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History – 2hr 1945-53 - The Origins of the Cold War 8 The Korean War Edited extracts from Steve Phillips – Cold War

Why did the USA get involved? In 1949 the USA had dealt effectively with the Soviet Union's blockade of West Berlin by organising an airlift of supplies into the city. When the Soviet Union admitted defeat and lifted the blockade in May, it was a victory for the West. Strengthened by the formation of NATO, a military alliance to defend the West against communist attack, the morale of the USA was high but events elsewhere Why did the USA feel it was losing the Cold were to undermine any feeling that the West had the upper hand War? China, French troubles in Vietnam, in the Cold War. The 1950s were a period when many USSR’s atom bomb and McCarthyism all Americans believed they were losing the Cold War. This feeling contributed of vulnerability had a significant impact on attitudes to communism in both domestic and foreign policy. In 1950 President Truman asked the National Security Council to produce a report on US Cold War policy. The result was a document known as NSC-68. This report saw the world in bipolar terms, highlighting the division of the world into two superpowers in conflict with each other. This situation, according to the report, had been brought about because of the USSR's aim to extend their authority in order to achieve domination over both Europe and Asia. This view saw the Soviet Union under Stalin as aiming for nothing short of world conquest. NSC-68 made recommendations for the direction of US foreign policy: it should do all it could to ensure noncommunist regimes were viable as alternatives to communism and it should take military measures to meet the threat of communism. These measures should include the building up of both conventional and nuclear weapons and being prepared to engage in limited wars to prevent the spread of communism and push back communist groups NSC-68 A report of the US National threatening to take over 'free' countries. These recommendations Security Council produced in 1950. It marked a change from the earlier policy of containment. blamed the expansion policies of the Soviet Containment had accepted the existence of the Soviet Union and Union for the continuation of the Cold War. focused on containing communism within its existing borders. The Soviet Union was considered to be The new emphasis was to be on roll back, the view that aiming to dominate Europe and Asia as part communism needed to be confronted and pushed back to of the spread of world communism. This safeguard the free world. This was, therefore, the basis of a more report recommended much stronger action aggressive US foreign policy. This change had been caused by against communist expansion. It influenced the growing perception in the USA that it was losing the Cold US foreign policy in the 1950s. War and firmer action was needed. UNO or USA? There has been much speculation on who gave the order to invade the South. Kim had discussed his plans with Stalin who had urged caution and gave no commitment to help the North if an invasion was launched. It seems likely that the decision was Kim's own as an attempt to unite the country. Yet, to the US government, concerned about the spread of communism in China and Indo-china, this was further evidence of a communist conspiracy directed from Moscow. US intervention followed within two days of the initial attack by the North. Truman, under pressure from anti-communist hysteria at home, authorised the sending of air and naval power to South Korea. US policy in the Far East had changed from one of limited defence to one of total commitment in a matter of days. The UN was then used to ratify US actions. In the words of the official Joint Chiefs of Staff: 'Having resolved upon armed intervention for itself, the US government the next day sought the approval and the assistance of the United Nations.' The UN called on North Korea to withdraw its forces from the South and voted to send assistance to defend South Korea. The USSR, which had the power to veto any decision in the Security Council of the UN, was absent at this crucial moment in protest over the failure to admit communist China into the organisation. Thus the USA was able to dominate the UN and, as a result, secured a commitment from sixteen countries to send troops under the UN banner to help South Korea. Among those who sent troops were Britain, Canada, Turkey and the Philippines but the vast majority of the troops sent were American. The USA was using the UN as an instrument of its own foreign policy. It was the USA that paid the bill for most of these soldiers and the UN forces were led by the staunchly anti-communist US General Douglas MacArthur. The US government saw UN backing as essential to ensure popular opinion was in favour of a military commitment to Korea which would put American lives at risk. It would also help in the propaganda war against communism throughout the world. The course of war The North's push into the South - Invading North Korean forces pushed southwards with great success, capturing Seoul, the capital of South Korea, and moving towards Pusan. Despite the arrival of US troops in August, the North Koreans continued to advance. Communist guerrillas in the South attacked South Korean troops as they retreated. As the North took control of areas, People's Committees were re-established and land reforms introduced. By early September South Korean forces had been pushed back to Pusan but the North

