The Chalcolithic Phase in the Bhirna Basin, Maharashtra: a Review Sonali Naik and Sheila Mishra Department of Archaeology Deccan College Pune411 006

Abstract This paper reports the recent discovery in Pune District, of two Chalcolithic sites belonging to the Late Jorwe phase at Talegaon (Dhamdhere) on the Vel river and Sheriwadi on the Bhima river; and reviews the Chalcolithic phase in the Bhima basin based on visits made to the known sites as well as a review of published literature.

Introduction The upper part of the Bhima river basin largely coincides with the boundaries of Pune District and it is this region to which this review is confined. Several sites have been reported by Sundara (1968) in the lower reaches of the Bhima, but these have not been examined here. This is one of the best studied regions for the Chalcolithic phase in India. Eleven sites are known from this region of which eight have been excavated (Fig. 1). The most important site is Inamgaon where 12 seasons of excavation over the years 1968-1983 pioneered Chalcolithic studies (Dhavalikar et a/. 1988) and generated an ongoing debate about the nature of Chalcolithic adaptations (Dhavalikar 1973, 1984, 1989 a and b, 1990 a and b, 1992; Dhavalikar and Possehl 1974; Shinde 1989; Paddayya 1994). Recently two Ph.D. theses have been completed interpreting the Inamgaon evidence anew (Panja 1996; Pawankar 1996). The site of Inamgaon, being the only large-scale, well published,site has dominated the debate. In this paper, we would like to take a regional approach and place the Inamgaon evidence in the context of the other known sites. To accomplish this we have reviewed the published literature and revisited most of the known sites. Limited exploration by the first author has also led to the discovery of two additional sites, Talegaon and Sheriwadi which are reported here. Shinde (1 994), elaborating and modifying the cultural sequence proposed by Sali (1986) for Daimabad, has suggested that the Deccan Chalcolithic be divided into 5 phases of which the first is Savalda, the second Late Harappan, the third Malwa, the fourth Early Jorwe and the fifth Late Jorwe. In the Bhima basin, neither the Savalda nor Late Harappan phases are present. The Malwa phase is reported from Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon and

Sashtewadi. Dhavalikar (1970) has suggested that the Jorwe culture originated as a synthesis of lhe Malwa and Southern Neolithic cultures. From Songaon and Inamgaon, radiocarbon dates from the lowest occupations go back to 3500 b.p. (uncalibrated) which is contemporary with the dates for the SavaldaJRamtirth levels at Apcgaon and Daimabad (Possehl 1988). Therefore, the initial occupation by agricultural communities dates to the same time period in both the Godavari and Bhima basins. However, the first two cultural phases of Savalda and Late Harappan present in the Godavari valley are not present in thc Bhima valley. The Malwa phase in the Bhima valley therefore is equavalent in time to the Savalda, Late Harappan and Malwa in the Godavari and probably includes more diverse elements than have been so far recognized. While Dhavalikar (1973) and Shinde (1990) discuss the clear differences between the central Indian Malwa and the Deccan Malwa, the distinctions between the Deccan Malwa and Jorwe are less clearly defined. The Early Jorwe phase is seen at most sites, while the Late Jorwe phase is only known in any detail from Inamgaon. It appears, however, that this phase is also present at Songaon and Theur. Naik, has recently discovered two new Late Jorwe sites at Sheriwadi and Talegaon, which are reported here. A short description of each of the Chalcolithic sites is given in the Appendix.

The Malwa Phase in the Bhima Basin The Malwa phase is known from Chandoli, Songaon, Sashtewadi (Table 1) and Inamgaon. The earliest dates from Songaon and Inamgaon are contemporary with the dates for the SavalddRamtirth phase in the Godavari valley (Possehl 1988). This implies that agricultural settlements might have begun at the same time in both the

Man and Environment XXII ( 1 )- 1997

Fig. 1: Location of Chalcolithic sites in Pune District: 1. Chandoli; 2. Inamgaon and Pimpalsuti; 3. Khed; 4. Walki; 5. Talegaon Dhamdhere; 6. Sheriwadi; 7. Koregaon; 8. Sashtewadi; 9. Theur and 10. Songaon

