KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS PRESIDENT RESEARCH PACKET Topic 1: Division of Former Ottoman Territories in the MENA PRESIDENT: Mousa Abughosh

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 President's Letter: Delegates, “A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” These words, as generic as they may appear at first read, served to help breathe some life into the practical application of an “association of nations”; a league of nations or even the United Nations of modern times. The idea that the modern intergovernmental organizations of our times were initiated from such underdeveloped statements and vague assumptions about international cooperation and world peace may be surprising to some. However, it is possible that many of the political blunders of history were and continue to be a direct result of this practice of thinning out loosely attached and primitive concepts over the practical solutions to the world’s problems. This forum, along with the conference in a general sense, will encourage you to assess the methods by which the participating nations of intergovernmental organizations attempted to put into effect ‘solutions’, ideas and concepts lacking careful consideration of details, limitations, constraints and real-world applications. We also ask that you consider the consequences of this process in the past while also offering viable alternatives that take into account all the realistic restrictions that yesterday’s problem-solvers may have failed to keep in mind. Each topic in this forum will involve a different period from history, the first being shortly after WW1, the second after WW2 and the final one occurring during the Cold War. Therefore, delegates are required to be consciously aware of not only their country’s stances but also their history and how the specific point in time may change the country’s stance on an issue. The first topic, taking place in a League of Nations style format since it revolves around events from 1923, is the Division of Former Ottoman Territories in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) regions. It is helpful to keep in mind that the League’s ‘format’ was never really fully fleshed out, leaving the details as yours to fill in. This also signifies that The League’s ideology was never as firmly established as the UN, meaning that the League could, for instance, organize and plan militant attacks. Think of it as a sort of raw predecessor to the UN that. rather than try to curb the infinite threat of violence and war in the world, attempted to redirect it onto more safe and justified targets. This topic will entail debate on how much, if any at all, of the middle eastern and north African territories should be placed in the hands of colonial powers or newly formed independent governments. The mandate system should also be brought up, including its viability or lack thereof as a means of assisting in the growth of the newly formed countries. Delegates are also expected to be proficient enough to avoid falling into the trap of following inherent personal biases that may alter their representation of their assigned country, considering that this is quite a contentious topic which may very well have constructed the modern borders of many modern third world nations. Best, Mousa Abughosh President of the League of Nations

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 Topic 1: Division of Former Ottoman Territories in the MENA Introduction: The Ottoman Empire, which, at its peak spanned more than 5 million square kilometers, was known, by the end of the First World War, as the “sick man of Europe”. World War 1 served only to bury what had long been a rotting corpse among the world’s great empires. The Ottoman Empire’s involvement in this war began in 1914 with its attack on Russian forces stationed at the black sea coast. This move triggered Russia’s declaration of war against the Ottomans, which was backed by both France and Britain. The Ottoman Empire, in its final days, also faced struggle from within. These issues mainly involved dissent and acts of insurrection as an expression of frustration with policies pertaining to the mistreatment of minority groups and non-Turks in the region, including Arabs, Kurds and Armenians. As a result, many of the questions regarding the sharing of territory that came up following the Ottoman Empire’s dissolution in 1923 specifically pointed to the dissenting minorities and their rights to self-rule and/or self-determination. The former territories of the Ottoman Empires had long been sought out by Britain for the purposes of securing India or the “Jewel” in the British “crown”. The main powers that took control of the MENA territories directly following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire were Britain, France and Italy. Although, Russia also made claims to ownership of parts of what we know as modern day Turkey including Anatolia and Constantinople. Ultimately, the three aforementioned most influential powers were given control under the guise of the newly formed League of Nations’ mandate system. Just as much of the impetus for release from Ottoman control was the desire for self-determination, the opposition to British, French and Italian control also stemmed from these political interests. Many of the independence movements which were supported by the British in their overthrow of the Ottoman Empire soon held a negative view of the British, French and Italian powers as many saw them as colonial powers wrongfully exerting influence over the region. It is for this reason that movements for independence such as the Arab Nationalists directly fought against British colonial control years later; an example being the Suez Canal nationalization of 1956 and the expulsion of British forces from Egypt. The French also attempted to ease their control of the region with the traditional divide-and-conquer strategy, having split up Lebanon into four different nations at one point, but this resulted in further resentment against the French and anti-Colonialist movements to remove their influence from the Middle East and North Africa. The Kurds, a non-Arab group, were also implicated in this conflict and confusion as their claims to a nation came at odds with the newly and artificially created Syrain and Iraqi nations along

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 with Turkey due to the irregularity of the borders drawn up by the British and French mandatory governments.

