OCCUPANT PROTECTION ISSUES Report to the Transportation Research Board’s Committee on Occupant Protection (ANB45) NATIONAL HIGHWAY TRAFFIC SAFETY ADMINISTRATION Maria Vegega, Ph.D. Office of Impaired Driving and Occupant Protection Occupant Protection Division July 20, 2017

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Behavioral Research Initiatives from NHTSA’s Office Behavioral Safety Research

Evaluation of Child Restraint System Installation Anticipated completion date: 2018 Errors in Child Restraint System (CRS) installation have been well documented. The causes of these errors, however, are not fully known or understood. This study seeks to explore why errors occur and what factors (such as incompatibility between the CRS and the vehicle; hard-to-follow instructions) contribute to improper installation. The purpose of this project is to evaluate installation performance and caregiver confidence among both experienced and novice CRS users and to determine the factors that contribute to errors (quantity and type). Staff contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2014/P/1436857. Characteristics and Predictors of Occasional Seat Belt Use Using SHRP 2 Data Anticipated completion date: 2018 Using Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP2) Data, the purpose of this project is to identify the impact of factors, including but not limited to distance traveled, average and maximum speed during trip, weather conditions, and time of day, on seat belt use in occasional users. A secondary objective is to identify individual differences, including but not limited to demographics, which differentiate between user groups. Staff contact: Kathy Sifrit: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2014/P/1427693. Evaluating the More Cops. More Stops. High-Visibility Enforcement Program Completed NHTSA worked with Oklahoma and Tennessee to conduct six waves of high-visibility enforcement (HVE) featuring publicity of the “More Cops. More Stops.” message and heightened enforcement, including seat belt, impaired driving, distracted driving, and speeding enforcement. 1

The program was designed to tackle multiple traffic safety issues with one message and programmatic effort. To measure program activity and outcome, NHTSA analyzed media and enforcement activity and conducted awareness surveys, seat belt observations, and blood alcohol concentration (BAC) roadside surveys. Staff contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2010/P/1259613. The Motor Vehicle Occupant Safety Survey Anticipated completion date: 2018 The Motor Vehicle Occupant Safety Survey (MVOSS) is a national survey about occupant protection issues that NHTSA has conducted periodically since 1994. It is composed of two questionnaires, one focusing on seat belts and the other on child passenger safety. Each questionnaire is administered to 6,000 randomly selected people ages 16 and older. All 6 previous administrations of the MVOSS were conducted using landline telephones. The next MVOSS will entail a major change in methodology. NHTSA awarded a contract to conduct the MVOSS using three response modes. Web-based responding will be the primary mode, with paper questionnaire and telephone as alternative response modes. Administration of the survey is complete. Staff contact: Alan Block: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2013/P/1436855. Multidisciplinary Approach to Identify Innovative Strategies to Increase Seat Belt Use Completed The traffic safety community has made great strides with seat belt use, but there are still people not buckling up. Through this project, NHTSA is identifying new strategies to get more nonusers and part-time users to wear seat belts regularly. We are casting a wide net by searching the literature and talking with experts from traffic safety and other domains (e.g., education, industry, aviation, the military, and healthcare) to identify behavior change strategies that may be effective in increasing belt use. Once we have identified a set of promising strategies, we will hold discussions with experts to review the strategies and assess their applicability to future occupant protection programs. Staff Contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2013/P/1434972. Evaluation of an Innovative and Sustainable Seat Belt Enforcement Program Anticipated completion date: 2019 This research will evaluate an innovative and sustainable seat belt enforcement program that emphasizes seat belt enforcement on a year-round basis. The participating Law Enforcement Agency (LEA) will develop a seat belt enforcement program for their agency that includes some form of year-round seat belt enforcement (e.g., integrated into routine patrol on a daily or weekly basis) that can be sustained. The main objectives of this program evaluation are to determine if the innovative strategy can be implemented and sustained, and if the program activity (such as

