Network Asia HCMC 2014.pdf

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Asia as Network: Futures of the Past

Prasenjit Duara Na.onal University of Singapore Feb 26 2014 San Art , Ho Chi Minh City

China-Asia connections: Silk routes (landed) 2000 years have been productive in religious and trade relations. Maritime route is later.

•  Asia: name given by Greeks to area east of ecumene. Not much more than a cartographic entity. •  Two kinds of routes: Later Mongol empire, sea route becomes important. •  Landed Silk Routes: Several different routes from China to Mediterranean including several southern routes to South Asia. •  Asia as region has been congeries of intersecting networks

•  1300-1850: networks of Asian Maritime Trade are more natural, depending on monsoon patterns. Malacca

Land and Maritime Silk Routes

•  By networks I s-ll refer to social networks though of course today they are increasingly being reshaped by new media networks. •  Social networks—and even more, contemporary media networks—may be contrasted with social forma-ons within a contained na-onal, organiza-onal or administra-ve en-ty. Of course, in reality the two systems are interac-ve. •  Networks spread between ‘spaces of ﬂow’ and are organized around changing hubs and nodes which are points of control or aErac-on. They are typically not deﬁned by bounded or contained, territorially homogenous space . •  Networks expand spaces of exchange and innova-on: Trade, ar-facts, ideas, innova-ons, beliefs, rituals. •  Networks are carriers and shapers of history as much as na-onal, internalist models of history.

Historical Asian Networks •  Networks of Chinese, Indian, Jewish, and Arab merchants had sophis-cated credit transfer mechanisms and trading techniques that enabled wholesale and forward carrying trade across Indian Ocean liEoral from Zanzibar to China •  Chinese, Jewish and Indian merchant networks not only survived colonial domina-on but enabled it by penetra-ng hinterland markets. •  Hamashita’s kosa ne9owaku (crossed networks) of Ch and Indian ﬁnancial groups in Singapore and Hong Kong contribute to capitaliza-on of region. •  Religious and intellectual networks also crossed: Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism

Networks and Circulatory Histories •  Events have effects that disperse over space and time—eg a major war can

have distant effects on prices of goods or political alliances sustaining a power structure in a third place. Narratives also disperse in time and are carried by networks which are both shaped and reshape their effects.

•  Narratives loop back to events and their concatenations with different

meanings and ‘endings.’ Contestation, differentiation, re-direction of narratives are based on different experiences of events by different people in the same or different places; eg imperialism. Triumph or shame?

•  Networks are better to understand the circulatory models of history over

bound and tunneled versions. But more radical: they oppose diffusionist and centre-periphery models, because peripheries necessarily modify and adapt events and flows to their purposes.

•  Often there is tension between bounded, linear histories of nations or

communities versus circulatory, shared histories

•  I seek to replace primacy of linear national history with circulatory, interactive

and transformative history. Local, regional and national histories are not excluded, but analytical priority be given to how these histories interact with former. Balance.

救苦天尊 Jiuku tianzun Daoist Avolokistesvara (Guanyin)

Daoist Avolokitesvara, Jiuku tianzun, was evidently introduced because the novel saviour figure had become too popular for the Daoists to ignore.

Managing Circulatory Histories •  Of course, even in pre-modern times, the adoption/importation can be

disruptive and is opposed while being absorbed.

•  Daoism developed its theological identity chiefly in response to

Buddhism, particularly in the areas of the conception of ritual space, Mahayana universalism, and ideas of karma and sin.

•  Dunhuang collections shows that there was a two-way flow of influence

particularly since the Buddhists also needed to adapt to the rather different social and cultural conventions in China.

•  Visual representations, for instance in tomb paintings or architectural

expressions, different motifs of which have been traced by Tansen Sen and others, often reveal insights into ways in which symbols from different traditions, often favoured by the populace, fuse to serve functional or aesthetic choices thus pushing back high Culture’s predilection for purity.

Bodhisattva: Myoken Bosatsu, deification of the Big Dipper

•  The Buddha of Blazing Light (Chiseonggwang Yeorae)

with the Dieties of the Seven Stars of the Big Dipper and Sunoin, God of Longevity, Korea, Korean, Joseon dynasty

Conversely, Buddhist disguise of Daoist North star god as Buddhist enabled Buddhism to circulate through East & Central Asia in Uighur, Mongolian and Tibetan recensions.

New Imperialist Regions •  British Empire: links Aden, Bombay, Calcutta, Singapore, HK, Shanghai – partly based on older networks. Imperial maritime customs is a principal agency of market integration with China. •  Inter-war Imperial bloc formation is a New stage, for imperial advantage: common currency, standards, laws especially in the inter-war period. •  Germany and Japan are most advanced –but also Soviet Union, USCarribean and British sterling zone. •  Japan is particularly advanced in creating a common imperial regional bloc esp in NEAsia. Rhetoric of imperialism also changes from emphasizing difference of colonizer-colonized to equal nation-states, especially after Manchukuo. •  Post-war, New Imperialism reaches its apogee in the Cold War with 2 superpowers dominating. Some forms of regionalization is also created under SEATO and ASEAN.

