skandinavistik Tzar-Osvoboditel-Boulevard 15 1504 Sofia Bulgarien E-Mail: [email protected]

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Andrea Rössler (Hrsg.) (2013): Standards interkultureller Kompetenz für Fremdsprachenlehrer. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, 200 Seiten (= Beiträge zur Fremdsprachenvermittlung, Sonderheft 18) (ISBN 978-3-941320-92-5.) Der Fremdsprachenunterricht ist nicht nur die Vermittlung der Sprache, ihres Wortschatzes, der Grammatikregeln oder der richtigen Aussprache. Die Sprache ist immer mit der Kultur verbunden, die durch die für sie charakteristischen Verhaltensweisen gekennzeichnet ist. Die Sprache ist auch ein Mittel der Kommunikation zwischen Kulturen. Die Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz ist also im Fremdsprachenunterricht unentbehrlich, besonders heutzutage, im Zeitalter der Globalisierung und wachsender Mobilität. Dieses Thema greift der von Andrea Rössler in den Beiträgen zur Fremdsprachenvermittlung herausgegebene Sammelband auf. Die Publikation richtet sich vor allem an angehende Fremdsprachenlehrer sowie Lehrkräfte in der Fremdsprachenlehrerausbildung. Er besteht aus zehn Beiträgen, deren Inhalt im Folgenden kurz präsentiert wird. Der Band wird mit dem von Andrea Rössler verfassten Artikel eingeleitet (7-21), der als Einführung fungiert und den gleichen Titel trägt wie der gesamte Band. Die Autorin skizziert die aktuellen Forschungsfelder bezüglich der interkulturellen Kompetenz. Es handelt sich hier um folgende Forschungsfelder: theoretische Modelle zur interkulturellen Kompetenz, einschließlich ihrer Evaluierbarkeit, Entwicklung und Erprobung von Lehr- und Lernmaterialien. Bemerkenswert erscheint die Tatsache, dass es äußerst schwierig ist zu überprüfen, inwieweit die festgelegten Standards interkultureller Kompetenz im Einzelfall erreicht worden sind. Einen besonderen Stellenwert hat die Selbstevaluation, die im Gegensatz zur Fremdevaluation genauere Ergebnisse ergeben kann. Die Autorin führt die Leser in die Thematik des Bandes ein, indem sie einerseits versucht, der Frage nachzugehen, wie man die Entwicklung der interkulturellen Kompetenz bei angehenden Fremdsprachenlehrern fördern kann, und andererseits den Inhalt der einzelnen Beiträge kurz zusammenfasst. Lies Sercu konstatiert in ihrem Beitrag Lehrerausbildungsprogramme für den interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht (23-49), dass es an einem Curriculum fehlt, das die Leitlinien für die Ausbildung interkulturell kompetenter Fremdsprachenlehrer enthalten würde. Es folgt ein interessanter Vorschlag, wie ein solches Curriculum aussehen könnte. Die Autorin erörtert interkulturelle Kompetenz als übergreifendes Lernziel der Ausbildung und stellt einzelne Komponenten in einer Tabelle zusammen, aus denen sich die interkulturelle kommunikative Kompetenz zusammensetzt. Sie äußert sich zu der Frage, worüber ein interkulturell kompetenter Lehrer verfügen sollte, wobei sie auf die Richtlinien der Kultusministerkonferenz zurückgreift. Sie äußert sich zum Professionswissen und zu den professionellen Handlungskompetenzen interkulturell kompetenter Fremdsprachenlehrer, wobei auch eigene Vorschläge für die Lehrerausbildung gemacht werden. Die Autorin plädiert vor allem dafür, die Relation Sprache – Kultur im Philologiestudium häufiger und intensiver zu bearbeiten. Man sollte künftige Fremdsprachenlehrer stärker für das Vorhandensein kulturbedingter verbaler und non-verbaler Bräuche sensibilisieren. Sercu weist ebenfalls auf die Notwendigkeit hin, Studenten ein ausreichendes Wissen über Spracherwerbsprozesse zu vermitteln. Zum Schluss kommt sie auf sozialkonstruktivistische Modelle zu sprechen, indem sie das sogenannte Zwiebelmodell präsentiert und Prinzipien für die Lehrerausbildung erörtert. Als Richtlinie gilt die Notwendigkeit, eigene Bemerkungen und die in multikultureller Umgebung gesammelten Erfahrungen in Ausbildungsprogrammen zu reflektieren und zu thematisieren. Im Beitrag Interkulturelles Lernen im Literaturunterricht (51-70) berichtet Carola Surkamp über die Rolle literarischer Texte bei der Förderung interkultureller Kompetenzen. In literarischen Texten werden bestimmte Protagonisten und ihre Schicksale exemplarisch dargestellt, was dazu beitrage, dass sich der Leser besser in die gegebenen Ereignisse einfühlen könne. Die Möglichkeit eines 129