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enforcement and earned media activity) contributes to changes in observed seat belt use and restraint use in crashes. Staff contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2014/P/1435197. Understanding Belt Use Beyond Demographic Factors Anticipated completion date: 2018 While much progress has been made in raising belt use, targeting the remaining nonusers has posed a challenge. Further understanding these individuals, specifically their attitudes, risk perceptions, and other psychological factors, may prove beneficial for program development and subsequently effective for promoting behavior change. Insight into the psychological make-up and psychosocial patterns of behavior of rare and situational belt users will provide a basis for developing new programs directed at these individuals. This research will increase our understanding of belt use beyond demographic factors by determining psychological constructs and psychosocial factors related to belt users and creating profiles of user types based on these constructs and factors, which will yield a more comprehensive picture of belt user groups and inform program development. Staff contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2015/P/1437008. Feasibility of Modeling the Relationship between Seat Belt Program Inputs and Outcomes Anticipated completion date: 2017 As States make progress with their occupant protection programs and reach high levels of observed seat belt use, program goals may shift to become more maintenance-oriented, requiring States to make changes in how they allocate their programmatic resources. Such adjustments may include changes in funding and program activity levels for communications, education, and enforcement, for example. Adjusting resources within a program as problems shift and new ones are identified is a key practice of effectively using resources. However, it can sometimes be challenging to gauge how resources should be shifted to maintain the positive program effects already achieved. This research will assess the feasibility of modeling the relationship between seat belt program inputs and outcomes that will help predict how resource adjustments may affect seat belt use with the purpose of maintaining stable belt use in high performing States. Staff contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2015/P/1439920. Child Passenger Safety Information Resources Anticipated completion date: 2019 Many information resources are available to aid parents and caregivers with proper and accurate child restraint system selection and installation including hands-on instruction. In 1998, NHTSA implemented a program for training and certifying child passenger safety technicians (CPSTs). Presently, many local organizations host Child Car Seat Inspection Stations nationwide which provide parents and caregivers an opportunity to receive one-on-one instruction regarding proper 3

use and installation of child restraints from a certified CPST. Unfortunately, this resource seems to be underutilized, and it is unclear what obstructs and what encourages use of this resource. This research will assess the awareness and availability of child passenger safety information resources including the degree of awareness parents and caregivers have of Child Passenger Safety Technicians and inspection stations; the relationships between parent and caregiver confidence, risk perception, and the intent to visit an inspection station; and barriers to use of inspection stations. Staff contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2015/P/1418975. Evaluation of Community-Oriented Enforcement Demonstrations Anticipated completion date: 2020 NHTSA will conduct two community-oriented enforcement demonstrations, one for occupant protection and one for impaired driving. This project will include an evaluation of the effectiveness of community-oriented seat belt enforcement modeled after proven law enforcement models with respect to increasing community support for enforcement, a process evaluation to document the implementation, an outcome evaluation including changes in community awareness of and attitudes towards enforcement, and to the extent possible, a safety impact evaluation. Staff contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2015/P/1440009. Rear Seat Belt Law Evaluation Anticipated completion date: 2022 The primary objective of this project is to evaluate the effect of an all positions seat belt law. This evaluation will include how the law is implemented, public awareness surrounding the law, the effect of the law on seat belt use, and its effect on crashes, injuries, and fatalities. A secondary objective is to monitor legislative activity and describe the legislative process relating to all seating positions seat belt laws. Conducting the current research could provide evidence for legislators to support the passing of more rear seat belt laws. Staff contact: Mary Byrd: [email protected] For more information, see https://rip.trb.org/view/2016/P/1425722

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Program Initiatives from NHTSA’s Occupant Protection Division A. Newly-Awarded Occupant Protection Projects

Students Against Destructive Decisions (SADD) Mentoring Middle School Youth on Seat Belt Use Anticipated completion date: 2019 The purpose of this newly awarded project is to assist SADD with a new approach and strategy for reaching middle schoolers (tweens) on the importance of seat belt use, through the SADD Rock the Belt program as well as through their older high school peers via such channels as a SADD talk (similar to TED Talks) where students start and lead conversations about safety issues, specifically on seat belt use. Staff contact: Alexandra Holliday: [email protected]