An:-‐Imperialist Regionaliza:on •  Okakura, Tagore, Zhang Taiyan, Sun Zhongshan and Japanese Pan-‐ Asianists. •  Eﬀort at regionaliza-on oXen mo-vated by an--‐imperialist and/or an--‐Western impetus. •  It is largely cultural and unconnected to prac-cal ac-vi-es of imperialist regionalism and prac-cal networks •  Tends to be culturally essen-alist and dominated by na-onal concept of space: of territorial-‐cultural congruence. •  Both Okakura and Zhang Taiyan among the pioneers had an important place for na-onalism in their regionaliza-on.

China and Pan Asianism, 1912-‐1949 • Dongfangzazhi (editor Du Yaquan) 1919 debate on whether the spiritual civiliza-on of the East could redeem materialist and aggressive West. All major intellectuals including Li Dazhao, Liang Qichao, Liang Shuming, Hu Shi, Feng Youlan, Chen Duxiu, Zhang Dongsun par-cipate. While May 4th ac-vists condemn the East, but they s-ll accept the terms of the E-‐W binary. •  Chinese redemp-ve (syncre-c) socie-es who combined Budd-‐Daoism-‐Confucianism with followings in the many millions were more sympathe-c to ideas of Asian spirituality; some followed Japanese Pan-‐Asianism. Kang Youwei was leader of Daodehui. Very similar to Caodai (Đài Đạo Tam Kỳ Phổ Độ) • Sun Yat-‐sen Greater Asianism (Da Yaxiyazhuyi) in 1924 Kobe speech, urges Chinese wangdao versus badao. Dai Jitao establishes ins-tute and journal Xin Yaxiya (1930). It was an expression both of an--‐imperialist solidarity, but also the narra-ve to incorporate non-‐Han minority over vast territories of China’s interior, Tibetan, Mongols etc. • Dai Jitao also has close links with Tan Yunshan who established Cheena Bhavan in Tagore’s San-niketan with help of KMT funds in 1932. For Dai Jitao, the China-‐India alliance was supposed to represent a diﬀerent narra-ve from Communist an--‐imperialism and Japanese pan-‐Asianism.

Xu Zhimo (Founder of Crescent Moon Society named aXer Tagore’s poem); Guo Moruo and Rabindranath Tagore

“……. Good Morning! My young Motherland! Good Morning! The Great Wall! Ah, Ah! Russian, how I admire you in awe! Good Morning! Pioneer, how I admire you in awe! Good Morning! The Snowy Pamir! Good Morning! The snowy Himalaya! Good Morning! Rabindranath of Bengal! Good Morning! Academic friends of San-niketan! Good Morning! Ganga! The sacred light ﬂowing in Ganga! Good Morning! Indian Ocean! Red Sea! Suez Canal! -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐Guo Moruo. “Chen’an”(Good morning)

Early 20th c Japanese Art of Asia

Nandalal Bose & Abanindranath Tagore

Fu Baoshi, Chen Zhifo and Zhang Daqian were among the Chinese ar-sts who rediscovered ancient Chinese styles with a new twist in Japan ( from Aida Yuen Wong)

Tagore in Baghdad

Bandung Conference, Indonesia, 1955

Conference of 29 Asian and African na-ons to promote economic and cultural co-‐opera-on. Aim was also to oppose European colonialism and the new imperialism of the US and Soviet Union.

50 Years Later: Bandung 2005 China’s Hu Jintao, Indonesia’s Yudhoyono and India’s Manmohan Singh

Dignity and Status Regained A New Asian Integra-on?

Na-onal Compe--veness and Linear Histories

•  European Renaissance and wars of religion change socie-es towards more na-onalis-c compe--on and linear histories. •  New na-onal histories emerged to undergird ideals of secular and popular sovereignty while developing the na-on into a sleek, compe--ve body.

•  Bounded and tunnel na-onal history is achieved by i)3 periods: ancient, med, modern, ii)rejec-ng middle and reaching back to ancient, iii)through some kind of renaissance trope (reach back to origin rather than outside) •  Ironically, the greatest period of circula-on and global sources of na-on building were from late 19th century when na-ons were asser-ng their uniqueness as they were busily copying each other (from models of hertz, ‘child’, history, state, etc). •  Misrecogni-on of sources of na-onhood is because of compe--on in an anarchic world (no God, no legi-macy of global governance). Na-ons prove sovereignty from linear historical claims.

Na-onalism

Globaliza:on & Regionalism in Contemporary Asia •  Regions have emerged strongly aXer CW –Europe, NAFTA, Mercosur, and now Asia. •  Integra-on of 16 Asian countries, including ASEAN + China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and India increases markedly aXer Asian ﬁnancial crisis. •  Before 1998, trade between these Asian countries is 33%; aXer 1998 goes up to 52% •  Basis of integra-on is ver-cal supply chain produc-on networks. Chinese product has Japanese capital, Taiwanese hardware, Indian soXware etc. •  Financial integra-on is weaker – but growing now in this present crisis. Enhancement of Chiangmai ini-a-ve to 120 billion dollars. Idea of Asian currency unit. •  Also much more integra-on in tourism, high and popular arts and religions. New Korean domina-on of TV serials and Angkor investments.