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Perspektivenwechsels sei bei literarischen Texten ein Schlüssel zur Förderung von Empathie, was auch zum Erwerb interkultureller Kompetenz beitrage. Die Autorin erörtert das Konzept des Perspektivenwechsels und seine Rolle im Literaturunterricht; sie schildert die Lehrkompetenzen, über die ein Lehrer im interkulturellen Literaturunterricht verfügen sollte, nämlich textanalytische Fähigkeiten, Textsortenkenntnis und -bewusstsein, Lesekompetenz, Hörkompetenz, Hör-SehKompetenz, literarische Kompetenz, interkulturelle Kompetenz, Reflexionskompetenz, Metawissen über Kompetenzen, Methodenkompetenz, Beurteilungs- und Bewertungskompetenz. Daneben sei auch für einen interkulturell kompetenten Lehrer der Erwerb von Wissen über Angehörige verschiedener Kulturen unentbehrlich. Die Autorin sieht die Chance für die Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz bei Fremdsprachenlehrern in handlungs- und produktionsorientierten Arbeiten, was sie an einem Projekt verdeutlichkeit, das im Wintersemester 2010/2011 an der Universität Göttingen durchgeführt wurde und dessen Schwerpunkt die Transformation der Kurzgeschichte A pair of Jeans war. Adelheid Schumann führt in ihrem Beitrag ,Critical Incidents‘ in der Fachsprachenlehrerausbildung (71-86) aus, was unter dem Begriff der interkulturelle Kompetenz verstanden werde. Sie weist darauf hin, dass die Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz als Grobziel der Fremdsprachendidaktik angesehen wird. In Wirklichkeit gebe es aber keine festgelegten, vereinheitlichten Richtlinien, denen man folgen könne. Die Autorin nimmt Bezug auf Ergebnisse der DESI-Studie, die gezeigt hat, dass der Erwerb interkultureller Kompetenz mit dem interkulturellen Wissen der Lehrenden zusammenhänge. Die Autorin erörtert dabei die interkulturelle Vermittlungskompetenz angehender Fremdsprachenlehrer und skizziert Verfahren, die zur Förderung einer solchen Kompetenz beitragen: 1) Übungen zur Sensibilisierung und Wahrnehmungsschulung, 2) Übungen zu Bewusstseinsbildung und zum Kulturvergleich, 3) Interaktionstraining und Rollenspiele. Im Hinblick auf das letztgenannte Verfahren bemängelt sie in der Fremdsprachenlehrerausbildung sogenannte interkulturelle Trainingsverfahren. Die Verfasserin präsentiert ein interessantes, zusammen mit ihren Mitarbeitern an der Universität Siegen entwickeltes Trainingsprogramm Critical Incidents, entstanden im Rahmen des Forschungsprojekts MUMIS (Mehrsprachigkeit und Multikulturalität im Studium). Als Critical Incidents wurden interkulturelle Missverständnisse gesammelt und beschrieben, zu denen es im Alltag der Studierenden und Lehrenden an den Hochschulen gekommen ist. Die Arbeit an diesem Projekt bietet unter anderem eine Chance, sich Gedanken zu machen, wo die Gründe für interkulturelle Missverständnisse liegen und welche Strategien zur Vermeidung eingesetzt werden könnten. Von Vorteil ist, dass die Ergebnisse des Projekts im Internet abrufbar und allgemein zugänglich sind. Im Beitrag Interkulturelles Lernen mit kritischen Fallgeschichten (87-101) konstatiert Vasco da Silva, dass das Reflektieren selbst gewonnener interkultureller Erfahrungen für angehende Fremdsprachenlehrer äußerst hilfreich ist. Dem Definitionsversuch des Begriffs interkulturelle Kompetenz folgt das Konzept des Lernens mit kritischen Fallgeschichten. Der Autor erklärt, dass damit „ein meist aus der ersten Person Singular erzähltes Erlebnis, welchem ein für den Erzähler kritisches Moment innewohnt“ (90), gemeint ist. Er macht Ausführungen zur theoretischen Seite des Konzepts, indem er unter anderem den Unterschied zwischen kritischen Fallgeschichten und Critical Incidents erörtert sowie den interessanten und überraschenden Ursprung der kritischen Fallgeschichten schildert. Der Autor hebt hervor, dass das Konzept im Wesentlichen darin besteht, eigene Erfahrungen retrospektiv zu reflektieren, um das daraus gewonnene Wissen prospektiv einzusetzen, selbst interkulturell kompetent zu handeln und den Schülern das erworbene Wissen zu vermitteln. Der Autor bemerkt unter anderem, dass trotz einer breiten Themenpalette die Studierenden meist auf drei Themen hinweisen, nämlich auf Diskurskonventionen, das Zeitverständnis und die Organisation von Arbeitsgruppen. Nadine Rentel leitet ihren Beitrag Der Erwerb sprachlicher und interkultureller Kompetenz im universitären Französischunterricht (103-119) mit der Bemerkung ein, dass interkulturelle 130

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Kompetenz heutzutage als Schlüsselkompetenz gilt, deren Erwerb unter den Studierenden gefördert werden sollte. Sie betont die Rolle interkultureller Kompetenz in der Wirtschaft am Beispiel der deutsch-französischen Beziehungen. Den Schwerpunkt des Beitrags bildet die Analyse deutscher und französischer Werbeanzeigen aus dem Bereich der Automobilwerbung. Die Autorin schildert, inwieweit die kulturkontrastive Arbeit mit Werbeanzeigen zur Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz beiträgt. Sie erörtert drei Marketingkonzepte, die bei der Verfassung der Werbung in Anspruch genommen werden können, nämlich: Standardisierung, Lokalisierung und Glokalisierung. Darüber hinaus gibt sie Hinweise, wie man mit dem vorgeschlagenen Vergleichsmodell von Werbeanzeigen arbeiten könnte; vorgestellt werden Ergebnisse einer Anzeigenanalyse zweier Fahrzeuge, und zwar jeweils aus dem deutschen und französischen Sprachraum. Die Analyse konzentriert sich auf drei Aspekte, die Headlines, die Fließtexte, und die visuellen Anzeigentexte. Präsentiert werden interessante Schlussfolgerungen, unter anderem die Beobachtung, dass trotz Globalisierung nach wie vor Unterschiede in den Werbekonzepten zwischen den Sprachräumen nachgewiesen werden können. Der Vergleich zeigt unter anderem, dass deutsche Werbeanzeigen eher das Fahrvergnügen und die technische Perfektion des Wagens hervorheben, die französischen dagegen großen Wert auf die Ästhetik und auf das Wecken von Emotionen legen. Den Schwerpunkt des Beitrags Mehr als ein deutsch-französischer Perspektivwechsel (121-143) von Rainer Bendick bildet ein Plädoyer für den Einsatz eines deutsch-französischen Geschichtsbuchs im Fremdsprachenunterricht als Maßnahme zur Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz. Der Beitrag wird mit der Bemerkung eingeleitet, dass heutzutage Kompetenzen eine entscheidende Rolle in der Didaktik beigemessen wird. Dabei ist die interkulturelle Kompetenz von besonderer Bedeutung. Der Autor skizziert die Geschichte der unterrichtlichen Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz in Deutschland, wobei er bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts zurückgeht. Erörtert werden diverse Vor- und Nachteile des deutsch-französischen Geschichtsbuchs, ebenso die Bedeutung der Ereignisse in der deutschen und französischen Geschichte. Das Geschichtsbuch wurde in zwei Fassungen - einer deutschen und einer französischen - herausgegeben. Im Unterricht arbeitet man jeweils mit der fremdsprachigen Fassung. Das Lehrwerk wird sowohl angehenden Französischlehrern als auch Deutschlehrern empfohlen. Es folgt der Beitrag von Gabriele Berkenbusch und Doris Fetscher mit dem viel sagenden Titel Portico 1.0. – Ein E-Portfolio zum interkulturellen Lernen während eines Auslandsaufenthalts (145163). Präsentiert wird ein an der Westsächsischen Hochschule Zwickau entwickeltes Projekt, das den Studierenden die Möglichkeit zur Selbstevaluation des interkulturellen Lernens geben soll. Die Autorinnen skizzieren den Rahmen des Projekts und weisen auf Probleme hin, mit denen Studierende im Auslandsstudium kämpfen. Mithilfe der Portfolio-Software Mahara lässt sich ein eigenes E-Portfolio gestalten, in dem verschiedene Medien eingesetzt werden wie Texte, Musik, Videos und Fotos. Den Schwerpunkt des Portfolios bildet der Auslandsaufenthalt. Studierende sollen u.a. Fragen beantworten, die ihnen hinsichtlich des interkulturellen Lernens hilfreich sein können. Im Beitrag werden Evaluationskriterien präsentiert, die empirisch anhand studentischer Texte entwickelt wurden. Die Evaluationskriterien beziehen sich auf die Selbstevaluation und umfassen: coping ctrategy, widersprüchliche Selbsteinschätzung, Wissenstransfer, Bewusstmachung von Wertungen und Relativierungen, Bewusstmachung der Relation von Selbst- und Fremddarstellung. Sie werden der Reihe nach besprochen und exemplifiziert. Darüber hinaus beschreiben die Autorinnen, nach welchen Kriterien sie als Lehrkräfte die Portfolios ihrer Studierenden bewertet haben. Damit wird deutlich, dass das E-Portfolio nicht nur der Selbstevaluation, sondern auch der Fremdevaluation dient. Im dem Beitrag Grenzüberschreitendes ,Blended-Learning‘ (165-181) konstatieren Dagmar Abendroth-Timmer, Mark Bechtel, Thierry Chanier und Maud Ciekanski, dass für den Erwerb 131