Definition of Key Terms: Mandate: The term mandate, specifically the definition of the League of Nations, references the supposedly temporary form of government set up by the League of Nations allowing a member state from the Allies to govern former Ottoman or German territory. It was established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, following the end of World War 1 and the collapse of members of the central powers including the German and Turkish Ottoman empires. Protectorate: A Protectorate is similar to a mandate in that it is one government set up to replace another, often times in the case of fallen central powers from the First World War. However, a protectorate differs from a mandate in the sense that a protectorate is not expected to have any duty towards the citizens of the acquired territory or a superior governing body, in this case the League of Nations. The case could strongly be made that the French League of Nations ‘mandate’ was more of a protectorate due to its refusal to adhere to the restrictions of the League of Nations or respect the citizenry. League of Nations: An intergovernmental organization, considered the predecessor to the United Nations, encompassing 63 countries. It was conceived as the fourteenth point of the 14 points devised by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States at the Paris Peace Conference, which was established in response to the end of World War 1. Colonialism: Colonialism is direct authority of a political entity over one or several territories. Typically, these territories do not receive separate representation from the colonizing power but rather are perceived as the property of the dominant political entity by other nations or governments. Imperialism: Imperialism is a means of expanding the power or influence of a country, government, empire or political power. Typically this is applied by physical or military force or through colonialism. Cold War:

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 The Cold War is a term referencing the period of political tension between the eastern and western world, specifically the Soviets and the US and its allies, roughly between 1947 and 1991.The Cold War did not involve direct full scale warfare between the two superpowers but was defined by strained relationships between them due to differing political and economic policies; namely capitalism and communism. MENA This term is an acronym that references the Middle East and North Africa region. It typically refers to the parts of the world held by the Ottoman Empire prior to its fall, specifically those of the modern ‘Arab World’, along with Iran, a non-Arab country. The countries often listed as part of the MENA are Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

Important Points: It is worth noting that the controversy surrounding the division of Ottoman territory did not end with the League of Nations mandate plan, nor did it suddenly fix itself after the withdrawal of the British, French and Italian colonizing forces from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Rather, the borders of the MENA existed, and continue to exist, in a constant state of tension, having shifted due to political and military conflict since their inception by the colonialist powers. Evidence of the present issues with this phenomenon can be observed from the modern world as many political pundits and analysts have speculated as to whether new states will be formed in the eventual aftermath of the Syrian Civil War, along with the explosion of sectarian conflict and terrorism in Iraq since the US-led invasion of 2003, as referenced in the first chart from the appendix. The majority of delegates will most likely be challenged to put aside their personal biases as individuals from the MENA and to think in terms of the general interests of the region or, more likely the interests of their country possibly in terms of land-grabbing and expansionism. There is perhaps even some residual sentiment in the Jordanian community for the Ottoman Empire of old, expressed by much of the population’s fervent support of Turkish President Erdogan, even in terms of domestic Turkish issues.

Implications: The problem of dividing up the former Ottoman territories may have been ‘addressed’ by the League of Nations years and years ago but the modern MENA is a testament to their failure. The League of Nations’ allowing of colonial interests to play into the building of a post-Ottoman MENA left this part of the world to rot over the years. Not only did the British, French and

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 Italian presence in the Middle East and North Africa trigger opposition and insurrection against the state, it also staggered the path to democracy in the region. Just as the introduction of these colonial entities was hallmarked by the use of puppet dictators it left behind leaders with no insight or ties to the common people. One must only look to the response of the Iraqi populous to the succession of King Regent Abd al-lah to the throne; literally butchering him and his family with shawerrma knives, followed by years upon years of Coup d’etats and changing hands in Iraqi government until an iron-clad dictator such as Saddam Hussein would finally solidify his power, for some time. To flesh out this point, 2 uprisings and one coup d’etat took place in the year of 1963 alone in Iraq, along with another military coup in Syria in the same year. Even now, we see that the colonizing forces refuse to clean up the incompetent despots they left behind in the wake of their destruction. Understanding how this lasting crisis could have been avoided may well hold the key to figuring out how it should be countered in the present day.