B. Ongoing Occupant Protection Programs

Identifying the At Risk and Hard to Reach Populations for Occupant Protection Intervention Anticipated completion date: 2018 The objective of this project is to identify hard-to-reach populations upon which future successful seat belt programs might be based or developed. In this effort, the contractor will examine databases such as the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey, National Hospital Discharge Survey, Emergency Department Data, Health Interview Survey and others to identify, analyze, and categorize the geographic, demographic, social-cultural and psychological characteristics of at-risk populations (i.e., those groups with seat belt use below the national average or unrestrained fatalities above the national average). Staff contact: Janice HartwillMiller: [email protected] Analyses from the National Child Restraint Use Special Study (NCRUSS) Anticipated completion date: 2018 In June 2015, NHTSA released a report and Research Note on the National Child Restraint Use Special Study (NCRUSS), which focused on a few key types of misuse of rear-facing and forward-facing child restraints, booster seats and seat belts. According to the study, there was a 46 percent combined rate of misuse for child restraints and booster seats. For car seats, alone the NCRUSS found the misuse rate to be 59 percent. There are other analyses that can be performed to provide NHTSA with additional information that could assist us in developing additional countermeasures based on science. An award has been made to ToXcel, a firm located in Gainesville, VA to conduct an additional detailed analysis of the NCRUSS database and develop a series of follow-up Research Notes in the next couple of years. Staff contact: Carole Guzzetta: [email protected] 5

Deploying Law Enforcement to Ensure Older Kids Buckle Up Anticipated completion date: 2019 Over the years, education, enforcement and major initiatives in the occupant protection area led by NHTSA and other organizations have focused on our youngest child passengers (up to age 8) due to their heightened susceptibility to injury in crashes. There has been less emphasis, however, on developing programs and resources designed to ensure proper restraint use by tweens than for younger children and adults. The seat belt non-use problem poses special concerns where older children are concerned since restraint use drops as children get older, culminating in low rates of seat belt use by tween passengers. This demonstration project seeks to increase seat belt use among tween passengers (ages 814), and to reduce the incidence of unrestrained crash fatalities and injuries among this population through the active involvement of local law enforcement agencies in conducting a program combining education and outreach with focused enforcement to ensure tween passengers ride buckled up on every trip, every time. Staff contact: Alexander (Sandy) Sinclair: [email protected] Additional Analyses from the National Survey of the Use of Booster Seats (NSUBS) Anticipated completion date: 2018 The 2015 administration of NSUBS was the seventh time that National Center for Statistics and Analysis (NCSA) conducted the NSUBS. The primary purpose of NSUBS is to estimate booster seat use among 4- to 7-year-old children. In addition, the survey provides restraint use estimates for all children under 13, race and ethnicity breakouts of restraint use among all occupants in a vehicle, and estimates of the extent to which children are moved prematurely to restraint types that are inappropriate for their age as well as height and weight. This project will examine the historical NSUBS data for trends and other questions of interest regarding restraint use among children under age 13. Staff contacts: Carole Guzzetta [email protected] or Tim Pickrell [email protected] Employer Focused Road Safety Resource Development Anticipated completion date: 2021 Almost 50 percent of the US population is employed. Employers are uniquely positioned to inform, positively encourage and ultimately influence their employees and their driving behaviors. The network of Employers for Traffic Safety (NETS) proposes to develop and disseminate a set of employer-focused Road Safety Resources. These resources will be identified based on a gap analysis conducted via existing membership, interested stakeholders and state highway safety office, among others. In addition, NETS will evaluate the feasibility of the developing and implementing the Employer-Based Coalition model used in years past to engage local employers in traffic safety efforts. The intent is to revitalize this model and increase local employer engagement with NETS. Staff contact: Liza Lemaster-Sandbank: [email protected] 6