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 interkultureller Kompetenz nicht nur das theoretische Wissen, sondern auch selbst gemachte interkulturelle Erfahrungen unentbehrlich sind. Im Rahmen des Studiums sind die Möglichkeiten, eine Zielsprache im Kontakt mit Muttersprachlern zu verwenden, relativ begrenzt. Angesichts dieses Problems schlagen die Autoren vor, grenzüberschreitende Seminare zu organisieren, in denen Studierende aus verschiedenen Universitäten mit Hilfe des Internets miteinander kommunizieren und arbeiten könnten. Aufgezeigt werden Nutzen und Grenzen eines solchen Seminars, und nach dem Modell von Byram beschreiben die Autoren fünf Teilkompetenzen: savoir être, savoir, savoir comprendre, savoir apprendre / faire, savoir s'engager. Es handelt sich hier um affektive, kognitive, handlungsorientierte, strategische und metareflexive Teilkompetenzen. Als Vorschlag für eine grenzüberschreitende Veranstaltung wird ein Seminar der Französischlehrerausbildung vorgestellt, das im Wintersemester 2008 / 2009 an den Universitäten Bremen und in der Franche-Comté im Rahmen des INFRAL-Projekts (Interculturel France Allemagne Online) durchgeführt wurde. Das Projekt wurde so konzipiert, dass die Lernszenarien der Förderung einzelner Teilkompetenzen im Rahmen einer umfassenden interkulturellen Kompetenz Rechnung trugen. Der Sammelband schließt mit dem Beitrag Anbahnung interkultureller Kompetenzen in der Lehramtsausbildung? (183-198) von Christiane Fäcke ab. Die Autorin nimmt Bezug auf die Situation der Minderheitenangehörigen in der Schule und konstatiert, dass „die Umgangsweisen der Lehrenden mit Minderheitenangehörigen [...] von Diskriminierung und Benachteiligung bis hin zu Integration und Förderung [reichen]” (186). Die Umgangsweise sei von drei Faktoren abhängig: von den Einstellungen der Lehrenden, dem System Schule sowie den realen Unterrichtserfahrungen. Die Autorin ist daran interessiert zu erfahren, wie die Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz in den Bildungsstandards aufgefasst wird. Sie betrachtet zu diesem Zweck die Bildungsstandards in Bayern, wo die Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz ein wichtiger Bestandteil der Lehrerausbildung ist. Sie erörtert ,interkulturelle Kompetenz‘, indem sie viele interessante Fragen stellt, die zum Nachdenken anregen. Unter anderem wird gefragt nach der Hierarchisierung, der Stufung interkultureller Kompetenzen sowie nach der Korrelation zwischen Erwerb und Alter. Schwerpunkt des Beitrags ist schließlich die Präsentation des Europäischen Sprachportfolios für Sprachlehrende in Ausbildung (EPOSA), das als Möglichkeit der Anbahnung interkultureller Kompetenzen in der Lehrerausbildung angesehen wird. Der Sammelband liefert wertvolle Informationen und Erkenntnisse bezüglich der Förderung interkultureller Kompetenz; er präsentiert aufschlussreiche Projekte und Ideen und regt zum Nachdenken an. Als besonders nützlich kann sich der Band für Lehrkräfte im universitären Bereich erweisen, und dort besonders mit Blick auf die Planung und Gestaltung von Lehrveranstaltungen.

Rezensentin: Magdalena Ziemba, MA. ul. Jasielska 57 PL – 38-120 Czudec Polen E-Mail: [email protected]

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Melinda Whong: Language Teaching – Linguistic Theory in Practice. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2011. 213 pages (ISBN 978 0 7486 3635 8) The present textbook is divided into eight chapters that again can again be subdivided into three larger segments, comprising a discussion of what language actually is, of what possible definitions and understandings of language mean for language teaching and, finally, of how to manage the transfer of theoretical findings into practical classroom situations. At the end, there is a useful glossary (181) that helps keep track of the many approaches and developments that follow. Chapter 1 (“Introduction”; 1-22) gives the reader either a reminder or a general overview of the different strands which exist in linguistic theory to understand and define what language actually is. As is shown in the course of the book, this has been and still remains one of the major issues with views to the development of language teaching. The author asks the reader - supposedly a language teacher - to consider this question for him or herself and find the link to language acquisition. From functional and structural linguistics to the internal and external aspects of psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic approaches, for instance, she briefly explains the points of view and issues linked to these theories. Language development in first and second or foreign language acquisition is a further element which the author focuses on the introduction. All this is to show the interdisciplinary link between these theoretical approaches and other scientific areas with a special focus on education. After briefly presenting the multitude of scientific attempts to explain the concepts of language and language development, the author places some questions and instructions “for discussion” (21). This segment will be evoked again at the end of each chapter to remind the reader / teacher of what has been said and to provide him or her with a tool to immediately be able to check upon existing classroom habits and possibly find a guideline for the future. From the beginning, the author encourages the reader to find for him or herself the right answer to the question of which aspects of language he or she wants or needs to teach, and thereby bridges the supposed gap between language teaching in theory and practice. Chapter 2 (“Historical Overview – Language and lLanguage Teaching"; 23-40) provides a historical outline of the link between the understanding of language and language teaching (23). In this context, the changes in different educational systems over the centuries play an important role. The author indicates the importance of sociocultural aspects as well as the historical understanding of language, beginning with the use of Latin as a tool “to study the classics of Ancient Rome” (24) and especially “for recording knowledge in theology, medicine and law” (24). She then explains the shift from Latin to vernaculars as nations were growing and their respective languages gained in importance, e.g. in trade (25-26). She discusses the fact that at times, changes in language teaching theories were far too drastic for their respective times, and that this phenomenon laid the foundations for modern approaches in theory and practice (31). Explaining early approaches from the grammar-translation method to the direct method of the Reform Movement, the author introduces the reader to Chomsky’s efforts and merits (29), again giving an informative overview, using examples to show the need for new approaches in linguistics which would have considerable influence on language teaching theories. Chapter 3 (“Language as a Biological Property"; 41-67) deals with Chomsky’s generative theory 133