regions. At Songaon, the earliest phase is characterized by Grey ware and a number of pits, both for dwellings and storage (Deo and Mujumdar 1969). At Sashtewadi the Malwa phase has circular structures (ZAR 72-73: 35). At Inamgaon the Malwa phase has a variety of structures, including round huts with sunken floors and rectangular huts. The pottery associated with the Malwa phase is more varied than that of the Jorwe phase (Sankalia et al. 1975). At Chandoli, Cream Slipped ware, Black and Red ware, Burnished Black ware and Lustrous Red ware are reported by Deo and Ansari (1965). In our surface collections from Chandoli (Fig. 3 a and b: Nos. 1 , 2 , 4 - 6 and Fig. 4: Nos. 3 and 5) and Sashtewadi (Fig. 3 a and b: No. 3 and Fig. 4: Nos. 1 and 2), we also noticed a Red ware with chocolate slip and violet painting. A few sherds of Black and Red ware, like those from Apegaon were collected from Sashtewadi (Fig. 3: No. 12) and Khed (Fig. 3 a and b: Nos. 13 and 14). Some of the Jorwe pottery has black painting on a burnished surface (Fig. 4: Nos. 12-13) or is unpainted (Fig. 4: Nos. 10-11).

Preceding the Malwa phase in the Godavari and Tapi valleys, there are two phases of the Chalcolithic - the Savalda and the Late Harappan. In the adjoining Bhima valley, the earliest dates from two sites (Inamgaon and Songaon) are contemporary with the Savalda in the Godavari, but no distinct pre-Malwa phase of the Chalcolithic can be identified. It is possible that the pre-Malwa Chalcolithic phase is represented at the sites by less intensive occupation, so that the two centuries preceding the Malwa have not been separated from the main Malwa phase. There is a suggestion from the evidence at Songaon (Deo and Mujumdar 1969) and Sashtewadi (IAR 72-73: 3536) that there is a phase similar to the Southern Neolithic prior to the Malwa phase in the Bhima basin. Both the Chocolate Slipped ware with violet paintings and the Burnished Red ware with black paintings are obviously related to the Malwa and Jorwe tradition, and may belong to this early phase. The Black and Red ware from Chandoli, Sashtewadi and Khed has affinities with the Black and Red ware from Apegaon, but is found in very small quantities at the sites in the Bhima basin.

Chalcolithic Phase in the Bhima Basin

Table 1: Chalcolithic sites in Pune District

Phases

Main reference

Ghod

1n, IV

Deo and Ansari (1969)

Khed

Bhima

III?, IV

Panja (1995). This paper

Koregaon

Bhima

IV

Khatri (1962)

Inamgaon I Inamgaon I1 Inamgaon 111 Inamgaon IV Inamgaon V

Ghod Ghod Ghod Ghod Ghod

1 1I V I11 111, IV, v

Dhavalikar et ul. 1988.

Pimpalsuti

Ghod

stone circles

Megalithic Ansari and Dhavalikar (1976)

Sashtewadi

Mula

250 x 100 m

111, IV

IAR 1972-73: 35-6. This paper

Sheriwadi

Bhima

5Ox50m

V

This paper

Songaon

Karha

111I

Talegaon

Vel

V

This paper

V

M R 1969-70: 27-29

V

Dhavalikar et al. (1990)

Site name

River

Chandoli

Thickness of habitational deposit

-

I1

stone circles

Theur Walki

Size of site

Bhima

The Earls Jorwe Phase in the Bhima Basin The sites of Chandoli, Khed, Inamgaon, Sashtewadi, Songaon and Walki were occupied during the Early Jorwe phase. This phase has the most abundant evidence for human settlements. At Inamgaon, where all three phases of the Chalcolithic are present the Early Jorwe is the most prosperous of the three. Evidence for craft specialization is found during this phase at Inamgaon (Dhavalikar et al. 1988; Shinde 1991), when settlements accumulating habitational deposit become common. The major sites vary in size from Songaon (80 x 50 m), to Sashtewadi (250 x 100 m) and Inamgaon I (215 x 175 m) (Table 1). A major finding of this review was the fact that the sites of Sashtewadi and Khed are almost as large as Inamgaon I (Table 1). Both these sites were excavated, but unfortunately unpublished. While Inamgaon is still the largest site, if the combined area of the five mounds is taken, it is clear that the entire area was never occupied simultaneously as two of the mounds were occupied only during one phase of the Chalcolithic (Table 1). The sites of Chandoli, Songaon and Walki are all about the same size and smaller than InamgaodKhedJSashtewadi. It has been suggested that Walki is a satellite settlement of Inamgaon (Dhavalikar et al. 1990), but neither Chandoli nor Songaon are near any larger Chalcolithic site and so cannot be considered 'satellites.'