Impera:ves for Regional Coopera:on • 

We live in the Anthropocene in which humans—as a whole– collectively determine the sustainability of the Earth more than any other force.

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Whether terrorism, biological, chemical or economic epidemics or environmental crisis, we have to transcend national interests even in order to continue to have the nation. Whether through collective national arrangements or trans-national formations, existing rules of the sovereignty game must change.

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Intermediate stage between global problems/resolutions and national are regional ones. Regions are important because globalization produces wealth, but stratification and overconsumption of resources. Regions permit smaller clustering of sovereign or semi-sovereign agencies to tackle spill out of problems which also do not respect national boundaries.

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Need to co-ordinate common and linked problems of regional public goods or ‘commons.’ Climate change, public health, and environment.

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Water needs most management. Himalayas has watersheds for 10 major Asian rivers. Mekong has over 25 dams and many more planned across several nations. Could affect livelihood of 60m. Needs co-ordination and transparency to observe the effects across countries.

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Yarlong Sangpo/Brahmaputra: talk of Chinese N-S water transfer project to water arid North China will affect flow of water to South Asia and may threaten water wars.

Dams on Nu/Salween and Lancang/Mekong

People to People and Cultural Links •  Migration is major development.PRC has 30 m migrants –mostly in Asia—India 20

m; Philippines 8 m.

•  •  Two types of migrants: labor migrants and professional and business migrants. Latter

is relatively new.

•  Professional networks are new important phenomena and are part of greater Asian

inter-city linkages, Dubai-Mumbai-Singapore-HK-Shanghai-Tianjin. Asian cities are linked by capital, professionalism, labor as well as models and ideas of mega cities and relationships to populations.

•  Opportunities but also tensions in people/cultures links. How can arts address this

area?

•  Tagore-Okakura moment became nationalized and not linked to connections of actual

peoples and cultures.

•  Contemporary art exhibitions and curators are more frank in depicting complexity

and promote understanding.

Migrant Protest in Korea

Singapore Migrant Labor

ASEAN and the Powers

• ASEAN does not pursue ‘balance of power’ strategy. It does not take sides, but seeks to enmesh the major powers in regional aﬀairs. • It is not a confronta:onal but evolu:onary strategy of diversiﬁca:on of rela:onships. Thus both individual states and collec:vely, they avoid dependence on a single great power. US remains great power and military ally; China is big regional and economic power; Japan and India occupy next rung. • Goal of ASEAN is to achieve long-‐term peace by crea:ng responsibili:es and obliga:ons among powers to act within their norma:ve scheme. All powers—China is ﬁrst signatory-‐-‐ accept ASEAN core principles in the Treaty of Amity and Co-‐opera:on (TAC). • Although ASEAN is not necessarily very eﬀec:ve in achieving its proclaimed, speciﬁc goals, at this second order level it has been more successful. • Created basis of an open and inclusive regionalism which creates commitments to regional prosperity and peace, but is a much looser architecture than European Union which may resemble a supra-‐na:on-‐state. It resembles to a limited extent, the mari:me Asian trade networks, because of the separa:on of poli:cal, economic and military levels and power.

China and Future of Asian Regionalism • Enmeshment and commercial diplomacy have been means to -e down the powers and beneﬁt materially by trea-es and FTAs with the long term goal of integra-on (ASEAN +3, EAS, APEC, ARF). • Eco integra-on with China is growing: 2009 Dec, South Korea’s exports to China jumped 94% compared to Dec 2008; Taiwan 91% and even Malaysia by 53%. • FTA with China, Japan, India and others. Although China prefers ASEAN+3 (RCEP); US prefers APEC now TPP, Japan and India prefer EAS, all diﬀerent playorms are being patronized by ASEAN. No power can easily aﬀord to ignore or upset this web of inter-‐ dependencies.

• Can China remain commiEed to ASEAN architecture? South China Sea is indica-on that Chinese aztude is very ambivalent; sense is that China should be accepted as the regional & mari-me power because of special economic role.

Conclusions • 

Network Asia is diﬀerent in many respects from other regional models, especially the spa-al model of European Union.

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Most of all, it is made up of many networks, hubs and hinterlands, but two apparently persistent ones are landed and mari-me routes that suﬃciently resemble the Silk Routes idea for diﬀerent people to evoke it.

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Networks may also be further dis-nguished by connected but not one where culture, state and military power is the same. In the mari-me networked region, inter-‐ state networks are not superimposed upon mul--‐level transna-onal agencies, NGO, trading, labour and cultural networks -‐-‐although they are oXen connected with each other.

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The complex regulatory regimes that have emerged from some of these networks, par-cularly the new ASEAN regula-ons have strengthened civil society groups across ASEAN to resist major dam or other poten-ally hazardous environmental projects across the region.