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 with views to Universal Grammar (UG) and its possible influence on Second Language development (41f). Insight is given into the complicated situation which research faces at times; many contradictory findings are briefly and followed by a recommendation to pick out and focus on the most important issues for teachers: As you can see, this kind of argumentation is complex, requiring cross-linguistic study and a sophisticated understanding of formal properties of linguistics. Ideally, teachers will be able to study enough linguistics to make sense of this kind of research. […] At the very last, it is important that you as a teacher are aware of the overall conclusions, […] (55).

Another necessary and useful remark with respect to this is to be found earlier in the text. As the explanations seem to become more and more complex, the author states that another hurdle for teachers to overcome is the abstract nature of linguistic formalisms. While the discussions of Generative Linguistics in this book so far have hopefully been clear, you will probably agree that they are relatively complex. (50).

At this point, a few more definite examples would probably have helped teachers with a nonlinguistic background understand the complexity of the concepts described. Chapter 4 (“Language as a Tool for Communication”; 68-94) concludes with describing a framework concept that links all of the approaches and their results discussed in this part of the book, which will then make it possible for the reader / teacher to understand their link with practical language teaching. The author briefly introduces the topic of this chapter by referring to “an overview of the major approaches, categorized here under the […] labels of Functional, Sociocultural and Cognitive Approaches.” (68). She then describes the extent “the notion of competence” (70ff.) takes in explaining what language is. In an attempt to visualize and make the aforementioned categories clearer, figure 4.1 (87) provides the reader with a useful reminder of the complex links between the different linguistic approaches elaborated so far. It leads over to the “consensus-based approach […] taken in the next section and the rest of this book as to make sense of (all) principles of linguistics in the context of language learning and language teaching” (87). The Modular On-line Growth and Use of Language (MOGUL) framework is introduced. In this chapter, the author also gives clear instructions to teachers of how to create an environment that encourages the integration of the three approaches into their work by understanding what has been stated so far as defining language (91) The section For Discussion (92) of Chapter 4 raises the reader’s awareness in rather theoretical linguistic terms of what teachers probably know already. This might sound just as complex and complicated as some of the descriptions read up to this point. However, the aim of the book as suggested by the title is well-elaborated and achieved here. At the beginning of Chapter 5 (“Implications for Language Teaching”; 95-120), the author states that although in theoretical linguistics the different views described before are mainly “irreconcilable, the fortunate point for us is that it does not necessarily matter for language teaching” (95). She then explains the teachers’ aims in the classroom from her point of view, 134

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 stating that “a conscientious teacher will recognize all of these facets of language [described] and work to develop them depending on the particular needs of the students” (96). Before concluding with a statement that picks up the remark quoted before, the author uses the ten observations by Van Patten and Williams (96-117) briefly introduced in Chapter 3 (63) to more explicitly demonstrate the “implications for language teaching” - as suggested by the title of this chapter - of the manifold and mostly irreconcilable approaches in theory. The author reaches the conclusion that “knowledgeable teachers need to take on the complexity of language and language development (117). She identifies the existence of such complexity as one of the two most important findings from projecting the observations onto the possible experiences of teachers in classroom situations. To specify these reflexions, she then invites the reader to compare and possibly add to these generalizations on second language development in the discussion segment (118). This seems to be most necessary as she points out that “the implications presented here are logical conclusions; not all are empirically based” (117). As she will then turn to current trends in and findings of English language teaching in chapter 6, this remark, together with the shift to a very specific example and description of teaching experiences, seems to be the general turning point in the book at which teachers are given the opportunity to further compare and take out the most important implications for themselves and their work, as suggested several times by the author as being the right way in language teaching. Chapter 6 (“Approaches to English Language Teaching”; 121-141) first establishes the terminological difference between the terms approach and method as this will be a necessary distinction for understanding much of the last chapters of the book (121-122). Again she shows the reader the importance of awareness of theoretical issues to be transferred to classroom situations (122). The author then labels several historically and regionally developed ideas in English language teaching “designer approaches” (123) depicting different hypotheses that bring in the respective roles of a teacher (124ff.). She lists several tendencies and their respective “inventors” as developed over decades in English language teaching, recognizing again, however, that in any case it is of vital significance to be aware of “what language is, how [it] develops and what best fosters this development” (128-129). As not every possible classroom scenario can be calculated and therefore covered by one specific approach in terms of making theory “foolproof” (129) in practice, she turns to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) that she identifies as the prevailing approach in recent times (129). This seems to enable theorists and teachers alike to reconcile the presumably irreconcilable, taking into consideration many factors that account for the differences in theoretical approaches. In addition the author shows that one important characteristic of this approach is the fact that it “is likely to make use of all four skills” whereas “the more traditional practice of teaching each skill separately does not sit well with an approach which mimics real-life interaction” (132). She carries on by saying that “CLT is an approach to teaching, not a method. It embodies a range of beliefs and understandings about language; language development and learning in general that have developed over time” (134). With this, she encourages the reader to conscientiously decide on the methods appropriate in and for a specific teaching environment. The author suggests the method of TBLT (Task-Based Learning and Teaching (135) that seems to be adequate in the framework of communicative language teaching as “the importance of communication is clearly central to Task-Based Learning" (137) and at the same time is flexible enough to help adapt to many different teaching situations. In the remainder of the book she will continue to use this method with some precise examples.