Major Parties Involved: The most important part here is not listing the major players, but explaining their interests, objectives, biases, history and significance. For each major player, explain who they are, what they want, why they want it, and how they aim on achieving it.

The British Empire The British Empire comprises the entirety of the territories around the world held by the United Kingdom. At one point, the empire became so huge that it was referred to as the empire “on which the sun never sets”, since at least one of its territories around the world was bound to be in the middle of the day at any point in time. The British Empire’s desire for expansionism may have fuelled their interest in claiming former Ottoman territories, not to mention past tension with that rivaling empire. More specifically, acquiring the MENA was seen as a stepping-stone towards Colonial India which would significantly benefit the UK economically speaking. The acquisition of the MENA would be in itself a victory however due to the sheer size of the territory that the Empire could now exert their influence over.

The French Colonial Empire Most historians date the French colonial empire back to 1534. However, many modern historians would divide its history into the first and second colonial empires. This ‘second’ empire was built upon the conquest of Algiers, the capital city of the modern People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria. The French did not stop at having conquered Algiers in 1830 but instead vied to expand their colonial reaches and interests in the MENA into the 20th century. The French also attempted to utilize minorities against the state, supporting Maronite Christian uprisings in Lebanon in the latter half of the 19th century

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 such as that of Youssef Bey Karam. The French went on to carve up Lebanon and Syria into smaller sub-states lacking representative government with the power of self-rule. The French once again seemingly acted to embolden minority influence in the region with their support of a ‘Druze state’ and an ‘Alawite state’ but instead exploited and reinforced societal tension with these minority groups to suppress the establishment of a unified Arab nation in the area. Through a multitude of secret agreements between these groups seeking independence and among other colonial entities, including both the Balfour Declaration for the former and that of Sykes-Picot for the latter, the French attempted to further sink their roots into the MENA.

Italy Italy had long faced issues with the Ottoman Empire, not only in terms of vague rivalries but also in the form of direct military conflict. The most prominent example of which being the Ottoman invasion of the southern Italian city of Otranto In 1481. Later down the line, the Ottomans and Italians would battle again in the Italo-Ottoman war of 1911 to 1912, shortly preceding the First World War. At this point in time, the Italians’ former rivals have collapsed and they are free to benefit off of the remains of their past glory. Since Italian Libya was established before World War 1 and before the final decimation of the Ottoman Empire, the Italians had no reason to withdraw from the North African region at this point and had more freedom than before to reinforce their presence in the region.

UN Involvement and Relevant Treaties: The Armistice of Mudros This Armistice ended all military conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied powers in the Middle Eastern theatre by noon, 31st of August, 1918, Rauf Bey, Minister of Marine Affaris, represented the Ottoman side while Admiral Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe of the British forces signed on behalf of the British Empire and, by extension, the Allied powers as a whole.

Treaty of Sèvres The Treaty of Sèvres was signed on the 10th of August, 1920, two years after the end of World War 1. It effectively ended the Ottoman Empire as it was signed by the victorious Allied powers and representatives from the former Ottoman government, requiring the latter to renounce all of their territory in the MENA region. League of Nations Mandates

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 The newly established League of Nations acted to assign mandates over the former Ottoman territories in the MENA to two of the major allied powers, the British and the French, shortly following the First World War. While France was officially a mandate, it basically acted as a protectorate as the mandate government neither considered the citizens of Syria and Lebanon citizens nor did it hold any duty towards them.