V

Deo and Mujumdar (1969)

,

The Chalcolithic phase has been viewed up to now from the perspective of the historical period, when all sites are 'mounds' or accumulations of habitational deposit as a result of which the absence of habitational deposit is taken as the absence of humans. Considered from the prehistoric perspective, however, Chalcolithic sites with habitational deposits are new and startling. Man had been living in the Bhima basin for several lakhs of years prior to the Chalcolithic (Mishra et al. 1995). During this period his activities had not produced 'habitational deposits.' The traces of human activity are confined to the stone artefacts incorporated into natural deposits. The sites with habitational deposit during the Chalcolithic still represent only a part of the human activities of that period while the older activities (hunting and gathering) continue for a period along with the new component of domesticated plants and animals. Occupation of a particular spot over months alone does not usually accumulate a habitational deposit. This can be seen by casual observation of the many tent settlements of modern nomads. It is only when mud is used as a building material that real accumulation of a habitational deposit becomes at all common. Perhaps smearing of animal dung on the mud floors and walls is also a factor to be considered. During the Chalcolithic these deposits accumulate for the first time ever in the region. We know from the studies of the botanical and faunal material from these sites that subsistence during the

Man and Environment X X I I ( I ) - 1997

Fig. 2: Location map of some Chalcolithic sites in Pune District

Chalcolithic depended on both domesticated and as well as wild species of plants and animals (Dhavalikar et al. 1988). The known sites are all quite far apart from each other. This shows that during the Chalcolithic, especially in the

Bhima basin, such sites represent only the more archaeologically visible components of the Chalcolithic. Rather than considering the peak phase of the Jorwe as the norm and the archaeologically less visible phases of Malwa

Chalcolithic Phase in the Bhima Basin

ab Fig. 3: Chocolate Slipped and Black and Red ware: I and 3 Chocolate slipped ware from Sashtewadi; 2, 4 and 5 Chocolate slipped ware from Chandoli; 6 Thick ware with burnished red slip on the interior and burnished black slip on the exterior from Chandoli; 7 Burnished black ware from Chandoli; 8 Jorwe like sherd with black slip on the interior from Khed; 9 Jorwe with painting on both surfaces from Khed; 10 Thick maroon slipped ware with red interior from Chandoli; 11 Thin maroon slipped ware with burnished red interior slip from Chandoli; 12 Black and Red ware from Sashtewadi; 13 and 14 Black and Red ware from Khed

and Late Jorwe as anomalous, it is the Jorwe which appears as the special period. It is only during this phase, which has a duration of a few centuries, that permanent sedentary settlements become at all common. It is during this phase that there is the most uniformity of the pottery styles throughout western Maharashtra. It is likely that even during this phase there is a component of the Jorwe that we are not 'seeing.'

The Late Jorwe Phase in the Bhima Basin The most important finding reported here is the discovery of two new Late Jorwe sites (see Appendix). The pottery assemblages from both Sheri wadi and Talegaon are very similar. They are characterized by the presence of Black and Red ware similar to that of the Megalithic Black and Red ware (Wheeler 1948) along with a coarse variety of Jorwe ware and a Red Slipped ware. The absence of the

Grey/Red ware similar to the Grey ware of the Southern Neolithic is also conspicuous. The Black and Red ware in the collections from Talegaon and Sheri wadi are mostly deep bowls. From Talegaon a single sherd comes from a small Iota (Fig. 6 No. 14) and has incised line decoration on the upper portion. This sherd has part of the 'comb' graffiti. Almost every bowl has graffiti marks on the inside. The shapes of the Jorwe ware are mainly large jars with high necks and narrow mouths. The carinated/concave bowls so common in the Early Jorwe are completely absent. Although this ware is coarse compared to the Early Jorwe ware it still produces a ringing sound when struck. There are two shades of slip. Some sherds have a pale pink slip, while in others it is light orange. The paintil}gs over both appear as violet rather than black. The lines in the paintings are mostly thick and couJd have been applied with the fingers. Some narrower strokes are present in some of the paintings, but the very fine brush strokes so

I

49

Man and Environment XXII (1) -1997

Fig. 4: Chocolate Slipped ware and Burnished Red ware: 1,2 and 4 Chocolate slipped ware from Sashtewadi; 3 and 5-9 Chocolate slipped ware from Chandoli; 10 and 11 Burnished red slipped ware from Sashtewadi; 12 and 13 Burnished red slipped ware from Khed with black paintings

common on the Early Jorwe sherds are absent. The third type is a Red Slipped ware. This is similar to that described by Dhavalikar (1973) as associated with the Late Jorwe at Inamgaon. This ware has a temper of sand and makes a wooden sound when struck. All the pots from Sheriwadi and Talegaon in this ware are medium sized wide mouthed globular pots. The interior of the pot is unslipped. The rim and shoulder portion has a thick red burnished slip. The surface of this slip often shows pitting or fine cracks producing a 'blotchy' surface. One sherd of this ware from Sheri wadi has a graffiti mark on the exterior (Fig. 7 No. 17). Groups of grooves around the shoulder are also present as a decoration on some sherds, while other sherds from the base of the pot show soot marks suggesting that these were cooking pots. The assemblage from Period ill at Songaon is quite similar to that from Sheriwadi and Talegaon. Black and Red ware bowls, the Red Slipped ware and a coarse Jorwe ware are the main fabrics from this phase. Grey/Red ware is not mentioned. It does not, however, seem that there are