Seat Belts Save National Youth Seat Belt Challenge Contest Anticipated completion date: 2017 In a NHTSA-supported project to increase seat belt use among high school youth, the National Organizations for Youth Safety (NOYS) is conducting a nationwide contest – known as the Seat Belts Save Challenge – to spur teens to promote safe driving behaviors by encouraging their peers to buckle up on every trip, every time. Activities including unannounced seat belt checks and school-based campaigns were conducted during the 2014, 2015 and 2016 school years with promising outcomes. The contest will also be conducted during the 2016-2017 school year. For additional details, please visit www.seatbeltssave.org/. To view the winning video entries from previous phases of the contest, please visit https://www.youtube.com/user/NOYSTube/videos. Staff contact: Alexander (Sandy) Sinclair: [email protected] Law Enforcement Technical Assistance to Increase Seat Belt Use: Lessons Learned Anticipated completion date: 2018. This demonstration project will seek to increase seat belt use and reduce the incidence of unrestrained crash fatalities and injuries through the implementation of a multi-faceted approach that incorporates “highly-visible seat belt observations,” public information and education, earned and social media elements, and regular seat belt enforcement. Six law enforcement agencies across the country have been invited to participate in this 30 month project. The ultimate objective is to develop a technical assistance manual that will serve as an easy to use guide and documentation of lessons learned throughout the project including action plans for law enforcement and highway safety offices to replicate strategies in other communities across the country. Staff contact: Liza Lemaster-Sandbank: [email protected] Law Enforcement Agency Mini-Grants Anticipated completion date: 2018 This project is intended for states with a secondary seat belt law, which have a seat belt use rate below 85% and/or an unrestrained fatality rate at/or above 52%. The sites will be geographically diverse, representing rural and suburban areas and law enforcement agencies with emphasis on agencies serving smaller communities. A set of seat belt enforcement strategies will be available for the sites, or they may develop their own approaches. The project will document the process of implementation of each of the approaches for each location, as well as changes in enforcement of seat belt laws within the jurisdictions. This is important so that other jurisdictions will be able to replicate strategies once the project is completed. Changes in seat belt use rates and unbelted vehicle fatalities (if possible) will be analyzed as well. Once completed, we hope to provide law enforcement new 7

effective strategies in secondary law states, so agencies may be able to overcome some of the obstacles that a secondary law creates. Staff contact: Janice Hartwill-Miller: [email protected] Building Community Support for Seat Belt Enforcement Anticipated completion date: 2019 The purpose of this effort is to design and implement a demonstration program employing proven law enforcement models to increase community support for enforcement of seat belt laws. The project’s main objectives are to: • Apply law enforcement models that have been proven effective in criminal policing; • Modify community norms to reject unrestrained occupant deaths; • Decrease the number of unrestrained vehicle occupants; • Increase the community’s acceptance of seat belt laws and their enforcement; and • Gather data (i.e., seat belt and other safety citations) to assess the effectiveness of these strategies for broader national application. Key criteria for the site that was selected for this project (Norman, Oklahoma) included: • Seat belt use below the national average (87%); and • An unrestrained passenger vehicle occupant fatality rate above the national average (52%). Staff contact: Alexander (Sandy) Sinclair: [email protected] Engaging Public Health to Increase Seat Belt Use Anticipated completion date: 2018 FARS data continue to show that nearly half of all people killed as passengers in passenger vehicle crashes are unrestrained at the time of the crash. In some states, the rate exceeds 70%. In addition, there are significant disparities in unrestrained fatality rates by age, gender, race, ethnicity and other characteristics. To make progress in reducing unrestrained fatalities, the Occupant Protection Program is exploring ways to leverage the support of partners in addition to law enforcement. The public health community is one such partner. This project will identify and engage members of the public health community in efforts to improve occupant protection and reduce injuries and fatalities due to non-use of occupant restraints. Beginning in early 2016, NHTSA will build a broad, long-term partnership with the public health community to elevate occupant protection to a more prominent position in the public health agenda and to engage key public health agencies and organizations in promoting NHTSA’s occupant protection priorities. Staff contact: Alexander (Sandy) Sinclair: [email protected]