Timeline: September 29, 1911-October 18, 1912 Italo-Turkish War fought between the Italian and Ottoman forces leading to the occupation of what is now modern-day Libya by the Italian colonizing powers. Marked the start of Italian Libya. October 1914 Ottomans attack Russian forces stationed at Black Sea, instigating the Ottoman’s role as a central power in World War 1. November 1915 British and French sign Sykes-Picot agreement, named after Colonel Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot, which essentially affirmed French and British influence in the MENA. June 1916 The first, ‘Sherifian’, Arab revolt is initianted on the 5th of June, 1916 by Sherif Hussein bin Ali. IT is backed by both France and the British Empire as a means of toppling Ottoman rule in the region. October 1918 Armistice of Mudros is signed, ending military conflict between Ottoman and Allied forces. November 1918 Constantinople occupied by Allied forces, first time it was occupied since 1453, when the Ottomans conquered it from the Byzantines. January 1919 Paris Peace Conference begins and League of Nations is established by the end. March 1920

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 Treaty of Sèvres is signed, handing over all former Ottoman territory in the MENA to the Allied powers. September 1920 ‘Greater Lebanon’ is established, officially as a French mandate while in actuality a protectorate. France also creates several sub-states in the area. December 1920 British Mandate for Mesopotamia is created but not ratified as the Iraqi people rebel against colonial rule. August 1921 British establish Hashemite rule in the region through a fabricated referendum and appoint the first King, Faisal I, on the 23rd of August. September 1923 Britain officially assumes control over mandatory Palestine. 1930 Arab Sheikh from Syria, Izz al Din Al Qassam, establishes the Black Hand, an anti-Zionist and anti-British militia. September 1932 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is established by British pro-British Ibn Saud. November 1935 Al Qassam is killed in a manhunt related to the murder of a British policeman. April 1936 Arab Higher Committee is established, main representative of Palestinian people. 1936 Uprising against British rule in Palestine alongside opposition to unlimited Jewish immigration, comes to be known as “Second Arab Revolt”. Revolt is suppressed by 1939 and leaders on the Arab front are mostly exiled and killed.

Evaluation and Discussion: This section is much more subjective than any other. You must evaluate past involvement in the problem, and judge the success of such attempts. Explain

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 why or why not previous solutions have been successful, their implications, and what we might learn from them. Discuss the limitations of previous solutions, and try to identify the reasons for success or failure. You expert opinions and citations before articulating the opinion you gleaned from your research. Sample Format (Rami Rustom): This topic, along with the entirety of the forum, is unique in the sense that analysis and evaluation of past attempts to tackle the issue are absolutely necessary. Considering that these issues had been ‘addressed’ years upon years ago, it is important to consider the current apparent consequences and ramifications for the consequences of the past and attempt to reroute the plans for a future laid out by failed world leaders and peacemakers of the past. While overreliance on hindsight is often frustrating, contemplating alternative solutions that were proposed at the time and noting how they could have yielded better alternatives may help to form similar methods of tackling these issues and the legacies they left behind in the present day. One such offered solution that comes to mind is that of the King-Crane commission. In 1919, the United States government sent out a team of researchers representing the ‘Inter-Allied Commission on Mandates in Turkey’ to investigate public opinion in territories formerly held by the Ottoman Empire. While it mainly assessed the Levant region composed of Palestine, Syria and Iraq, it also surveyed Anatolia, which was claimed by both the Russians and the British. Initially, this publication was suppressed as it “would not be compatible with public interest” according to the State Department. However, it is speculated that this was a move meant to keep good faith with the French and British along with their colonial interests in the region. The report, which became known as the first major survey of Arab opinion, was mostly overlooked upon being released a year later in 1922. It was far too late at this stage; the colonial entities had their feet firmly set in Arab and Turkish soil at this point in time. It is also worth noting that this is a case in which the steps that were in fact taken to address the problem were almost entirely detrimental to the interests of the general population in the region and also the incoming Jewish immigrants. It is highly difficult to attempt to ‘improve’ on the treachery committed by the British, French, and arguably the Arabs who revolted against the Ottomans in the first place, as there was very little possible action that could have been taken by the common people to prevent the secret agreements that took place. To lament the rapid undermining of Arab interests in the region that took place is almost foolish as it seems to be a direct result of the siding of the Arabs with the colonial entities against their former Ottoman allies. Not much can be said for what could have been done after being set upon this path, but the case could strongly be made for

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 why the original betrayal of the Ottoman Empire by means of serving British colonial interests was a mistake in itself.