50

Fig. 5: Khed: Pottery

many graffiti marks on the pots from Songaon (Deo and Mujumdar 1969). At Theur, Black and Red ware with graffiti marks have been illustrated and these are associated with Jorwe ware. The Jorwe ware of both the fine and coarse varieties is present. The Grey/Red ware is present, but not in large quantities while the Red Slipped ware is not mentioned (fAR 69-70: 27-29). At Inamgaon, the Late Jorwe phase is associated with Grey/Red ware. Dhavalikar (1973) implies that the introduction of Black and Red ware precedes the appearance of the Red Slipped ware. The Jorwe ware includes the bowls, and the small and medium sized jars seen in the Early Jorwe. Based on this evidence it would appear that the Late Jorwe at Inamgaon belongs to an earlier phase of the Late Jorwe than that seen at Songaon, Talegaon, Sheri wadi. At Theur several phases of Late Jorwe are present. The disappearance of the Grey/Red ware and some typical Jorwe shapes in the later phase of the Late Jorwe is surely significant. The presence of a large number of graffiti marks also distinguishes the later phase of Late Jorwe from the earlier phase of Late Jorwe. In that case Songaon might be earlier than Sheriwadiffalegaon/ Theur. The site of Pimpalsuti has been interpreted by Ansari and Dhavalikar (1976) as a Megalithic burjal site. The Black and Red ware here is not associated with any Jorwe

Chalco lithic Phase in the Bhima Basin

b

a Fig. 6: Pottery from Talegaon: .7 Jorwe sherds; 8-15 Black and Red ware; 16-18 Red Slipped War(

component, although the coarse Red ware illustrated might be a development from the coarse Jorwe ware. The presence of an iron arrowhead at Pimpalsuti also implies that here one is in the post-Chalcolithic phase. We have however, suggested that the stone circles at Pimpalsuti (Appendix) might have enclose.d habitations rather than burials, based on the finding of enhanced phosphate levels from the stone circles (Joshi and Deotarel983: 51). The 'gap' between the Late Jorwe and the Early Historical period therefore is almost bridged by the late phase of the Late Jorwe at Inamgaon and the Megalithic at Pimpalsuti. The presence of iron at Pimpalsuti shows that it might not be very far in time from the Early Historical period. A continuous evolution of the pottery traditions is seen. In the beginning, the Grey ware of the Southern Neolithic tradition is associated, first with Malwa, and then with the Early Jorwe pottery. The Jorwe pottery is in turn associated with the Megalithic type of Black and Red pottery, with the gradual disappearance of the Neolithic Grey ware and introduction of the Red Slipped ware that continues into the Early Historic period, as does the Black and Red ware. Many continuities are seen in the cultures,

and this is inspite of the clear evidence of fairly significant changes in subsistence and settlement and perhaps technology as well. The Late Jorwe Phase: Changing Subsistence and Settlement There are many indications of a change in the subsistence and settlement pattern during the Late Jorwe Phase at Inamgaon. These include a change in house patterns from rectangular to round, an increased component of wild plants in the palaeobotanical sample and indications of more animal products in the diet from the chemistry of the human bones (Dhavalikar et at. 1988). Pawankar (1996) recently re-analyzed the faunal material from Inamgaon and has found that many of the bones previously identified as sheep/goat actually belong to the black buck. This means that during the Late Jorwe phase at Inamgaon the faunal assemblage changes from one dominated by domestic cattle to wild deer. The horse has been identified from the late Jorwe phase at Inamgaon (Pawankar 1996) and from Walki (Joglekar and Thomas 1993). Chemical analysis of the human bones shows an increased compo51