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Implementing a Leadership Framework for Traffic Safety and Seat Belt Enforcement Anticipated completion date: 2018 The purpose of this project is to design and test methods to implement a leadership framework within law enforcement agencies to foster an organizational culture in support of traffic safety initiatives, specifically related to seat belt enforcement. Staff contact: Liza Lemaster-Sandbank: [email protected] C. Recently Completed Programs from NHTSA’s Occupant Protection Division Effectiveness of Child Passenger Safety Information for the Safe Transportation of Children Completed The objective of this project was to develop and test various methods of framing child passenger safety (CPS) recommendations. The study investigated caregivers’ preferred communication modes for obtaining CPS information, and examined the impact of various types of CPS information on parents’ knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions related to the proper use of child restraints. The findings of this research project will help inform future countermeasure and materials development in child occupant protection. A NHTSA Research Note describing the first phase of this project has been posted at http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/nti/pdf/812121Safe_Transportation_of_Children.pdf. The DOT HS number for this item is HS 821 121. The final report can be found at http://www.nhtsa.gov/Driving+Safety/Occupant+Protection Staff contact: Carole Guzzetta: [email protected] Project Ignition Teen Driver Safety Best Practices Toolkit Completed This toolkit provides a step by step guide for carrying out a campaign to address teen seat belt usage. This toolkit was developed in partnership with NHTSA by the National Youth Leadership Council (NYLC), based on findings from implementation of their Project Ignition program to increase teen seat belt usage, a service learning strategy that embeds the topic of teen driver safety more deeply within a school’s culture and makes connections to academic goals. The toolkit can be found on NYLC’s website at the following link: https://nylc.org/ Staff contact: Alexandra Holliday: [email protected] Innovative and Sustainable Seat Belt Enforcement Project Completed; Program Final Report in preparation This project will provide a range of cost-effective, innovative, sustainable and replicable law enforcement practices to increase seat belt use and decrease vehicle occupant fatalities. The 9

objectives of the project are to develop a menu of replicable models of cost-effective, innovative and sustainable seat belt enforcement for law enforcement agencies, and demonstrate the effectiveness of one or more of the sustained enforcement models in supporting traffic safety goals specific to increase seat belt use rates, and to decrease unbelted vehicle occupant fatalities. Staff contact: Liza Lemaster-Sandbank: [email protected] Identifying Opportunities to Decrease Vehicle Occupant Fatalities Completed; awaiting posting The objective of this project was to conduct a comprehensive review, analysis and comparison of existing programs and processes with both higher and lower performing States to identify opportunities for programmatic and other performance improvements in States with below average seat belt use rates. The contractor analyzed states with similar populations and seat belt laws but with substantially different outcomes with respect to vehicle occupant deaths, usage rates and unrestrained occupant fatalities. At the completion of the project the contractor provided a menu of options States can implement to decrease unrestrained fatalities and increase seat belt use. The Final Report is currently under review. Staff contact: Carole Guzzetta: [email protected] Understanding the Characteristics of Nighttime Seat Belt Offenders Completed; in Agency Review The Maryland State Highway Administration conducted a nighttime seat belt enforcement project to increase seat belt use at night and to determine the characteristics of nighttime seat belt offenders. Following up on a similar effort conducted by the Washington Traffic Safety Commission, this project looked at whether or not these characteristics held true in other parts of the country and the information help the agency develop countermeasures to improve nighttime seat belt use based on the information collected. Staff contact: Carole Guzzetta: [email protected] Evaluating Combined Occupant Protection and Speed Mini-Grants in Six States Completed; report pending Two sets of mini-grants, one to the State Association of Chiefs of Police (SACOP) and the other to the National Sheriffs’ Association (NSA), were conducted to develop non-traditional traffic safety approaches with smaller local law enforcement agencies. These mini-grants have been completed. The objective of this project was to conduct an overall evaluation of the Combined Occupant Protection and Speed Mini-Grants in Six States to assess whether seat belt use was increased and if speed-related incidents decreased. Staff contact: Janice Hartwill-Miller: [email protected]

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IV New Publications from NHTSA’s National Center for Statistics and Analysis (NCSA) •

Summary of Motor Vehicle Crashes Traffic Safety Fact Sheet 2015 (DOT HS 812 376): In 2015 there were an estimated 6,296,000 police-reported traffic crashes, in which 35,092 people were killed and an estimated 2,443,000 people were injured. An average of 96 people died each day in motor vehicle crashes in 2015, one fatality every 15 minutes. Fatality rates per 100,000 population (10.92) and per 100 million vehicle miles traveled (VMT, 1.13) in 2015 have both increased compared to 2014 (10.27 and 1.08, respectively).