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JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 The discussion section at the end of Chapter 6 invites the reader to search any textbook at hand and check for the “elements of the approaches and methods identified” (139) as a transition to Chapter 7 in which the author will not try “to propose any new super-method” (162), but instead explicitly depict the main aim of the book with setting up a lesson plan and “[uncovering] some of the theoretical points which are foundational to sound language-teaching practices” (162). Chapter 7 (“Putting Theory into Practice”; 142-163) emphasizes again that “there is no such thing as a 'typical' language-teaching context” (142). By summarizing an exemplary scenario featuring class size, the CEFR level of students and other relevant factors (144), the author develops an exemplary lesson plan and syllabus, referring back to the form/function principle (145) in teaching and looking at the appropriations and necessities to adapt the plan to each environment, starting, however, from a “simple standard format appropriate for most teaching contexts” (147) and with which teachers and students can build upon the knowledge acquired over time. From their own experience, teachers will agree that the flexibility of one’s teaching plan is key to success when adapting it from lesson to lesson, from classroom situation to classroom situation, being fully aware of students’ needs. With regard to this aspect, the book renders a good framework for rather inexperienced teachers who are just starting their career. With respect to experienced language teachers, it serves as a mirror that helps reflect what a teacher presumably knows when having a linguistic rather than a merely pedagogical background. It reflects what the reader / teacher might rather have been unaware of, even though setting up and using lesson plans like the one suggested in this chapter. One major point that the author keeps focusing on is that there is no approach, and with it no method, that could be considered most adequate for language teaching in general; taking this thought one step further, this may also mean that there is not even the one approach or method for a specific, but ever changing classroom environment. The aim of the book to show that the lack of the one and best strategy for any teaching environment is fully accomplished by constantly showing the variety of issues in questions in each chapter and topic. The help for structuring one’s teaching with an awareness for possible underlying theoretical aspects that is provided is very practical, especially as the author states that in many language-teaching contexts, there is real pressure to teach specific forms. […] Even in places where there is a degree of freedom for teachers to choose their own classroom materials, the formal assessments for very many courses are, in fact, very 'form-centric' (152),

which will, of course, restrict teachers in their freedom to decide what, from a student’s perspective, is needed in the classroom situation. In the last part of this chapter, this point is dealt with under the subheading of “deciding what to teach (and what not to teach)” (161). The author will pick up this statement again in the last chapter (166), apparently recognizing this assumption as a key problem to be taken into account by teachers. As summarized in the lesson plan, the assumed classroom situation focused on a specific group of learners that cannot cover all of the aspects involved, such as “differences in age of acquisition” (162) or “in levels of proficiency” (163). In a more general view, this is taken up in the following last chapter of the textbook. For this purpose Chapter 8 (“Practice and Practices – Responding to Student Needs”; 164-180) is divided into segments giving an overview of the needs of learner groups that differ from the one 136

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 described in the previous chapter. The author observes groups of low- and advanced-level adult learners and young learners of English. The unit and lesson topic used in chapter 7, however, are kept. Under the subheading “The Global Context: English as a Lingua Franca” (174), the author briefly explains her turn to exclusively writing about teaching English in the last two chapters of the book, although most of it applies to and is “relevant to the teaching of any language” (174). To conclude, she picks up another of the major issues discussed throughout the book – what language actually is –, by focusing on what English is in the aforementioned global context (174ff.). Summing up by admitting that “in many ways this book raises more questions than it answers” (178), the author invites and encourages the reader / teacher to be aware “of the complexity of [the] subject area: language” (178). She finishes the final discussion section with the following: What do you consider the most important points made in this book? To what extent will they affect your views on teaching? What, specifically, could you plan to do differently as a teacher that you did not do before (as a language teacher or learner)? (179).

This very last notion of allowing teachers to see themselves not only as language teachers, but also as language learners, is a good final hint to create the awareness the author considers key to success.

Reviewer: Christine Mathews Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft des Saarlandes University of Applied Sciences Fakultät für Wirtschaftswissenschaten / Business School Waldhausweg 14 66123 Saarbrücken Germany E-mail: [email protected]

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Martin Durrell: Hammer’s GERMAN Grammar and Usage. London: Hodder Educational 52011. 553 pages (ISBN 978 1 444 12016 5) Years of language teaching have taught me that a good grammar is worth its weight in gold but that same experience has taught me that a good grammar is the last thing that students think of buying. For most, their school or university course book is the reference work of choice when problems arise, so a grammar has to be particularly useful and usable if it is going to persuade students to actually buy it. To be useful, it has to be a comprehensive and up-to-date presentation of the language concerned since the average learner will probably only buy one grammar in a lifetime. To be usable, it has to have an easily recognisable system of classifying grammatical features and, most important, a good, reliable index. First published in 1971 and now in its fifth edition, Hammer’s German Grammar and Usage (HGG&U) has gained a reputation as a solid work of reference for the English-speaking learner who has already mastered the basics of German and is “serious about studying German” (blurb on the back cover). This popular and highly-praised volume has received a number of euphoric 5-star reviews on Amazon, which reveal quite a lot about the nature of the work: for instance that it is appreciated for its detail and its use of known terminology, that generations of the same family are still using it, both as learners and teachers of German and that it is considered indispensable for advanced study at a university. So, we can deduce that it covers German grammar as comprehensively as possible, that it takes a traditional approach using a well-known descriptive meta-language and that its continuity over the years is considered a merit. It is geared to the particular needs of the English speaker, or, as Durrell states in his preface (p. xiii), the learner using English as a lingua franca. In the latter case, a good command of English and insight into English grammar is certainly necessary. As well as being descriptive, HGG&U also highlights the contrasts between English and German. The first chapter on nouns, for example, immediately plunges the student into a discussion of gender and why it will be a problem for the English-speaking learner. Later on, there are special sections on how to deal with those ubiquitous English -ing forms which have no direct equivalent in German or how to cope with forms which have no direct equivalent in English like the “subjectless” passive (“Es wird getanzt” p. 300), but which are equally ubiquitous in German. Hence, the reader will probably end up learning quite a lot about the workings of English as well as German. In his preface, Durrell points out that HGG&U follows the traditional grammar organisational pattern based on parts of speech. This means that discourse structures beyond word and phrase level and functional views of grammar cannot really be accommodated. The approach to grammar does not fit in easily with current ways of learning a language, be they communicative, interactional or holistic, where the focus is on using, where possible, prefabricated units of discourse, “chunks”, which can be “slotted into” the appropriate context without the necessity for cognitive intervention, such as checking for gender, case, agreement, etc., which would slow down communication. The use of formulaic language is considered to permit learners to grow accustomed to language patterns which are highly frequent without having to analyse the grammar first. HGG&U originated during a different language learning paradigm and has a different goal: its strength lies in enabling the users to analyse German grammar and to form grammatically correct utterances from the smallest unit of grammar upwards. Although attempts have been made to include spoken language, and Durrell emphasises this goal in his preface, the examples of spoken usage appear to have been largely drawn from TV and radio sources rather than every-day conversation. The author cites the corpus of German established by the Institut für deutsche Sprache (Mannheim, Germany), but it is not clear to what 139