Man and Environment XXII ( I ) - 1997 nent of animals in the Late Jorwe diet as compared with the Early Jorwe phase (Dhavalikar et al. 1988). All these components imply a decreased dependence on domesticated plants and animals with increasing dependence on wild fauna. Along with this we would expect an increase in mobility. Dhavalikar (1973) has explained this change in settlement and subsistence as a response to a climatic shift towards aridity. The shift in settlement patterns during the Late Jorwe is even more striking when a regional approach is employed. While a few sites such as Inamgaon and Songaon, continue to be occupied during the Late Jorwe, the other sites were abandoned during the Early Jorwe phase itself. The site of Theur, belonging to the Late Jorwe phase, shows that completely different factors were important in site location during this phase compared with the Early Jorwe phase seen at Sashtewadi (Fig. 2). The latter is a large habitational mound located on the bank of the Mula river, close to arable land and on a fording point on the river. The Late Jorwe site of Theur, however, is located about I km away from any reliable water source. It is however on the present road and affords a view of the entire Mula valley, looking over the divide between the Mula and Bhima. The large stone enclosures around the clusters of huts are also a new feature. This site does not have the thick accumulation of habitational debris seen in the Early Jorwe sites. The site was conspicuous because of the stone circles. The recent ploughing of land and planting of trees has destroyed any trace of the site. Similar sites, in areas where boulders are less plentiful, might have had enclosures of bamboo or bush and these would not have left such durable evidence as the boulders at Theur. The location of the site away from a water source suggests that this was not a village, occupied for the entire year, but a repeatedly occupied seasonal site. Talegaon (Fig. 2), like Theur and Sheriwadi, again shows the presence of very small sites, where occupation has not produced any 'habitational deposit'. The implications of these sites are that the Late Jorwe sites could be located in different places from sites during the Early Jorwe phase and traces of such sites might be difficult to find. The presence of many graffiti marks on the pottery of the later phase of the Late Jorwe is noticable. These marks are made after the pot is finished and so represent something related to the user of the pot, rather than the maker of the pots, as would be the case with potters' marks. The graffiti marks appear to comprise a group of stereotyped symbols. Yazdani had suggested as early as 1917 that these marks are a proto-script. The repetition of certain symbols, their lack of clear decorative value, their execution after the pot was made, does lead to the suspicion that these marks are not just decorative motifs. It could be that they originated as marks branded on cattle to identify owner-

ship, and in that sense the various marks do represent different family groups. At Talegaon two symbols are repeated on several pots, one is a 'comb' (Fig. 6a: No. 1) and the other a 'checkerboard,' while at Sheriwadi the circle with radiating lines (Fig. 7b: No. 1) appears on more than one pot. If the graffiti marks are related to identifying owners, then they are important evidence for an important change in ideas relating to property and the relationships between people which developed during this period. The introduction of the horse during the Late Jorwe period (Pawankar 1996; Joglekar and Thomas 1993) could have been a factor in the increased mobility seen during this period.

Conclusions This review was undertaken to widen the scope of the numerous debates on the Deccan Chalcolithic. It is hoped that the intense focus on a very few excavated sites will be broadened. The excavated sites are the most important source of information, but only if they are viewed in the context of the region they belong to. We have argued that during the Chalcolithic the mounds represent only a part of the Chalcolithic settlement and subsistence. The other components are presently 'invisible.' There are two ways of taking these invisible components into account. The first is to look for them. It is possible that traces of the activities not associated with permanent settlements do survive. These could be the 'site furniture,' like boulder circles or other modifications of the land surface. Stone tools could also be found on the surface. Pottery on thc surface would probably survive but might be quite abraded and weathered. It is however possible that these traces might not be found even after quite intensive search as they are liable to destruction especially once intensive agriculture is adopted, as is more and more the case in Pune District. In any case the discovery of such s ~ t e 1s s always bound to be partly a matter of chance, and of special circumstances of preservation. The second approach is to look for the evidence for the activities that occurred away from the main site in the main site itself. Thus the wild fauna consumed at the site is the evidence for the hunting activities that may have occurred at some distance away from the site. The small number of sites again implies that a component that did not produce such sites was present. The Late Jorwe phase, secn from the perspective of the site of Inamgaon, had led to the hypothesis that there was a change in settlement and subsistence during this period and that there is a 'gap' between the Chalcolithic and Early Historical periods in thc Bhima basin (Dhavalikar 1973). From a regional perspectivk, the change in settlement and subsistence during the Late Jorwe appears even more dramatic than it does from the single site of Inamgaon, while the 'gap' between the Chalcolithic and Early Historic almost disappears. A different set of constraints governed

ite

Man and Environment XXII (I) -1997

';Of

Fig. 8: Coarse Ware: I and 4 Grey ware from Sashtewadi; 2 Lamp from Sashtewadi; 3 Doughplate in Coarse Red ware from Talegaon