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Occupant Protection Traffic Safety Fact Sheet 2015 (DOT HS 812 374): Occupant protection discussed in this fact sheet includes seat belts, child safety seats, and frontal air bags in passenger vehicles. Passenger vehicles consist of passenger cars, pickup trucks, vans, and SUVs. Vehicle occupants are both drivers and passengers. In this fact sheet the 2015 information on passenger vehicle occupant protection is presented as follows.

• Seat Belt Use in 2016—Use Rates in the States and Territories (DOT HS 812 417). In 2016, seat belt use in the United States ranged from 70.2 percent in New Hampshire, to 97.2 percent in Georgia. Nineteen States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands achieved belt use rates of 90 percent or higher. These results are from probability-based observational surveys conducted by the 50 States, the District of Columbia, and U.S. Territories. •

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Early Estimate of Motor Vehicle Traffic Fatalities for the First 9 Months of 2016 (DOT HS 812 358): A statistical projection of traffic fatalities for the first 9 months of 2016 shows that an estimated 27,875 people died in motor vehicle traffic crashes. This represents an increase of about 8 percent as compared to the 25,808 fatalities that were reported to have occurred in the first 9 months of 2015, as shown in Table 1. The third quarter of 2016 represents the eighth consecutive quarter with increases in fatalities as compared to the corresponding quarters in the previous years. Traffic Safety Facts 2015 (DOT HS 812 384). NCSA has published the 2015 Traffic Safety Facts Annual Report, which presents data on fatal, injury, and property-damageonly traffic crashes.

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State Traffic Data (DOT HS 812 412). In 2015, there were 35,092 fatalities in the United States (50 States and the District of Columbia, excluding Puerto Rico), an increase of 7 percent from 2014 (32,744). Vermont and Oregon had the greatest fatality increases from 2014 to 2015 at 30 percent and 25 percent, respectively, while New Mexico and Massachusetts had the greatest decreases at 23 percent and 14 percent, respectively.

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2015 Traffic Safety Factsheet Rural/Urban Comparison of Traffic Fatalities (DOT HS 812 393). For this fact sheet, rural and urban boundaries are determined by the State highway departments and approved by the Federal Highway Administration. The State highway departments use the U.S. Census Bureau’s rural and urban boundaries. Of the 11

35,092 traffic fatalities, there were 17,114 (49%) that occurred in rural areas, 15,362 (44%) that occurred in urban areas, and 2,616 (7%) that occurred in unknown areas. •

Young Drivers Traffic Safety Fact Sheet 2015 (DOT HS 812 363). This fact sheet contains information on fatal motor vehicle crashes and fatalities, based on data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) as it relates to Young Drivers. The term young driver refers to a person 15 to 20 years old operating a motor vehicle. People in this age group generally obtain their licenses for the first time and many are under a graduated driver licensing program as they learn driving skills. In 2015, there were 1,886 young drivers who died and an estimated 195,000 who were injured in motor vehicle crashes.

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Passenger Vehicles (DOT HS 812 413). In 2015: ➢ There were 22,441 passenger vehicle occupants who died in traffic crashes and an estimated 2.18 million passenger vehicle occupants who were injured. ➢ Passenger vehicles made up 93 percent of registered vehicles and accounted for 90 percent of total vehicle miles traveled (VMT). ➢ An estimated 11,070,000 vehicles were involved in police-reported traffic crashes; 96 percent (10,656,000) were passenger vehicles. ➢ There were 44,886 vehicles involved in fatal crashes, of which 78 percent (38,209) were passenger vehicles.

V Other Publications •

Evaluation of the Washington Nighttime Seat Belt Enforcement Program (DOT HS 812 395): The Washington Traffic Safety Commission and NHTSA conducted a highvisibility Nighttime Seat Belt Enforcement (NTSBE) program in Washington. The twoyear program followed the basic “Click It or Ticket” model by using highly visible enforcement combined with increased paid and earned media about the enforcement but applied its efforts during the nighttime rather than the daytime hours. The NTSBE program positively affected driver awareness, increased observed nighttime seat belt use, and did not decrease the daytime use rate. Please also see the Traffic Tech (DOT HS 812 396) summary of findings and recommendations.

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