Korean army was now outnumbered by the arrival of US troops. Two hundred and sixty-one ships landed UN troops almost unopposed. This relieved the pressure on Pusan and within days the South Koreans were able to push North Korea's army back towards the 38th Parallel. The UN forces push into the North - In the face of superior US forces the army of North Korea started to disintegrate. On 30 September South Korean forces crossed the 38th Parallel and entered the North. The US government now talked about a 'thrust north'. Right-wing elements wanted a rolling back of communism from the Korean peninsula. The USA went to the UN to win approval for conquering the North and reuniting Korea. As the UN voted its agreement, US forces were already crossing the border. MacArthur began a rapid advance northwards, capturing the capital of the North, Pyongyang, in October. In the areas captured by the UN, the government of the South began to root out communists and collaborators in a wave of violent executions. Over 100,000 were killed by Rhee's officials. China's entry into the war - As the UN forces moved closer to the Yalu River the Chinese became increasingly concerned about their own security. MacArthur talked openly about the prospects of restoring Chiang Kai Shek's Nationalists to mainland China. Yet Chinese support for North Korea was always likely given the assistance 145,000 Korean volunteers had provided for Mao's communists in the Chinese Civil War. The favour was to be returned when needed. Mao may also have seen the war as an opportunity to replace Soviet influence over North Korea with that of China. In preparation for what seemed an inevitable attack from the Chinese, MacArthur decided to lay waste the area between the frontline and Chinese casualties were high; over 45,000 died fighting during exceptionally cold winter weather of -30°C. But the USSR had now promised to provide supplies should they be needed and the advantage, for the moment, seemed still to lie with the North. Stalemate - In early 1951 the communist forces pushed South of Seoul. There were now 400,000 Chinese troops in Korea - a vast number that caused logistical difficulties in keeping it supplied adequately. Tens of thousands of porters carried equipment on their backs from the Chinese border to the frontline over two hundred miles away. This could not be sustained indefinitely. The communist forces also had to deal with the superiority of the UN in air power. Extensive bombing raids of the North caused serious damage to bridges, roads and industry. These factors brought about a stalemate at the frontline. Both sides seemed unconvinced that they could win the war. The UN had to contend with widespread guerrilla activity by communists in the South. Up to 30 per cent of UN forces were engaged in rooting out guerrillas behind the frontline. In 1951 the UN launched 'Operation Ratkiller' against guerrilla bandits. The operation was successful but UN troops were starting to become war weary. To break the stalemate, MacArthur renewed his call for atomic bombs to be used against China. MacArthur's warmongering was beginning to cause tension between himself and Truman. His demands and attitude amounted to insubordination. Truman sacked the general in April 1951 and he was replaced by General Matthew Ridgway. Under Ridgway the stalemate continued as did heavy bombing of the North by air and sea. In July 1951, both sides were ready to open peace talks at a teahouse at Kaesong. The peace talks at Kaesong took place while heavy fighting continued and they soon broke down. They resumed later in the year at Panmunjon where agreement was reached over a demarcation line between North and South. Arguments continued over the issue of the return of prisoners of war. The end of the war In 1952 Eisenhower had won the presidential election in the USA on the slogan 'I shall go to Korea.' This was widely interpreted by the US public as a desire to end the war. March 1953 saw another significant change of leadership when Stalin died. The new Soviet leadership was willing to see an end to the war. UN casualties reached 23,000 in June 1953 and public opinion in the West was turning against involvement in the war. Rhee's declaration of martial rule in South Korea made the defence of his government a less convincing case for sacrificing young US lives. US soldiers deserted in increasing numbers and many inflicted wounds on themselves to avoid fighting. Ninety per cent of Americans in military hospitals in 1953 had self-inflicted wounds. After visiting Korea, Eisenhower was fully aware of the situation. On 27 July 1953 an armistice was finally agreed. China, North Korea and the USA signed the ceasefire. South Korea refused to do so but had little alternative other than to accept it. Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Why did the USA intervene in Korea? How far would you agree that the UNO was irrelevant to the war in Korea? Colour the maps showing the development of the war in Korea. The using the maps as a reference as a reference point write a brief summary of the main developments of the war. What were the main consequences of the war? How would you expect US policy after Korea to be influenced by the experience of the war?