the location of sites in the Late and Early Jorwe phases. This is seen most obviously in the contrasting locations of Sashtewadi and Theur. The locations of Inamgaon and Pimpalsuti form a similar contrast. Sashtewadi is located on the bank of the river near a convenient fording point, while Theur is at a viewpoint along a route of movement. Pimpalsuti is also located nearer a road, rather than the river, although here the site is at the only point where road and river almost coincide. The Late Jorwe sites are much more ephemeral and liable to destruction. Thus, in 1995 no trace of the stone circles that once indicated habitation at either Theur or Pimpalsuti survive. There may be a change in the technology of cooking during this period. In the Early Jorwe sooted pots, although reported are not very common. The Grey ware has a large number of open basins, which appear to be related to food preparation (soaking grains?). In the small sites of Talegaon and Sheri wadi, the Red Slipped ware has a number of sooted sherds and the Grey ware is absent. This appears to imply greater reliance on cooking in pots in the

54

Late Jorwe Period as compared to the Early Jorwe, when some food might have been cooked but without using pots. The Late Jorwe phase appears to be a period during which important changes were occurring. These changes were not only in the direction of 'deterioration,' seen in increased mobility and exploitation of wild flora and fauna, but also in the possible emergence of ideas of ownership suggested by the presence of 'ownership marks' (graffiti), and the use of horses which would have made raids more rewarding. Shinde (1994) has suggested that there is evidence for conflicts from the Late Jorwe levels at Inamgaon based on the human skeletal remains from which Lukacs and Walimbe (1986) identify evidence of death due to trauma. These features are a hint that an important shift from the egalitarian Chalcolithic societies to the more stratified societies of the Early Historic period was underway. In our review of the available evidence we have found some evidence that the period between the Chalcolithic and Early Historic is a transition rather than a gap. However, we have become even more aware of the enormous gaps in

Chalcolithic Phase in the Bhima Basin our knowledge. These gaps can be only partially filled by further analysis of available data. New data, more data are essential.

strokes. The site presently becomes surrounded with water from the backwaters of the Ujjani dam.

Koregaon

Appendix: Site Descriptions Chandoli This site is on the right bank of the Ghod river about 3 km from Manchar. It was excavated by Deo and Ansari in 1961. An interesting feature of this site is the large variety of pottery types found. Besides the typical Jorwe and Malwa, Black and Red ware, a variety of Cream Slipped ware and few sherds of Lustrous Red ware, and Burnished Black ware were also present. The Cream slipped ware is also known from Daimabad where it stratigraphically follows the Savalda horizon. Black and Red ware is also common at Apegaon where it is associated with the SavaldaIRamtirth wares. A few sherds of Jorwe fabric have a chocolate slip and violet paintings on the exterior surface (Fig. 3 a and b: Nos. 1 , 2 4-6 and Fig. 4: Nos. 3 and 5). Deo and Ansari (1965) mention some 'overfired' Jorwe sherds which might be the same type of potsherds. We, however, do not think these are overfired sherds as the interior of some of the sherds remains bright red, with only the exterior having a chocolate colour (Fig. 3 a and b: No. 2). Associated with the Malwa horizon therefore, at Chandoli, are several other wares that have similarities to the pre-Malwa phase in the Godavari valley. The radiocarbon dates from Chandoli can be bracketed between 2900 and 3200 b.p., but appear to date the Jorwe phase only.

Khed This site is located on the left bank of the river Bhima in the Karjat Taluka of Ahmednagar District (Fig. 3). The thickness of the habilational deposit is 5 m and it is spread over an area of about 200 x 105 m. This makes it similar in size to Inamgaon I. This site has two radiocarbon dates published in IAR. There is no other mention of it in the IAR, nor have we been able to track down any other reference to it. This site however has been excavated, as the outlines of the trenches can be seen. Panja (1995) visited the site and describes it in her thesis. She made a surface collection of pottery seen by us, and we also made a collection (Fig. 5). The typical Chalcolithic Grey ware, comprising globular jars with flaring rims, basins of various sizes and rimless dishes are well represented. These are decorated with finger pinches and impressions, and sometimes with incised designs. The Jorwe ware has mostly carinated bowls and globular pots with high necks and narrow mouths. A pottery stopper that exactly fits these necks was also found. A few sherds of Black and Red ware like that from Apegaon was also found (Fig. 3 a and b: Nos. 13 and 14). Most of the Jorwe ware has a fine fabric and is well fired and the designs are executed with fine

This site was reported by Khatri (1962) who illustrates typical Jorwe sherds collected from the base of the present habitation. Koregaon is on the left bank of the Bhima river where the Pune Ahmednagar highway crosses it. This appears to be an ancient fording point. No trace of Jorwe pottery can be found at the site now, and in recent years Koregaon has expanded tremendously, covering the previous habitation mound.