Proposed Solutions: 1. Recommends the immediate adoption of the King-Crane Commission of the United States as the framework for an initiative headed by the League of Nations for the restructuring of MENA and former Ottoman borders by means of: a. Appropriating the Arab Higher Committee’s (AHC) role as a group tasked with reporting on public opinion in the Arab World to the international community; b. Corresponding regularly with original team of researchers and pollsters sent by the United States to the MENA and establishing contact with local representatives from each of the regions targeted by this initiative; c. Recognizing British and French presence in the MENA as that of a colonial entity and revoking their right to maintain such a presence by introducing an alternative international presence in the region composed of representatives from both the MENA and the international community to foster peace and goodwill between the Middle Easterners and the rest of the world; 2. Urges the non-permanent member states of the League of Nations to coalesce as an international body acting in the interests of underrepresented peoples and nations beginning with constraining of British and French colonial interests in the MENA by: a. Integration with along with financial and armed support for the already-existent Mandate Commission of the LN; b. Regular communication with representatives from the reformed Arab Higher Committee regarding the current state of affairs and the views of the public; c. Consolidating the military forces of all volunteering nations into a single defense system with the supervision of the Secretariat of the LN against colonial aggression in recently freed nations or regions on the path to self-rule or self determination.

Explore: Guiding Questions: 1. What is your delegation seeking to obtain from dealing with the postWW1 international community? 2. Was your nation newly formed or has it been a powerful familiar face for a while now? 3. Has your nation had a history of supporting the allied powers or was it introduced into the LN at a late stage like Germany?

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 4. How, if at all, will your country benefit from stabilizing the issues in the MENA? 5. Has your nation had any history of military presence in the MENA? 6. Has your country reached out to the newly formed smaller independent nations and governments in the MENA or elsewhere? 7. Does your country’s foreign policy fall in line with the movement to unite the MENA? 8. Would your country feel threatened by a united MENA federation or nation? 9. Is your country currently within the sphere of influence of a colonial power? 10. How has your country engaged with colonial entities such as the British Empire in the past? 11. Does your country have anything to gain from backing the colonial projects launched by Britain and France in the Middle East? 12. How does your solution reconcile the will of the people with the ambitions of the imperialist and colonial entities? 13. What does your solution immediately do for the residents of mandategoverned areas and how can these short-term solutions pave the way for a viable model of government in the MENA of the future?

Useful Links: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25642368 (Only introduction) https://global.britannica.com/event/Armistice-of-Mudros https://global.britannica.com/topic/League-of-Nations http://www.johndclare.net/EL2.htm http://looklex.com/e.o/ottomans_3.htm https://www.binghamton.edu/history/resources/journal-ofhistory/simonds-ottoman.html http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/97801995 40839.001.0001/acprof-9780199540839-chapter-2 http://users.ox.ac.uk/~ssfc0005/The%20Rise%20and%20Fall%20of%20Ar ab%20Nationalism.html

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Citations: "Ottoman Empire | Facts, History, & Map." Encyclopedia Britannica. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Aug. 2016. "Ottoman Empire." BBC Religions-Islam Ottoman. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Aug. 2016. "Armistice of Mudros." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 03 Aug. 2016.

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KING'S ACADEMY MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2017 "The Ottoman Empire." Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, 1918-1920 -. N.p., n.d. Web. 04 Aug. 2016. H. G. L., and E. M. "British Policy in Palestine, 1937-8." Bulletin of International News 15.23 (1938): 3-7. Web. "About the University." Binghamton University. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Aug. 2016. "Palestine Mandate | League of Nations Resolution." Encyclopedia Britannica. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Aug. 2016. "Httpusersoxacukssfc0005The20Rise20and20Fall20of20 - SOCIAL STU - AP World H." Httpusersoxacukssfc0005The20Rise20and20Fall20of20 SOCIAL STU - AP World H. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Aug. 2016. "Balfour Declaration | United Kingdom [1917]." Encyclopedia Britannica. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Aug. 2016. "Ottoman Empire / Rise and Fall, Explanations - LookLex Encyclopaedia." Ottoman Empire / Rise and Fall, Explanations - LookLex Encyclopaedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 July 2016. "Ottoman Downfall." World History. John and Clare, n.d. Web. 27 July 2016.

Appendix: Map displaying terrorist attacks in Iraq before and after US invasion

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