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 extent the spoken corpus served as a source for the examples of colloquial speech. In any case, the grammatical items are rarely embedded in stretches of discourse longer than a single line. This means that some items lack the context which would be appropriate for understanding the particular grammatical phenomenon better. Chapter 10 on modal particles is a case in point: as a predominantly spoken phenomenon, the modal particles lend themselves well to contextualisation to demonstrate their use. As they are presented here, however, they appear as a daunting list of items to be learned by heart rather than expressions that will add a really important dimension of meaning to an utterance. This shows once more that HGG&U would appear to be more appropriate for formal learning environments or self-study rather than communicative or task-based learning. Durrell implies in his preface that he might have undertaken a more thorough re-write of the book, but preferred to limit revisions largely to bringing the examples up to date as many “potential” users might be confused by more radical changes. In fact, had Durrell taken the opportunity to rework the text more radically, it would no longer be “Hammer”! Clearly, this would not have been in the publisher’s interest. HGG&U is organised in 23 chapters, each with various subdivisions. Chapter 1 starts with Nouns, covering gender, plural forms and “declension”. This division is intuitively helpful in some respects, but it is rather strange that the reader has to wait until Chapter 2, which is dedicated to the concept of case, in order to discover the function of declension and why the inflectional tables need to be studied carefully. Still, Chapter 1 demonstrates the procedure that will be adopted in all subsequent chapters: after naming the topic, it is described succinctly in non-technical language and sometimes accompanied by a learning tip, such as, under Gender, “Foreign learners are usually recommended to learn German words with their gender” (p. 1), and, under Plurals, “… to learn the plural of each noun with the noun” (p. 14), etc. Each chapter and section has a wealth of examples, as one would expect, given the complexity of German grammar, most of which are extremely useful, but one wonders if it is necessary to include examples like In colloquial German this dative plural –n is sometimes omitted, and one may even see notices such as Eis mit Früchte. [sic] This is considered incorrect. (p. 26). This is not an isolated example: HGG&U goes into this level of detail (albeit using a smaller font) at numerous points, but the question arises whether it would not be preferable to omit this type of detail since it may well be confusing for the intermediate student, while being obvious to the advanced student (cf. also p. 45 on confusing dative and accusative (…mit einer Tasse heißen Tee) or p. 97, the use of “wo” as a non-standard regionalism (… die Frau, wo jetzt kommt) or p. 233, Southern German regional variations omitting the umlaut (… sie schlaft)). Especially for less competent learners, a focus on the essential features, without mentioning unusual items which may occur in spoken German, but which many students will never encounter, would seem more useful. Returning to the chapter overview, HGG&U continues with chapters related to the noun phrase. Chapter 3 on Personal Pronouns has a pertinent discussion on du and Sie, also including the archaic use of Er and Sie as pronouns of address. This could easily have been omitted, being another item that students are unlikely to encounter except in older literature where the meaning will be obvious. Translations into English of the examples under “impersonal es”, such as “es fehlt mir an Geld”, would have been more useful. Chapter 4, The Articles, covers the differences between English and German usage comprehensively, but then again, it is not clear why some examples are translated and others not. Chapter 5 deals with Other Determiners and Pronouns while Chapter 6 covers Adjectives and Chapter 7, Adverbs. Chapter 8 covers Comparison of 140

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 Adjectives and Adverbs with Chapter 9 on Numerals, followed by Chapter 10 on Modal Particles and Chapter 11 on Expressions of Time. Chapter 11 is partly a preview of Chapter 20 on Prepositions but also includes the adverbials (cf. Chapter 7) frequently used in time expressions, but its position in the table of contents appears to be unjustified on any logical grounds. Martin Durrell himself states that he had considered dividing the material between the adverbials and preposition chapters but, with the user in mind, decided in favour of retaining the chapter as originally conceived. From a learner's perspective, it is probably true that Expressions of Time are more usefully clustered in the manner given in Chapter 11 as learners are quite likely to need a complete overview of the topic, rather than leafing through different chapters. It might have been better, however, to shift this chapter in its entirety to the end of the book as an appendix, as it does not fit in well with the parts-of-speech organisation. The same could be said for Chapter 10 on Modal Particles, which is placed before any of the “verb” chapters. It seems strange to speak about speaker intentions and attitudes before clause structure has been discussed. Granted, some of these particles function as adverbs (cf. p. 176), but, generally speaking, their meanings become clearer when they are embedded in a longer stretch of discourse which includes clauses. Chapter 12 deals with verb conjugation with of all the tenses and the principle parts of strong and irregular verbs. On p. 230, the option of omitting the “-e” in the imperative of “warte” is not given along with other examples of this phenomenon although this is quite frequent in spoken German. In this chapter, we find a definition of “separable” verbs but not before the concept of “inseparable” verbs has been slipped in, without comment. Both of these types of verb are dealt with in detail later (Ch. 22), but it would be worthwhile briefly defining the distinction when the “inseparables” are first introduced. At this point (p. 233), the typography, which is generally excellent, is somewhat confusing as the alphabetic listing gets entangled with the (Roman) numeric listing, so (i) (intended to be alphabetic) follows (iii) (as a numeral). A further confusion arises on p. 235: we learn here that the “past participle of the modal auxiliaries is rarely used”, which is true enough, only to learn on p. 269 that the past participle is “occasionally” used (“sie hat arbeiten gemusst”), but that such usage is regarded as incorrect. This attention to unnecessary detail has already been mentioned as confusing as well as a waste of space: the focus should be unambiguously on contemporary German, rather than archaisms, and certainly not on incorrect and infrequent usage. Chapter 13 takes up the use of the infinitive and the ways of dealing with English -ing-forms. This is a complex topic for English-speaking students to come to terms with, but the presentation is clear and well-illustrated. The same can be said of Chapter 14, Uses of Tenses, where the lack of continuous / progressive tenses and differences in past tense use requires systematic study. Chapter 15 covers The Passive, while Chapter 16, on Mood, introduces the learner to the imperative and the subjunctive. Here students are warned to be on their guard (p. 316) as “even educated native speakers [of German] are often uncertain and insecure” about how to use the subjunctive. HGG&U sensibly adopts German terminology, Konjunktiv I und Konjunktiv II, to describe the use of the subjunctive rather than using the English terminology, which English speakers are unlikely to know, and so reducing the complexity of the topic without oversimplifying it. On the whole, this chapter presents the topic clearly, with a number of interesting examples drawn from the press. As I started reading HGG&U at p. 1 and then continued to the end, rather than dipping in, I was possibly more sensitive than normal users to the order of the chapters. In Chapter 16, we learn on p. 324 that when the word dass is omitted in reported speech, the subordinate clause word order reverts to the main clause order. Although the appropriate cross reference is given, sentence patterns are not covered until Chapter 18, the Verb Valency chapter. Main and subordinate clause 141