Inarngaon The Chalcolithic mound at Inamgaon is some kilometres upstream of the present Inamgaon village and is on the left side of the river Ghod. A cluster of five mounds, measuring in total 550 x 430 m, is found. The largest mound, called Inamgaon I was excavated extensively over a period of 12 field seasons (Dhavalikar et al. 1988; Lukacs and Walimbe 1986; Dhavalikar 1979, 1990b). This excavation has yielded the most complete data available about the Chalcolithic and is one 01the best examples of interdisciplinary work to date in India. Three phases of the . Chalcolithic are found at Inamgaon, which was occupied from about 3500 b.p. to perhaps 2900 b.p. (uncalibrated) or (3800-3200 B.P.) with calibration. The most interesting finding at Inamgaon has been the evidence for a change in the subsistence and settlement system through this period. This evidence is in a change in the types of houses, the associated evidence for plant and animal exploitation. This change moreover is not, as one would expect towards more intensive exploitation of plants and animals through time and reduction of mobility, but exactly the reverse. This has led the main excavator of the site, Dhavalikar to suggest that the Chalcolithic societies at Inamgaon were adapting to a progressive aridity. While the archaeological evidence for the change in subsistence and settlement is strong, there is so far not a great deal of geological evidence for aridity and so some researchers have been reluctant to accept the role of climate in cultural change.

Pimpalsuti This is the only site that we have not visited. The site was studied by Ansari and Dhavalikar (1976) and the site is also mentioned by Panja (1995). Ansari and Dhavalikar (1976) report 9 stone circles just outside Pimpalsuti village on the north side of the road. One of these circles had already been disturbed by the villagers who were in the process of removing stones for building material. This circle was probed and Black and Red ware sherds and Red ware sherds and one iron arrowhead were recovered. The excavated circle was 13.5 m in diameter. Ansari and Dhavalikar (1976) interpret this site as a megalithic burial.

Man and Environment XXII ( I ) - 1997 However, no evidence for a burial was actually found. The pottery sherds appear to be from pots broken during the Chalcolithic period and not the complete vessels associated with a burial. Deotare (Joshi and Deotare 1983), analyzed the soil from the megalith for phosphorous content and found that the level of phosphorous within the megalith was greater than that of the surrounding soil, although less than from the lnamgaon habitational deposit. Normally Megalithic burial sites have no increase in phosphate levels. For these reasons, we would like to suggest that, as at Theur, the stone circles at Pimpalsuti, might have enclosed a habitational area, rather than a megalithic burial. The iron object from Pimpalsuti, would imply that it was later in age than the Theur circles, where no iron was found. Panja (1995), has reported an area of 115 x 35 m near Pimpalsuti from which she found scattered pottery described as incised ware of the Chalcolithic period along with medieval pottery. She has interpreted this as a leveled mound. It is possible that this site is the same as the one reported by Ansari and Dhavalikar (1974) and that the boulders have been removed. Ansari and Dhavalikar (1974) also report a cyclopean structure near Inamgaon village where one Jorwe pot was found.

This site is located on the left bank of the river MulaMutha opposite Theur (Table 1). The site was excavated by S.R. Rao and reported in IAR. In the IAR report the lowest levels are characterized by Grey ware and some Malwa pottery, while in the upper levels Jorwe ware is found along with the Grey ware. In our surface collection, Jorwe ware, associated GreyIRed ware, a single sherd of Black and Red ware and some Coarse Red ware is present. The Jorwe ware has carinated bowls with concave and convex sides, globular pots with a high neck and narrow mouth. A few sherds of a ware with a fabric similar to Jorwe have a chocolate slip and violet paintings, like that found at Chandoli (Fig. 3: No. 1). The GreyRed ware is very thick with coarse fabric and comprises mostly basins with a flattened rim decorated with an applique band impressed with fingertips and globular jars with flaring mouth. A part of an oblong lamp, with a flat base and a shallow wickchannel was found, similar to those reported from Chandoli (Fig. 8: No. 2). The mound has some Maratha period stone structures that have disturbed the upper part of the Chalcolithic levels. Most of the mound has been removed and even the underlying soil has been removed and transported to rocky areas where new land is being brought under cultivation. A small shrine of the Maratha period on part of the mound has not been disturbed.

Sheriwadi This site is located on the left bank of the river Bhima about 6 km downstream of the site of Koregaon (Fig. 2). The site is about 100 m away from the river and lies on a 2 m thick black soil. The habitational deposit has recently been removed for use in the fields and only a thin veneer of habitational deposit remains. Chalcolithic pottery is present in some nearby fields where this mud has been applied. The information of the local people is that the mound was originally about 2 m thick. Pottery collected was similar to that from Talegaon. Black and Red ware with graffiti marks are present (Fig. 7: Nos. 1-8 and 13). Some of these bowls also have white paintings consisting of groups of wavy lines (Fig. 7b: No. 8). Red Slipped ware is also present (Fig. 7: Nos. 16-20). The Jorwe ware is of the coarse variety (Fig. 7: Nos. 9-12, 15). The GreyIRed ware is absent.

The site of Songaon is at the confluence of the Karha and Nira rivers. It is on the right bank of the Karha and left bank of the Nira and the two rivers surround the site from three sides. This site was excavated by Deo and Mujumdar in 1965. At Songaon the early levels had an assemblage dominated by the GreyIRed wares. Period I1 has Jorwe with a component of Malwa and associated pottery. The final period at the site sees the introduction of Black and Red ware along with Red Slipped and Burnished Red ware. The Jorwe ware is of a coarse variety. Talegaon (Dlzamdhere) The site at Talegaon lies on the right bank of the river Vel and is located about 1.5 km downstream from Talegaon village (Fig. 2). This site comprises Chalcolithic pottery in a 20 cm colluvial gravel sandwiched between silty soil. This is exposed at the margins of the zone affected by the Vel river in flood. The path skirting the cultivated fields is only about 2 m from the exposure. A large number of potsherds were collected from this gravel, which mainly comprises the pottery along with some basalt and calcrete pebbles. A small pit dug in the field immediately behind this exposure showed about 20 cm of ploughzone above Pleistocene alluvium, with no trace of Chalcolithic pottery. The Chalcolithic pottery has become incorporated into a colluvial deposit, probably shortly after the abandonment of the site. This colluviation implies an unstable land surface, probably denuded of vegetation. The total extent of this site is less than 3 x 3 m, and so is quite unlike any other Chalcolithic site so far reported. The pottery assemblage comprises coarse Jorwe ware, Black and Red ware and Coarse Red Slipped ware. The GreyIRed ware is absent from our collection. A large dough plate, hand made in a coarse red ware was also

Clzalcolitlzic Phase in the Bhinza Basin collected (Fig. 8: No. 3). The pottery shows signs of abrasion. Some sherd surfaces show pitting and chipping of the slip and the paintings on the Jorwe ware have become dull. Some sherds might have lost their paintings. The slip of the Jorwe ware is dull red and the paintings are in a purple to brown colour. The fabric is coarse (Fig. 6: Nos. 1-7). The Black and Red ware is similar to that at Sheriwadi, with some minor differences in shape (Fig. 6: Nos. 8-15). Most of the sherds at Talegaon have graffiti marks but the white painting is absent. Some graffiti marks are repeated in several bowls, especially one like a comb (Fig. 6: Nos. 1l and 14) and checkerboard. Theur Theur is located on the right bank of the river Mula about 1 km from Theur village along the TheurINaigaon road (Fig. 2). The site is 1 km away from the Mula river and there is no stream nearby. The site was excavated by S.R. Rao and reported in IAR (1969-70: 27-29). Five excellent photographs of the site (Plates XL to XLIV), are published in the same volume. Kosambi (1962) also mentions this site and reports petroglyphs on the boulders making up the circles. The photograph of the site shows the Theur sugar factory in the background and the hills to the north on the divide between the Mula and Bhima rivers. The site had five stone circles of which two were excavated. The circles were made up of boulders, which are abundantly available at the site. The circles enclosed huts of the Chalcolithic period. The photo published in IAR allows us to be sure of the location of the site, of which not a trace remains. It has been converted into an orchard. The IAR report indicates that there were three levels of occupation, the first two levels had a predominance of Jorwe pottery while the last level had more of the Black and Red ware. The Black and Red ware is mainly bowls and is similar to that from Sheriwadi and Talegaon. Graffiti marks are common on the Black and Red ware and a number are illustrated. Walki The site of Walki was excavated by Dhavalikar and a lengthy article has been published (Dhavalikar et al. 1990). The fauna has also been studied (Joglekar 199 1) and an article published by Joglekar and Thomas (1993). The site was interpreted as a 'small site' forming a satellite settlement to the larger site of Inamgaon. Only the Early Jorwe phase is present at Walki and the thickness of the habitational deposit is only 60 cm. Acknowledgements Sonali Naik would like to acknowledge her valuable interaction with Sheena Panja during an earlier stage of this work. The field-work was funded by the DST, New Delhi - under the project ESSlCAlA3-13/94, which we gratefully acknowledge.

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