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 word order could surely have been mentioned earlier even if there are reasons to postpone the detailed analysis of word order in general (also in Chapter 21) towards the end of the book. Chapter 18, Valency, and Chapter 21, Word Order, are key chapters for the English-speaking learner on account of the tricky verb complementation patterns with prepositions, the position of the finite verb in main and subordinate clauses and the order of verbs at the end of the sentence. Table 21.1, which gives a clear summary of basic German word order in sentences, could well have been placed in a more prominent position, or even as an appendix for quick and easy reference. Otherwise these two chapters are very clear and informative, especially the note on the time-honoured time-manner-place rule for the order of adverbials, which all learners are taught but which is actually misleading. As is often the case, simple rules of thumb do not stand up to a thorough examination. For the sake of a complete overview, Chapter 19 covers Conjunctions and Subordination, Chapter 20, Prepositions and Chapter 22, Word Formation with helpful tips on neologisms, especially from English. Chapter 23 is a substantially revised chapter on Spelling, Pronunciation and Punctuation. This concludes the Grammar and fills the reader in on the controversies surrounding the spelling reform. Durrell succeeds in demystifying much of the confusion though capitalisation (or not) in preposition plus noun compounds (e.g. anhand vs. an Hand) still remains vague even to L1 speakers, as shown in various recently published sources. The alternative spellings of so dass and sodass have been noted, but the essential meaning difference is relegated to a totally different chapter since this is a conjunction rather than an adverb like the other so- compounds. Nevertheless it is retrievable with the help of the reliable cross-referencing. Punctuation rules are dealt with clearly and the L2 student following them may well fare better than many a German L1 student, if my experience with student texts in Austria is anything to go by. My reading of HGG&U was influenced both by my role as a learner of German as well as that of a language professional. So I had a very close look at the section where I detect my own particular bugbear – the gender of nouns. While case (in Chapter 2) in German may be considered to be a problem for learners with an L1 such as English, which has relatively little morphology in comparison, the true problem in hitting the correct case ending is sorting out the gender in the first place so that the correct ending can be added. What appears to be a violation of the case system is, more often than not, the right case ending but the wrong gender. This does not help much, but analysing the cause is sometimes half of the solution. Right on page one, Durrell informs us that in 80% of German nouns, the gender can be recognised by the noun’s meaning, form (esp. ending) or plural formation. This reassuring news led me to believe I would finally be able to crack the gender problem with Prof. Durrell’s help. You may not have thought about this before, but makes of cars are all masculine – analogy with der Wagen? Hence, if you encounter die BMW, it refers to a motorbike (das Motorrad). Then there are names of rivers. Rivers inside Germany are all feminine (p. 2), with a few exceptions (p. 3), whereas the rivers outside Germany are mostly masculine (p. 2), except for those that end in “–e”. But what about die Wolga or der Rhein? And then there are those rivers “in regions which are no longer in Germany, Austria or Switzerland” (Durrell 2011:3) – whatever that may mean – which have native German names, and hence are feminine, apart from quite a few exceptions. Here we see that assigning gender is far from easy and that the 80% “promise” will still involve a lot of cognitive effort. “Gender” continues for the next ten pages, which may not seem a lot, but could take a lifetime for me to digest. This, however, may have more to do with the German language itself rather than HGG&U’s presentation of it. There are clearly different reasons for choosing a grammar. For many students, a well-designed 142

JLLT Volume 4 (2013) Issue 2 textbook will suffice, obviating the need for any additional reference work, so the question arises as to how such a grammar will complement the textbook and how it will be used in the context of the learning situation. Current approaches to second language learning (irrespective of the language concerned) tend to foreground communication, allowing the learners to use the language in simple situations at an early stage in the learning process. In this context, HGG&U may well be considered too daunting, seeing that it requires a knowledge of the grammatical meta-language and plenty of time for study. Nevertheless, it is certainly the case that if used exclusively as a reference grammar by students who know at least basic German, the main criterion is ultimately the usefulness of the index in finding what you need to know quickly. In this case, the index worked extremely well in my spot checks: it appears to be comprehensive and the typographical highlighting of the different types of entry is very helpful. Weighing about 1200 grams, HGG&U is relatively light in comparison with the Cambridge Grammar of English, with just over half the number of pages, but this miracle has only been achieved by filling some pages to the very bottom (e.g. pp. 511-513), allowing virtually no space for margin notes. I mention this perhaps trivial detail because nowadays the obvious attraction of having a bound book rather than an electronic format is the possibility of adding one’s own examples or mnemonics. Apart from this problem of layout, the text is thankfully virtually so free of typos that it is almost ungracious to mention the missing “l” in “Henkel [sic] trocken” (p. 120] Reading Hammer’s GERMAN Grammar and Usage has been a fascinating experience, taking me back to my first German lessons as I recognised some of the very example sentences that I encountered decades ago. A comparison of this with contemporary English grammar teaching, where rules are less prominent, shows how different approaches to the learning of grammar can be and probably need to be. Although I find the accumulation of “rules” rather intimidating and miss the contexualisation of examples, I realise that, for the teacher or learner who has few opportunities for communicating with German speakers, the wealth of detail is actually its strength. In a subversive kind of way, I find it difficult to escape the attraction of this grammar, and while I shan’t be keeping it under my bed, as one of the Amazon reviewers advocates, it will certainly find a prominent place on my reference shelf and I can heartily recommend it for grammar junkies.

Reviewer: Prof. Dr. Veronica Smith Alpen-Adria Universität Klagenfurt Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik Universitätsstraße 65-67 A-9020 Klagenfurt

E-mail: [email protected]

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Table of Contents of Volume 4 (2013) Issue 1 I. Articles Veronika Timpe (Dortmund, Germany): The Difficulty with Difficulty: The Issue of Determining Task Difficulty in Task-Based Language Assessment ………………………………………………............ 13 Gabriella Morvay (New York, USA) / Mary Sepp (New York, USA): Measuring Productive Vocabulary in English Language Learners ……………............. 29 Ángel Osle Ezquerra (London, UK): Non-Native Speech Intelligibility of English Learners of Spanish: The Impact of Gender, Aptitude and Motivation …………………………………. .... ......... 49 Montserrat Mir (Normal (IL) , USA): Negotiation of Meaning in Spanish L2 Task-Focused Conversations …………............ 77 Zahir Mumin (Albany (New York), USA): Demystifying the Morphosyntax of the Spanish Relative Pronouns lo que, que, and quien(es) …………………………………………………………............. 97 César Diego Rexach (Osnabrück, Germany): Un nuevo uso del cómic y del cuento en la enseñanza del español como Lengua extranjera …………………………………………………………............…123

II. Book Reviews Günter Schmale (Metz, France): Anne E. Baker & Kees Hengeveld (eds.): Linguistics. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell 2012 ……………………………………………………………….......... 137 Thomas Tinnefeld (Saarbrücken, Germany): Huiqin Mao (unter Mitarbeit von David Baumgärtner und Mingyue Liu): Lernwörterbuch Chinesisch. Die meistbenutzten Wörter der chinesischen Sprache. Hamburg: Buske 2011 ................................................................................ 153

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Issue 2 I. Articles Patrizia Anesa (Bergamo, Italy): Teaching ESP through the Use of Interactive Whiteboards in University Lectures: An Investigation into Users’ Reactions ..............................……………................…...... 11 Katalin Doró (Szeged, Hungary) / Anita Habók (Szeged, Hungary): Language Learning Strategies in Elementary School: The Effect of Age and Gender in an EFL Context ........................................................ 25 Inez De Florio-Hansen (Kassel, Germany): Translation Competence in Foreign Language Learning Can Language Methodology benefit from Translation Studies ................................... 39 Bok Ja Cheon-Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany / Frank Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany): Konjunktionen im deutsch-koreanischen Sprachvergleich Schwierigkeiten koreanischer Lerner beim Erwerb des deutschen Konjunktionalsystems ................................................................................ 69 .

Sara Quintero Ramírez (Guadalajara, México): Tropos en la crónica beisbolera en emisiones televisivas latinoamericanas ............... 83

II. University Report Thomas Tinnefeld (Saarbrücken, Germany): Language Knowledge and Language Skills - Prerequisites, Relativity, Methodology - The Second Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign Language Teaching ...................................................................................... 103

III. Book Reviews Mikaela Petkova-Kessanlis (Sofia, Bulgarien): Martin, Luginbühl & Stefan Hauser (Hrsg.): MedienTextKultur. Linguistische Beiträge zur kontrastiven Medienanalyse. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik 2010, 210 Seiten ......................................... 122 Magdalena Ziemba (Czudec, Polen): Andrea Rössler (Hrsg.): Standards interkultureller Kompetenz für Fremdsprachenlehrer. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik 2013 ................... 129

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Annabelle Christine Mathews (Saarbrücken, Germany): Melinda Whong: Language Teaching – Linguistic Theory in Practice. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 2011 ....................................... 133 Veronica Smith (Klagenfurt, Austria): Martin Durrell: Hammer’s GERMAN Grammar and Usage. London: Hodder Educational 2011 ..……….......................................................................... . 139

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Guidelines for Contributors Please send your manuscripts to the editor at: [email protected] Manuscripts can be written in English, German, French. Spanish, or Italian. In view of academic globalisation, English articles are especially welcome. Every article should come with an abstract of around 10 lines. English articles should be accompanied by an abstract in one of the other languages mentioned. • Length of the articles: 10 to 25 pages • Font style: Arial, size 12pt. • Text: spacing: At least, 1,3 pt • Paragraph: No indent (Setting: Paragraph - Spacing - Auto) • Citations: 10pt (indented), number as superscript. • Headings: ◦ First level (1., 2., 3., etc.): 14 pt.. bold-faced ◦ Second level (1.1, 2.1, etc.) and lower (1.1.1, 2.1.1, etc. : 12 pt, boldfaced • Tables and figures: ◦ Identify them by means of a caption ◦ Put a reference into the text. • Words and expressions taken from languages other than that of the article should be put in italics. • Referencing: For referencing, please generally follow the Harvard Style.

Impressum Herausgeber: Prof. Dr. phil. Thomas Tinnefeld Dienstanschrift: Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft (HTW) des Campus Rotenbühl Saarlandes Waldhausweg 14 Fakultät für Wirtschaftswissenschaften 66123 Saarbrücken W3-Professur für Angewandte Sprachen E-Mail: [email protected] Redaktion: Wiss. Beirat (vgl. Editorial Board, vordere Umschlaginnenseite); E-Mail: [email protected] Internet: http://sites.google.com/site/linguisticsandlanguageteaching/ Konzeption, Titelgestaltung und Layout: Thomas Tinnefeld © JLLT 2013 ISSN 2190-4677 Alle Rechte vorbehalten. All rights reserved.

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Articles Patrizia Anesa (Bergamo, Italy): Teaching ESP through the Use of Interactive Whiteboards in University Lectures: An Investigation into Users’ Reactions Katalin Doró (Szeged, Hungary) / Anita Habók (Szeged, Hungary): Language Learning Strategies in Elementary School: The Effect of Age and Gender in an EFL Context Inez De Florio-Hansen (Kassel, Germany): Translation Competence in Foreign Language Learning Can Language Methodology benefit from Translation Studies Sara Quintero Ramírez (Guadalajara, Mexico): Tropos en la crónica beisbolera en emisiones televisivas latinoamericanas Bok Ja Cheon-Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany / Frank Kostrzewa (Karlsruhe, Germany): Konjunktionen im deutsch-koreanischen Sprachvergleich Schwierigkeiten koreanischer Lerner beim Erwerb des deutschen Konjunktionalsystems

University Report Thomas Tinnefeld (Saarbrücken, Germany): Language Knowledge and Language Skills - Prerequisites, Relativity, Methodology - The Second Saarbrücken Conference on Foreign Language Teaching 150 ISSN 2190-4677

€ 10,-